SKELETAL SYSTEM Skeletal system is the biological system providing support in living organisms.

Skin, muscle and bones allow movement. Skin - pliable covering. Muscles do actual moving. Bones give anchor to move against. The skeleton functions not only as the support for the body but also in haematopoiesis, the manufacture of blood cells that takes place in bone marrow. This is why people who have cancer of the bone marrow almost always die. It is also necessary for protection of vital organs and is needed by the muscles for movement.

BONES IN THE BODY 1. SKULL

The skull is a bony structure in the head of many animals that supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts: the cranium and the mandible. A skull without a mandible is only a cranium. Animals that have skulls are called craniates. The skull is a part of the skeleton. Functions of the skull include protection of the brain, fixing the distance between the eyes to allow stereoscopic vision, and fixing the position of the ears to help the brain use auditory cues to judge direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, the skull also has a defensive function (e.g. horned ungulates); the frontal bone is where horns are mounted.

2. VERTEBRAE
Vertebrae are the highly specialized bones which collectively make up the spinal column. The spinal column is such a distinctive anatomical feature that all animals with spinal columns are known as vertebrates, referencing the vertebrae. In humans, 33 separate bones make up the spinal column, and the structure begins to form around the third week of gestation. There are several different types of vertebrae, classified by their position. Cervical vertebraeform the upper part of the spinal column, with two special cervical vertebrae, the atlas and the axis, connecting the spine to the skull. Next come the thoracic vertebrae, which include points of attachment for the ribs, followed by the lumbar spine, which includes the broadest and largest vertebrae to support the body weight. The sacral and caudal vertebrae follow, and in humans, these are fused into structures known as the sacrum and tailbone, respectively.

3. LEG BONES -bones of a leg.

Leg bone can refer to one of the following: Femur - the thigh bone Patella - the knee cap Tibia - the larger of the two leg bones located below the knee cap Fibula - the smaller of the two leg bones located below the knee cap

4. ARM BONE - a bone in the arm long bone, os longum - in limbs of vertebrate animals: a long cylindrical bone that contains marrow arm - a human limb; technically the part of the superior limb between the shoulder and the elbow but commonly used to refer to the whole superior limb endoskeleton - the internal skeleton; bony and cartilaginous structure (especially of vertebrates) humerus - bone extending from the shoulder to the elbow radius - the outer and slightly shorter of the two bones of the human forearm elbow bone, ulna - the inner and longer of the two bones of the human forearm

5. FINGERBONES
The phalanges or finger bones are fourteen in number; three for each finger, and two for the thumb. They are named numerically in order from the proximal towards the distal ends of the fingers i.e. the most proximal is the first phalanx and the most distal is the third phalanx.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF JOINTS 1. BALL AND SOCKET JOINT

A ball and socket joint (enarthrosis, spheroidal joint) is a joint in which the distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. It enables the bone to move in many planes(almost all directions). In a ball and socket (spheroid) joint, the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone.

2. PIVOTAL JOINT
A pivot joint (trochoid joint, rotary joint, Lateral Ginglymus) is a type of diarthrosis, or synovial joint. In pivot joints, the axis of a convex articular surface is parallel with the longitudinal axis of the bone. Pivot joints allow for rotation, which can be external (for example when rotating an arm outward), or internal (as in rotating an arm inward). When rotating the forearm, these movements are typically called pronation and supination. In the standard anatomical position, the forearms are supinated, which means that the palms are facing forward, and the thumbs are pointing away from the body. In contrast, a forearm in pronation would have the palm facing backward and the thumb would be closer to the body, pointing medially.

3. HINGE JOINT 4. GLIDING JOINT

A hinge joint (ginglymus) is a bone joint in which the articular surfaces are molded to each other in such a manner as to permit motion only in one place.

A gliding joint permits a wide range of mostly sideways movements as well as movements in one direction-a pivot joint near the top of the spine allows the head to swivel and bend. Other pivot joints, in the forearm and lower leg, allow the wrist and ankle to twist.

LAYERS OF BONE MATERIAL

2. SPONGY BONE Spongy bone, also called cancellous or trabecular bone, is one of the two types of calcium tissue that make up bones in the human body. Spongy bone is lighter, softer, and weaker than compact or cortical bone, the other type of calcium tissue, but it has a greater surface area and is much more vascular, or supplied with blood vessels. Spongy bone is found on the inside of some bones, and it is surrounded by the stronger, more protective compact bone. Cancellous bone tissue is found at the end of long bones, at joints, and in the vertebrae, the bones of the spinal column. Cancellous bone makes up a larger portion of the bone than the external compact bone tissue.

1. COMPACT BONE A type of osseous tissue consisting of closely packed osteons or haversian systems, and forms the extremely hard exterior of bones. Because of the closely packed osteons and multiple stacked layers with few gaps on this tissue, the compact bone is extremely hard and dense (compared with the cancellous bone). These features of compact bone are vital to serve its function in providing support to the body and protecting the organs. It also provides levers for movement and store minerals (similar to cancellous bone).

3. PERIOSTEUM Periosteum is a membrane that lines the outer surface of all bones, except at the joints of long bones. Endosteum lines the inner surface of all bones. Periosteum consists of dense irregular connective tissue. Periosteum is divided into an outer "fibrous layer" and inner "cambium layer" (or "osteogenic layer"). The fibrous layer contains fibroblasts, while the cambium layer contains progenitor cells that develop into osteoblasts. These osteoblasts are responsible for increasing the width of a long bone and the overall size of the other bone types. After a bone fracture the progenitor cells develop into osteoblasts and chondroblasts, which are essential to the healing process. As opposed to osseous tissue, periosteum has nociceptive nerve endings, making it very sensitive to manipulation. It also provides nourishment by providing the blood supply. Periosteum is attached to bone by strong collagenous fibers called Sharpey's fibres, which extend to the outer circumferential and interstitial lamellae. It also provides an attachment for muscles and tendons.

4. BONE MARROW

Bone marrow (Latin: medulla ossium) is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans, red blood cells are produced in the heads of long bones, in a process known as hematopoesis. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult weighing 65 kilograms (140 lb), bone marrow accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb). The hematopoietic compartment of bone marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which use the bone marrow vasculature as a conduit to the body's systemic circulation. Bone marrow is also a key component of the lymphatic system, producing the lymphocytes that support the body's immune system.

INJURIES AND DISEASES OF BONE INJURIES: 1. FRACTURE A bone fracture (sometimes abbreviated FRX or Fx, Fx, or #) is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone. A bone fracture can be the result of high force impact or stress, or trivial injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture. 2. DISLOCATION A dislocation occurs when extreme force is put on a ligament, allowing the ends of two connected bones to separate. Ligaments are flexible bands of fibrous tissue that connect various bones and cartilage. Dislocations are uncommon in younger children because their growth plates (area of bone growth located in the ends of long bones) are weaker than the muscles or tendons; instead, children are more prone to a fracture than a dislocation.

3. SPRAIN A sprain (possibly from Middle French espraindre, to squeeze) is an injury in a joint, caused by the ligament being stretched beyond its capacity. A muscular tear caused in the same manner is referred to as a strain. In cases where either ligament or muscle tissue is torn, immobilization and surgical repair may be necessary. Ligaments are tough, fibrous tissues that connect bones to other bones. Sprains can occur in any joint but are most common in the ankle and wrist. 1. RIKETS

DISEASES:

Rickets is a softening of bones in children due to deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, magnesium,[1] phosphorus or calcium,[2] potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets is among the most frequent childhood diseases in many developing countries. The predominant cause is a vitamin D deficiency, but lack of adequate calcium in the diet may also lead to rickets (cases of severe diarrhea and vomiting may be the cause of the deficiency). Although it can occur in adults, the majority of cases occur in children suffering from severe malnutrition, usually resulting from famine or starvation during the early stages of childhood.

2. SCOLIOSIS Scoliosis (from Ancient Greek: skoliosis "obliquity, bending")[1] is a medical condition in which a person's spine is curved from side to side. Although it is a complex three-dimensional deformity, on an X-ray, viewed from the rear, the spine of an individual with scoliosis may look more like an "S" or a "C", rather than a straight line. Scoliosis is typically classified as either congenital (caused by vertebral anomalies present at birth), idiopathic (cause unknown, subclassified as infantile, juvenile, adolescent, or adult, according to when onset occurred), or neuromuscular (having developed as a secondary symptom of another condition, such as spina bifida, cerebral palsy, spinal muscular atrophy, or physical trauma). A lesser known underlying cause of scoliosis could be attributed to a condition called Chiari malformation.

3. ARTHRITIS

is a form of joint disorder that involves inflammation of one or more joints.[1] There are over 100 different forms of arthritis.[2][3] The most common form, osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), is a result of trauma to the joint, infection of the joint, or age. Other arthritis forms are rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and related autoimmune diseases. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. The major complaint by individuals who have arthritis is joint pain. Pain is often a constant and may be localized to the joint affected. The pain from arthritis is due to inflammation that occurs around the joint, damage to the joint from disease, daily wear and tear of joint, muscle strains caused by forceful movements against stiff, painful joints and fatigue.

4. OSTEOPOROSIS is a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture deteriorates, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone are altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a bone mineral density that is 2.5 standard deviations or more below the mean peak bone mass (average of young, healthy adults) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture. The disease may be classified as primary type 1, primary type 2, or secondary.

5. BONE INFECTION Bone infection occurs when bacteria invade bone, either through the bloodstream or by contact with the outside environment. The bacteria eat away at the bone and damage the local blood supply to that bone, consequently preventing antibiotics from reaching the bacteria.

PROJECT IN SCIENCE
Skeletal system Bones in the body Different kinds of joint Layers of bone material Injuries and diseases of bone

Isaac Yrol C. Funtanar IV-Silang Diego Maam Casulucan