Heat Engine A heat engine typically uses energy provided in the form of heat to do work and then exhausts

the heat which cannot be used to do work. Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat and work.

Internal Combustion

The principle behind any reciprocating internal combustion engine: If you put a tiny amount of high-energy fuel (like gasoline) in a small, enclosed space and ignite it, an incredible amount of energy is released in the form of expanding gas. You can use that energy to propel a potato 500 feet. In this case, the energy is translated into potato motion. You can also use it for more interesting purposes. For example, if you can create a cycle that allows you to set off explosions like this hundreds of times per minute, and if you can harness that energy in a useful way, what you have is the core of a car engine.

Four Basic Strokes Almost all cars currently use what is called a four-stroke combustion cycle to convert gasoline into motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the Otto cycle, in honor of Nikolaus Otto, who invented it in 1867. The four strokes are illustrated in Figure 1. They are:

Intake stroke Compression stroke Combustion stroke Exhaust stroke

FIGURE 1

External Combustion

An external combustion engine is an engine where a fluid is heated by an external source. A steam engine is an example of external combustion. The combustion (or burning) that powers the steam engine in the diagram below comes from coal or wood. This occurs outside of the engine. Steam is created when water is turned into a vapor or gas as it is heated by a combustion chamber. The steam expands the volume of water by about 1600 times. The force caused by this expansion is the source of all steam-powered engines. Look at the steam engine below. The water pressure drives a piston back and forth. The piston is attached to the crankshaft. The crankshaft changes the back-and-forth motion of the piston to a turning motion that drives the steam engine.

Laws of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The total amount of energy and matter in the Universe remains constant, merely changing from one form to another. The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be converted from one form into another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics states that "in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state." This is also commonly referred to as entropy. A watchspring-driven watch will run until the potential energy in the spring is converted, and not again until energy is reapplied to the spring to rewind it. A car that has run out of gas will not run again until you walk 10 miles to a gas station and refuel the car. Once the potential energy locked in carbohydrates is converted into kinetic energy (energy in use or motion), the organism will get no more until energy is input again. In the process of energy transfer, some energy will dissipate as heat. Entropy is a measure of disorder: cells are NOT disordered and so have low entropy. The flow of energy maintains order and life. Entropy wins when organisms cease to take in energy and die. Basic Definition Force A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction. For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories:

contact forces, and forces resulting from action-at-a-distance

Power The quantity work has to do with a force causing a displacement. Work has nothing to do with the amount of time that this force acts to cause the displacement. Sometimes, the work is done very quickly and other times the work is done rather slowly. For example, a rock climber takes an abnormally long time to elevate her body up a few meters along the side of a cliff. On the other hand, a trail hiker (who selects the easier path up the mountain) might elevate her body a few meters in a short amount of time. The two people might do the same amount of work, yet the hiker does the work in considerably less time than the rock climber. The quantity that has to do with the rate at which a certain amount of work is done is known as the power. The hiker has a greater power rating than the rock climber. Power is the rate at which work is done. It is the work/time ratio. Mathematically, it is computed using the following equation

The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for power, a unit of power is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is equivalent to a Joule/second. For historical reasons, the horsepower is occasionally used to describe the power delivered by a machine. One horsepower is equivalent to approximately 750 Watts.

Work When a force acts upon an object to cause a displacement of the object, it is said that work was done upon the object. There are three key ingredients to work - force, displacement, and cause. In order for a force to qualify as having done work on an object, there must be a displacement and the force must cause the displacement. There are several good examples of work that can be observed in everyday life - a horse pulling a plow through the field, a father pushing a grocery cart down the aisle of a grocery store, a freshman lifting a backpack full of books upon her shoulder, a weightlifter lifting a barbell above his head, an Olympian launching the shot-put, etc. In each case described here there is a force exerted upon an object to cause that object to be displaced. Energy Energy exists in many forms, such as heat, light, chemical energy, and electrical energy. Energy is the ability to bring about change or to do work. Thermodynamics is the study of energy. Mechanical Energy Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightlifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position (elastic potential energy).

Potential Energy An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a demolition machine is storing energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as the result of its position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no energy stored in the bow. Yet when its position is altered from its usual equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by virtue of its position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is the stored energy of position possessed by an object. Gravitational Potential Energy The two examples above illustrate the two forms of potential energy to be discussed in this course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the result of its vertical position or height. The energy is stored as the result of the gravitational attraction of the Earth for the object. The gravitational potential energy of the massive ball of a demolition machine is dependent on two variables - the mass of the ball and the height to which it is raised. There is a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the mass of an object. More massive objects have greater gravitational potential energy. There is also a direct relation between gravitational potential energy and the height of an object. The higher that an object is elevated, the greater the gravitational potential energy. These relationships are expressed by the following equation:
PEgrav = mass g height PEgrav = m * g h

In the above equation, m represents the mass of the object, h represents the height of the object and g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg on Earth) - sometimes referred to as the acceleration of gravity. To determine the gravitational potential energy of an object, a zero height position must first be arbitrarily assigned. Typically, the ground is considered to be a position of zero height. But this is merely an

arbitrarily assigned position that most people agree upon. Since many of our labs are done on tabletops, it is often customary to assign the tabletop to be the zero height position. Again this is merely arbitrary. If the tabletop is the zero position, then the potential energy of an object is based upon its height relative to the tabletop. For example, a pendulum bob swinging to and from above the tabletop has a potential energy that can be measured based on its height above the tabletop. By measuring the mass of the bob and the height of the bob above the tabletop, the potential energy of the bob can be determined. Since the gravitational potential energy of an object is directly proportional to its height above the zero position, a doubling of the height will result in a doubling of the gravitational potential energy.A tripling of the height will result in a tripling of the gravitational potential energy. Elastic Potential Energy The second form of potential energy that we will discuss is elastic potential energy. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in elastic materials as the result of their stretching or compressing. Elastic potential energy can be stored in rubber bands, bungee chords, trampolines, springs, an arrow drawn into a bow, etc. The amount of elastic potential energy stored in such a device is related to the amount of stretch of the device - the more stretch, the more stored energy. Springs are a special instance of a device that can store elastic potential energy due to either compression or stretching. A force is required to compress a spring; the more compression there is, the more force that is required to compress it further. For certain springs, the amount of force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression (x); the constant of proportionality is known as the spring constant (k).

Such springs are said to follow Hooke's Law. If a spring is not stretched or compressed, then there is no elastic potential energy stored in it. The spring is said to be at its equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the position that the spring naturally assumes when there is no force applied to it. In terms of potential energy, the equilibrium position could be called the zero-potential energy position. There is a special equation for springs that relates the amount of elastic potential energy to the amount of stretch (or compression) and the spring constant. The equation is

To summarize, potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position relative to some zero position. An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is positioned at a height above (or below) the zero height. An object possesses elastic potential energy if it is at a position on an elastic medium other than the equilibrium position. Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. An object that has motion - whether it is vertical or horizontal motion - has kinetic energy. There are many forms of kinetic energy - vibrational (the energy due to vibrational motion), rotational (the energy due to rotational motion), and translational (the energy due to motion from one location to another). To keep matters simple, we will focus upon translational kinetic energy. The amount of translational kinetic energy (from here on, the phrase kinetic energy will refer to translational kinetic energy) that an object has depends upon two variables: the mass (m) of the object and the speed (v) of the object. The following equation is used to represent the kinetic energy (KE) of an object.

where m = mass of object v = speed of object This equation reveals that the kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to the square of its speed. That means that for a twofold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of four. For a threefold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of nine. And for a fourfold increase in speed, the kinetic energy will increase by a factor of sixteen. The kinetic energy is dependent upon the square of the speed. As it is often said, an equation is not merely a recipe for algebraic problem solving, but also a guide to thinking about the relationship between quantities.

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity; it does not have a direction. Unlike velocity, acceleration, force, and momentum, the kinetic energy of an object is completely described by magnitude alone. Like work and potential energy, the standard metric unit of measurement for kinetic energy is the Joule. As might be implied by the above equation, 1 Joule is equivalent to 1 kg*(m/s)^2.

Conservation Laws If a system does not interact with its environment in any way, then certain mechanical properties of the system cannot change. They are sometimes called "constants of the motion". These quantities are said to be "conserved" and the conservation laws which result can be considered to be the most fundamental principles of mechanics. In mechanics, examples of conserved quantities are energy, momentum, and angular momentum. The conservation laws are exact for an isolated system.

Stated here as principles of mechanics, these conservation laws have far-reaching implications as symmetries of nature which we do not see violated. They serve as a strong constraint on any theory in any branch of science. Conservation of Momentum The momentum of an isolated system is a constant. The vector sum of the momentum of all the objects of a system cannot be changed by interactions within the system. This puts a strong constraint on the types of motions which can occur in an isolated system. If one part of the system is given a momentum in a given direction, then some other part or parts of the system must simultaneously be given exactly the same momentum in the opposite direction. As far as we can tell, conservation of momentum is an absolute symmetry of nature. That is, we do not know of anything in nature that violates it. Conservation of Energy Energy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. It may exist in a variety of forms and may be transformed from one type of energy to another. However, these energy

transformations are constrained by a fundamental principle, the Conservation of Energy principle. One way to state this principle is "Energy can neither be created nor destroyed". Another approach is to say that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. Law of Motion First Law of Motion: An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. This law is often called "the law of inertia".

What does this mean? This means that there is a natural tendency of objects to keep on doing what they're doing. All objects resist changes in their state of motion. In the absence of an unbalanced force, an object in motion will maintain this state of motion.

Second Law of Motion: Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object). However, the Second Law gives us an exact relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. It can be expressed as a mathematical equation:

FORCE = MASS times ACCELERATION

What does this mean? Everyone unconsiously knows the Second Law. Everyone knows that heavier objects require more force to move the same distance as lighter

objects. Third Law of Motion: For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action. What does this mean? This means that for every force there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. That is to say that whenever an object pushes another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard. Momentum The sports announcer says, "Going into the all-star break, the Chicago White Sox have the momentum." The headlines declare "Chicago Bulls Gaining Momentum." The coach pumps up his team at half-time, saying "You have the momentum; the critical need is that you use that momentum and bury them in this third quarter. Momentum is a commonly used term in sports. A team that has the momentum is on the move and is going to take some effort to stop. A team that has a lot of momentum is really on the move and is going to be hard to stop. Momentum is a physics term; it refers to the quantity of motion that an object has. A sports team that is on the move has the momentum. If an object is in motion (on the move) then it has momentum. Momentum can be defined as "mass in motion." All objects have mass; so if an object is moving, then it has momentum - it has its mass in motion. The amount of momentum that an object has is dependent upon two variables: how much stuff is moving and how fast the stuff is moving. Momentum depends upon the variables mass and velocity. In terms of an equation, the momentum of an object is equal to the mass of the object times the velocity of the object.

Momentum = mass velocity

In physics, the symbol for the quantity momentum is the lower case "p". Thus, the above equation can be rewritten as

p=mv
Impulse

The impulse of a force (also measured in N s) is equal to the change in momentum of a body which a force causes. This is also equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the length of time the force is applied.

Impulse = change in momentum = force time

Collision A collision is an event that occurs when two things bump into one another and energy changes in form or moves from one thing to the other. We are involved in hundreds of collisions each day, from car accidents to dropping a pencil on the floor; we even collide with air particles as we move around. When two things collide with each other, they exchange energy. Energy cant be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another, and it can also be transferred from one object to another. When the ball hits the ground kinetic energy is changed to sound and heat energy, and causes the ball to change its shape. A collision is an isolated event in which two or more moving bodies (colliding bodies) exert forces on each other for a relatively short time. A collision is not constrained to only referring to moving bodies. It can also refer to electronic transactions which share a common resource such as a bus interface. In this case, a collision refers to two simultaneous requests for the shared resource being made. Although the most common colloquial use of the word "collision" refers to accidents in which two or more objects collide, the scientific use of the word "collision" implies nothing about the magnitude of the forces. Some examples of physical interactions that scientists would consider collisions:

An insect touches its antenna to the leaf of a plant. The antenna is said to collide with leaf.

A cat walks delicately through the grass. Each contact that its paws make with the ground is a collision. Each brush of its fur against a blade of grass is a collision.

Some colloquial uses of the word collision are:

automobile collision, two cars colliding with each other mid-air collision, two planes colliding with each other ship collision, two ships colliding with each other

Types of Collision

Collision Type Totally Elastic

properties or characteristics No kinetic energy is lost (KE is conserved). Since KE is not lost, no energy can go into heat or sound. Usually involves only collisions where the objects can't touch. No damage caused to either colliding object. Less damage or heat created. Less sound created.

Examples of collisions Atomic or nuclear particles with similar charges. Magnets with similar poles facing each other. An "ideal super-ball", but that's just fantasy...like Flubber! Super-Ball Ball Bearings A well inflated basketball, or any ball that bounces some.

More damage or heat created. More sound created.

An under-inflated basketball, or any ball that doesn't bounce much.

Totally Inelastic

The colliding objects stick

A block of soft clay

together and become one. dropped onto a hard floor. Involves the greatest loss A bad car accident where of Kinetic Energy. the cars stick together. (keep in mind that if it loses Two train cars collide KE then the energy will need and stick together. to appear as heat and or sound) The colliding objects usually suffer some kind of permanent damage

Stress, Strain Hookes Law

In mechanics and physics, Hooke's law of elasticity is an approximation that states that the extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is a useful approximation are known as linear-elastic or "Hookean" materials. Hookean materials is a necessarily broad term that may include the work of muscular layers of the heart. Hooke's law in simple terms says that stress is directly proportional to strain. Mathematically, Hooke's law states that

where

x is the displacement of the spring's end from its equilibrium position (a distance,
in SI units: metres);

F is the restoring force exerted by the spring on that end (in SI units: N or kgm/s2);
and

k is a constant called the rate or spring constant (in SI units: N/m or kg/s2).
When this holds, the behavior is said to be linear. If shown on a graph, the line should show a direct variation. There is a negative sign on the right hand side of the equation because the restoring force always acts in the opposite direction of the displacement (for example, when a spring is stretched to the left, it pulls back to the right).

Hooke's law is named after the 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke. He first stated this law in 1660 as a Latin anagram, whose solution he published in 1678 as Ut tensio, sic vis, meaning, "As the extension, so the force". Hooke's law describes how far the spring will stretch under a specific force Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium, often obey Hooke's law.We may view a rod of any elastic material as a linear spring. The rod has length L and cross-sectional area A. Its extension (strain) is linearly proportional to its tensile stress , by a constant factor, the inverse of its modulus of elasticity, E, hence,

where

this may also be expressed as:

Hooke's law only holds for some materials under certain loading conditions. Steel exhibits linear-elastic behavior in most engineering applications; Hooke's law is valid for it throughout its elastic range (i.e., for stresses below the yield strength). For some other materials, such as aluminium, Hooke's law is only valid for a portion of the elastic range. For these materials a proportional limit stress is defined, below which the errors associated with the linear approximation are negligible. Rubber is generally regarded as a "non-hookean" material because its elasticity is stress dependent and sensitive to temperature and loading rate. Applications of the law include spring operated weighing machines, stress analysis and modelling of materials. Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is usually more convenient to use pressure rather than force to describe the influences upon fluid behavior. The standard unit for pressure is the Pascal, which is a Newton per square meter. For an object sitting on a surface, the force pressing on the surface is the weight of the object, but in different orientations it might have a different area in contact with the surface and therefore exert a different pressure.

Archimedes Principle Have you ever had a swim in a pool? Dont you feel lighter? Have you ever drawn water from a well and felt that the bucket of water feels heavier when it is out of the water? Have you ever wondered why a ship made of iron and steel does not sink, but if the same amount of iron and steel in the form of a sheet would sink? Well, all these phenomena occur in all fluids including water and are due to exerted pressure. Take a spring balance, a piece of stone, a measuring cylinder and water. Measure the weight of stone in air by tying the string around in a loop, and hanging it from the spring balance. Take water in a measuring cylinder and note its volume level. Then dip the stone in the water while it is still hanging from the spring balance. You will see that the stone is weighing less!! If you see the water level now, you will see it has risen. Now from the volume of the water displaced, calculate the weight of water from the following equation for density :

Density of water = Mass of water (in gm) / Volume of water (in cubic cm)

Density of water is 1 gm/cm3. You will see that the mass of water displaced is exactly equal to the reduction in weight of the stone in water. Archimedes was the first person to understand this phenomenon more than about 2,200 years ago and hence the phenomenon is named after him. Archimedes Principle states that a body immersed in a liquid, wholly or partly, loses its weight. The loss of weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.

Hydrostatic Pressure Hydrostatic pressure is what is exerted by a liquid when it is at rest. The height of a liquid column of uniform density is directly proportional to the hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic properties of a liquid are not constant and the main factors influencing it are the density of the liquid and the local gravity. Both of these quantities need to be known in order to determine the hydrostatic pressure of a particular liquid. The formula for calculating the hydrostatic pressure of a column of liquid in SI units is:

Hydrostatic Pressure (Pa, N/m2) = Height (m) x Density(kg/m3) x Gravity(m/s2)

The density of a liquid will vary with changes in temperature so this is often quoted alongside hydrostatic pressure units e.g. mH2O @ 4 deg C. The local gravity depends on latitudinal position and height above sea level. For convenience the most common standard for hydrostatic pressure is metres of water or feet of water at 4 deg C (39.2 degF) with a standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2. The density of pure water at 4 deg C is very close to 1000 kg/m3 and therefore this has been adopted as the standard density of water. Another reason for the significance of choosing 4 deg C is that it is very close to the temperature that water reaches its maximum density.

In practical terms hydrostatic pressure units are rarely absolutely precise because the temperature of any liquid is not always going to be 4 deg C. You will also come across another temperature standard of 60 deg F (15.56 deg C). This can lead to confusion and inaccuracies when the temperature is not labelled alongside the hydrostatic pressure unit. For most applications these differences are not significant enough to influence the results since the reading accuracy is often much wider than the difference in the pressure unit conversion factor at these 2 temperatures.

In summary hydrostatic pressure units are a very convenient method for relating pressure to a height of fluid but they are not absolute pressure units and it is not always clear what density/temperature has been assumed in their derivation, so be very cautious when using them for high precision level measurements. In fact some institutions are discouraging their use because of the very reasons mentioned above.

Check your understanding Questions: 1. Determine the momentum of a... a. 60-kg halfback moving eastward at 9 m/s. b. 1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s. c. 40-kg freshman moving southward at 2 m/s. 2. A car possesses 20 000 units of momentum. What would be the car's new momentum if . a. its velocity was doubled. b. its velocity was tripled. c. its mass was doubled (by adding more passengers and a greater load) d. both its velocity was doubled and its mass was doubled. 3. A halfback (m = 60 kg), a tight end (m = 90 kg), and a lineman (m = 120 kg) are running down the football field. Consider their ticker tape patterns below.

Compare the velocities of these three players. How many times greater are the velocity of the halfback and the velocity of the tight end than the velocity of the lineman? Which player has the greatest momentum? Explain. 4. Determine the kinetic energy of a 625-kg roller coaster car that is moving with a speed of 18.3 m/s. 5. If the roller coaster car in the above problem were moving with twice the speed, then what would be its new kinetic energy? 6. Missy Diwater, the former platform diver for the Ringling Brother's Circus, had a kinetic energy of 12 000 J just prior to hitting the bucket of water. If Missy's mass is 40 kg, then what is her speed? 7. A 900-kg compact car moving at 60 mi/hr has approximately 320 000 Joules of kinetic energy. Estimate its new kinetic energy if it is moving at 30 mi/hr. (HINT: use the kinetic energy equation as a "guide to thinking.") 8. A cart is loaded with a brick and pulled at constant speed along an inclined plane to the height of a seat-top. If the mass of the loaded cart is 3.0 kg and the height of the seat top is 0.45 meters, then what is the potential energy of the loaded cart at the height of the seat-top?

9. Two physics students, Will N. Andable and Ben Pumpiniron, are in the weightlifting room. Will lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in one minute; Ben lifts the 100-pound barbell over his head 10 times in 10 seconds. Which student does the most work? ______________ Which student delivers the most power? ______________

10. During a physics lab, Jack and Jill ran up a hill. Jack is twice as massive as Jill; yet Jill ascends the same distance in half the time. Who did the most work? ______________ Who delivered the most power? ______________ 11. A push or a pull on an object is: A. Force B. Inertia C.Its weight 12.How many Laws of Motion are there? 13. What is another name for the first law of motion? 14. Which law explains why we need to wear seatbelts? 15. Which law says that force is equal to mass times acceleration (F=MA)? 16. Which law says that heavier objects require more force than lighter objects to move or accelerate them? 17. Which law explains how rockets are launched into space? 18. Which law says that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction? 19-22. What are the four stroke combustion-cycle? 23-25. What are the three types of collision? 26.Differentiate internal and external combustion engines. Read the following five statements and determine whether or not they represent examples of work.

Statement Answer with Explanation

A teacher applies a force to a wall and becomes exhausted.

A book falls off a table and free falls to the ground.

A waiter carries a tray full of meals above his head by one arm straight across the room at constant speed.

A rocket accelerates through space.