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International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration

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Shape Memory Alloy Devices for the Structural Improvement of Masonry Heritage Structures
Maurizio Indirli & Maria Gabriella Castellano
a a b

ENEA (Ente Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente) ACS Department (Dipartimento Ambiente, Cambiamenti Globali e Sviluppo Sostenibile) PREV Unit (Unit Prevenzione dei Rischi Naturali e Mitigazione Effetti), Bologna, Italy
b

FIP Industriale s.p.a., Research and Development Department, Selvazzano Dentro (PD), Italy Available online: 31 May 2008

To cite this article: Maurizio Indirli & Maria Gabriella Castellano (2008): Shape Memory Alloy Devices for the Structural Improvement of Masonry Heritage Structures, International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration, 2:2, 93-119 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15583050701636258

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International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 2: 93119, 2008 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1558-3058 print /1558-3066 online DOI: 10.1080/15583050701636258

SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY DEVICES FOR THE STRUCTURAL IMPROVEMENT OF MASONRY HERITAGE STRUCTURES Maurizio Indirli1 and Maria Gabriella Castellano2
ENEA (Ente Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, lEnergia e lAmbiente) ACS Department (Dipartimento Ambiente, Cambiamenti Globali e Sviluppo ` Sostenibile) PREV Unit (Unita Prevenzione dei Rischi Naturali e Mitigazione Effetti), Bologna, Italy 2 FIP Industriale s.p.a., Research and Development Department, Selvazzano Dentro (PD) Italy
1

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The development of innovative techniques based on shape memory alloy devices (SMADs), for the purpose of seismic protection for cultural heritage structures, began in Italy within the framework of an European Commission-funded project and continued with further studies and applications. These devices exploit a special property of shape memory alloys: their superelasticitythe ability to recover very high deformation without residual strain, associated with a non-linear constitutive behavior, making it possible to keep the force constant in a wide range of displacements. Consequently, SMADs can be used as special ties capable of limiting the forces transmitted between the structural elements that they connect (e.g., a church facade and the roof), at the same time allowing small displacements. Compared with very rigid conventional steel ties, SMADs are able to reduce accelerations and forces, and thus increase the seismic capacity of the structure. This article provides a brief overview about the research and development that led to the worlds first applications of SMADs for seismic protection, within the framework of the post-earthquake restoration of the upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, Italy. KEY WORDS: cultural heritage structures, masonry structures, earthquake engineering, anti-seismic devices, shape memory alloy, strengthening and reinforcement, experimental tests

1. INTRODUCTION The development of innovative techniques based on the use of shape memory alloy devices (SMADs), for the purpose of seismic protection for masonry cultural heritage structures (MCUHES), began in Italy in 1996 within the framework of the European Commission-funded ISTECH Project (Development of Innovative Techniques for the Improvement of Stability of Cultural Protection, in Particular

Received 6 March 2007; accepted 16 August 2007. Address correspondence to Maurizio Indirli, ENEA (Ente Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, lEnergia e lAmbiente), ACS Department (Dipartimento Ambiente, Cambiamenti Globali e Sviluppo ` sostenibile)PREV Unit (Unita Prevenzione dei rischi naturali e mitigazione effetti), Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna, Italy. E-mail: maurizio.indirli@bologna.enea.it 93

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Seismic Protection) and was subsequently continued with further studies and applications. This article provides a brief overview about this development, including the worlds first SMAD applications to MCUHES, offering the scientific and professional community a powerful tool (together with other techniques) capable of harmonizing reinforcement and protection and overcoming the drawbacks of the traditional methodologies usually employed. The issue of correct and reliable antiseismic measures for MCUHES is of crucial importance in the Mediterranean countries, which are characterized by a large number of ancient (and frequently precious) buildings and non-negligible seismicity over much of their territory. It has been unfortunately demonstrated that earthquakes (even those of moderate intensity, often magnified by local soil conditions and structural vulnerability) can cause collapse or heavy damage. In addition, several existing still-standing MCUHES, even though not yet severely damaged, have been at least weakened by previous earthquakes, and their resistance has been lowered by other factors (poor maintenance, incorrect restoration and expansion work, and chemical attacks on masonry materials from air pollution and traffic-induced vibrations). Furthermore, after the seismic event that hit Italys Molise Region in 2003, a very important change occurred in the Italian legislative scenario. This change was due to the revision of the seismic areas classification (generally stricter than before 2003) and the adoption of an updated seismic code, based on Eurocode 8 (1998), and also included a specific section for existing buildings (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri 2003a; 2003b; 2005). In this new context, it was necessary to carefully examine further the subject of the antiseismic improvement of MCUHES, to avoid a possible conflict between structural safety and architectural conservation. Thus, a specific Italian working group produced dedicated guidelines for cultural heritage (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri 2006), establishing that antiseismic measures cannot be evaluated with the same approach used for new constructions built with modern materials (reinforced concrete or steel, or even masonry), according to a large body of scientific studies and on the basis of periodic past earthquake experiences. The previously mentioned guidelines state that the MCUHES improvement can be performed by using both traditional devices (TDs), and/or innovative techniques and materials. To obtain a satisfactory global behavior of the structure, it is necessary to enhance the connections between the masonry walls and between these walls and the floors, mainly achieved by the insertion of ties, confining rings, and string courses, preferably in reinforced masonry, steel, or wood (Modena et al., 2006). Thus, in the authors opinion, the philosophical approach can be summarized in these following statements: 1. Because MCUHES repair is much more difficult to carry out than that on modern structures, measures must be defined as a controlled structural improvement instead of retrofit i.e., accepting an antiseismic protection level lower than required by the codes for modern structures, thus limiting invasiveness; at the same time, great attention must be devoted to the buildings final intended use to accurately manage the importance factor used in seismic standards, which is higher for public and strategically important constructions (Modena et al., 2006); 2. For each limit state, the improvement effectiveness must be quantified, evaluating the peak ground acceleration (PGA) levels generating local collapse mechanisms, before and after intervention;
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3. Detailed survey and investigation campaigns are mandatory for MCUHES, the characteristics of which are frequently not well known; 4. The rehabilitation must be designed in a specific way since the use of standardized procedures is not possible; 5. The observance of the regola dellarte (the unwritten construction rules for workmanlike masonry elaborated by architects and bricklayers in centuries of work practice) is fundamental for protection, conservation and restoration; 6. The use of modern techniques and materials can be very useful in reducing seismic vulnerability, but it must be philologically correct (i.e., respect as much as possible the original structural behavior), compatible, and reversible. Therefore, the use of SMADs may be an innovative solution, not yet widely applied, for harmonizing reinforcement measures and conservation criteria. In the following discussion, the main research and development results are summarized as well as the main applications.

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2. MAIN PROPERTIES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY DEVICES AS ANTISEISMIC DEVICES Although shape memory alloys (SMAs) have been known since 1932 and research into both the metallurgy and practical uses has increased since the 1960s (when a nickeltitanium[NiTi] SMA was discovered), their potential use in the earthquake engineering field has only been studied since the 1990s (Aiken et al., 1992; Bondonet et al., 1996; Clark et al., 1995; Graesser et al., 1991; Krumme et al., 1995; MANSIDE Project, 1999; Witting et al., 1992). SMAs are metallic materials endowed with special thermo-mechanical properties due to a reversible transformation between two crystalline configurations (known as austenite and martensite) when cooled or heated, as well as in the presence of stress, without degradation of the crystal structure. This behavior enables their use in many different fields, from orthodontic and orthopedic applications to pipe couplings, and from eyeglass frames to cellular telephone antennas (Perkins, 1975; Duerig, 1990). Specifically, the idea of protecting MCUHES against earthquakes with SMADs was hatched during the previously mentioned ISTECH project. The SMA superelasticity (the ability to recover very high deformations, from 6% to 10%, more than 10 times the possibility with a conventional metal) was identified as the most useful property for antiseismic purposes. The stressstrain curve, measured during a monotonic tension test on an SMA wire, shows two plateaus during the loading phase, i.e., sections where stress remains nearly constant with increasing strain (Figure 1). After an initial, almost linear portion (corresponding to the elastic deformation of the material in its austenitic phase), the curve describes the usually called superelastic loading plateau. Despite its similarity with the curve observed during yielding (e.g., mild steel), here the curve is due to the stress-induced phase transformation from austenite to martensite. A new elastic deformation takes place when all the material has completed the transformation in the martensitic phase (i.e., when the imposed strain exceeds a certain value, called maximum superelastic strain).
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Figure 1. Monotonic tension test up to failure on an SMA wire.

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Figure 2. Cyclic tension test in the super-elastic range on an SMA wire.

Afterwards, another plateau appears, this time related to the alloys true yield in its martensitic phase. Figure 2 shows the hysteresis loop generated by loading and unloading paths of an SMA wire, to which a tension strain has been applied up to the maximum superelastic strain and then removed. The stress removal induces a reverse phase transformation from martensite to austenite that allows almost complete strain recovery. In view of this reversible phase transformation, a very large number of similar cycles can be applied without any damage to the material. The absence of sensible residual deformations allows the creation of SMADs where no permanent displacements are present when they stop working. Conversely, using TDs (e.g., steel ties), it could be possible to exploit their yielding and the consequent force-limiting characteristic, but permanent residual displacement would be present when the forces are removed. In case of SMADs in series with vertical steel bars (see Sec. 3.1), the main expected advantage is the control of the pre-stressing force imposed by the bar on the masonry walls.In case of SMADs in series with horizontal steel ties (see Sec. 3.2), to be used for the connection of roofs or floors to the walls, or for the connection
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between transversal walls, the results of the research carried out within the ISTECH project have shown that a SMAD should behave as follows: 1. Under service loads, the SMAD does not apply any static force to the structural elements to which it connects (and consequently it is called self-balanced); under low intensity horizontal actions (wind, small-intensity earthquakes), the SMAD is rigid, as a TD, and no displacements are allowed; 2. Under higher intensity horizontal actions (stronger earthquakes) the SMAD stiffness lessens, allowing controlled displacements; they should permit the masonry to dissipate part of the energy transmitted by the earthquake, mainly thanks to the formation of microcracks in the brick walls, taking care to avoid dangerous macrocracks; in the meantime, due to the reduced SMAD stiffness, lower forces are transmitted to the MCUHES which, consequently, should be able to sustain a high-intensity earthquake without collapse; 3. Under extraordinary horizontal actions, the SMAD stiffness increases to prevent excessive displacements and instability. Different SMAD types have been conceived, designed and manufactured for use as horizontal ties: 1. The self-balanced single plateau SMADas noted in the previous first point, it becomes active only under dynamic actions, inducing horizontal loads greater than the initial force. Such a device also offers symmetric behavior for positive or negative displacements, even though it is based on SMA wires always working under tension. Figure 3 shows the constitutive behavior of one device of this type, measured in tests on a prototype, and illustrates its very stable behavior under cycling; 2. The multi-plateau self-balanced SMADan evolution of the device just described; its behavior is shown in Figure 4 (referring to a three-plateau SMAD). The advantage gained is its capacity to work at increasing force levels, induced by different earthquake intensities; in addition, an SMAD conceived in this manner is less sensitive to the masonry tensile strength, on which the optimal design force of

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Figure 3. Single-Plateau SMAD.

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Figure 4. Multi-Plateau SMAD.

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the single-plateau SMAD depends, increasing with it (Biritognolo et al., 2000). With the multi-plateau SMAD, the risks deriving from over- or underestimating the masonry tensile strength can be either avoided or substantially reduced; the design engineer can select two or more force levels and corresponding displacements to take into account a wide range of masonry mechanical properties, achieving a good level of optimization. An example of multi-plateau SMAD developed for horizontal connections is shown in Figure 5.
(a)

(b)

Figure 5. Multi-plateau self-balanced SMADs developed for horizontal connections.

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The SMA selected in the research (NiTi) has very good corrosion-resistance characteristics and this, apart from ensuring their durability, prevents deterioration phenomena that could affect the materials (masonry) composing the MCUHES. Moreover, the use of SMADs as structural connection elements is consistent with the criteria of operation reversibility and compatibility with the original structures. As regards integrity, it must be noticed that the SMAD installation, being an additive measure, produces just minimal disturbance to the MCUHES.

3. STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATIONS SELECTED FOR SMAD APPLICATIONS The study of the applications of SMADs started from the choice of some TDs for which their effectiveness was confirmed by experience. Among the different ideas that initially arose for the use of SMADs, the main efforts of the research were focused on the following techniques. 3.1. Tall and Slender Buildings: Bell Towers Generally, a problem that frequently occurs in slender buildings subjected to seismic actions is the need to improve their structural behavior, seen as a vertical cantilever fixed at the base. A typical measure is the insertion of vertical bars, connecting the top to the ground, tensioned to apply pre-stress to the masonry. This measure can prevent the typical collapse shown in Figure 6, and the effectiveness can be improved using SMADs in series with steel bars (Figure 7). The main expected advantage is the control of the force imposed by the bar on the masonry walls, in particular during the earthquake: actually, with a proper SMAD design, the force transmitted to the building should not be higher than the upper plateau of the SMA elements of the device. This use of SMADs was implemented in the restoration of the Campanile of San Giorgio at Trignano (Figure 8), heavily damaged by the October 15, 1996, earthquake and located within the most affected area, near San Martino in Rio, Reggio Emilia (Italy).

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Figure 6. Typical flexural collapse of a bell-tower. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(2): 93119

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Figure 7. Proposal of SMADs use on slender buildings.

Figure 8. SMADs application in the Trignano Bell-Tower.

The earthquake mainly hit the Reggio Emilia and Modena districts in the Emilia-Romagna Region (magnitude [M] 4.8 and VII MCS). The recorded peak acceleration values near the epicenter (approximately 5 km) were: NS 0.142 g, EW 0.203 g and UP 0.094 g. Although the earthquake may be classified as moderate, its energy was particularly evident in the low frequency range (typical of tall buildings). This fact can explain the widespread damage (in many cases close to collapse) noticed in several bell towers (Indirli, 1997a). The Church of San Giorgio in Trignano (Figure 9a) was an ancient Romanesque chapel, built in 1302. During the following centuries, the building underwent many changes and additions. In 1700, the currently connected houses were built and, in the second half of 1800, the campanile (18.5 m high, with a 3 m square base, see Figure 9b) was heavily modified, until it reached the recent configuration; the belfry, now formed
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(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 9. The San Giorgio Church, its Bell-Tower, and the masonry infills.

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by mullioned windows and an octagonal spire, was heightened and the original one filled with bricks. The campanile mainly consists of four masonry columns, located at the corners, sustaining the whole building. The curtain walls (approximately 0.4 m thick, Figure 9c), located among the columns and also in the masonry, have a negligible structural function. More than one half of the campanile rises freely from the church and the parsonage. Materials are very poor (typically Bolognese burnt bricks, mortar of common lime with sand and pozzuolana). During numerous on-site surveys performed by experts from the ENEA (Ente Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, lEnergia e lAmbiente, Bologna, Italy) after the earthquake, serious damage was noted on the campanile, which showed severe transverse and through cracks in the columns and in the masonry infills, with a global fracture at the roof level of the adjoining buildings (the campanile was very close to collapse, see Figure 10ab). The free portion of the campanile, under the seismic motion, oscillated to the point of rupture and then settled again: a rotation of approximately 30 mm was evident (Figure 10c shows the rotation at the roof level). The structure was declared unsafe and entrance to it was forbidden; it was then made safe, and restoration was considered necessary. The rehabilitation of the Trignano campanile was carried out as the demointervention specified in the ISTECH project itself, after an agreement with the local authorities and the property owners (Indirli et al., 2001). After a necessary geometric survey, the retrofit, completed in November 1999, consisted of two parts: 1. The conventional measures (cracked masonry global consolidation, re-plastering, floor reconstruction using light and typical materials, belfry rehabilitation, see Figure 11d), funded by the regional reconstruction program; 2. The innovative measures (Figure 8 and Figure 11ac), to increase antiseismic performance; these consisted of the insertion of vertical pre-stressing steel tie bars in the internal corners of the structure, without drilling masonry, to increase the flexural resistance of the tower; the tie bars, formed by six tight-screwing segments (to facilitate their assembly), were placed in series with 4 SMADs; each SMAD comprised 60 Ni-Ti superelastic wires of 1 mm diameter and 300 mm length; appropriate anchorages (building top and foundation, see Figure 11a-b) were applied to support the tensile forces from the tie bars; in fact, the SMADs were post-tensioned in order to guarantee the constancy of compression acting on the masonry, keeping the applied force below 20 kN.
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(a)

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(b)

(c)

Figure 10. Cracks on the Bell-Tower (a-b) and rotation of the upper structure (b-c).

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(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 11. Anchorages: building top (a) and foundation (b); SMADs before assembling (c); Bell-Tower after rehabilitation (d).

A new seismic event, with the same epicenter, occurred on June 18, 2000 (M 4.5, VIVII MCS). Immediately after the main shock, the campanile was again investigated with great accuracy, but it showed no damage of any kind. 3.2. Connections of Walls Against Out-of-Plane Seismic Forces: Church Facades and Tympana Another type of TD deals with the effective connection of orthogonal walls subjected to horizontal forces directed perpendicularly to their own plane. In fact, a typical damage mechanism in masonry buildings, and in particular churches, is the out-of-plane collapse of peripheral walls (Figure 12), due to inertia forces generated by a seismic event. A simple and efficient TD to prevent this manner of collapse is the improvement of the wall connection at floor level, usually using steel ties. Unfortunately, as seen from past earthquake damage, it is not sufficient in many cases, because the high rigidity of the ties causes the transmission of strong forces to the masonry. Consequently, the connection may also fail due to the punching effect of the anchorage, especially in cases when the masonry materials used are of poor quality or deteriorated. Furthermore, the high stiffness of a structure connected in this way can significantly amplify ground accelerations. This is particularly true of structural elements such as the tympana of church facades.
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(a)

(b)

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(c)

Figure 12. Rocking of gable-end walls in a church: (a) main facade; (b) transept facades; (c) tympana.

The successful results of the research and its implementation led to the following applications in Italy: the transept tympana of the upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, the San Feliciano Cathedral facade in Foligno, and the San Serafino Church at Montegranaro, all heavily damaged by the 19971998 UmbriaMarche earthquake (Figure 13). Figures 14 and 15 (and sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.4) show the SMAD insertions in the previously mentioned MCUHES. This earthquake sequence (Indirli et al., 1997b) started on September 26, 1997 and took place in a complex deforming zone, along a normal fault system in the central Apennine Mountains. The seismic event left significant ground effects, which were mainly concentrated in the Colfiorito intermountain basin. The crustal events generated extensive ground motion and caused great damage in several urban areas. The extent of the macroseismic data and the abundance of recorded ground motions provide good knowledge of the source and structural parameters for better understanding the nature of the ground shaking and the resulting damage patterns. Three main shocks (time 2:33, local M (ML) 5.5 and VIII MCS; time 11:40, ML 5.8 and VIIIIX MCS; time 11:46, ML
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(b)

(c)

Figure 13. Earthquake damage in churches where shape memory alloy devices have been applied: (a) the San Feliciano Cathedral in Foligno; (b) the transept tympanum (upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi); and (c) the San Serafino Church at Montegranaro. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(2): 93119

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(c)

(a)

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(d)

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Figure 14. Schematic illustrations of the shape memory alloy devices insertion for the: (a) upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, tympanum; (b, c) San Feliciano Cathedral, facade; and (d) San Serafino church, facade (drawing courtesy of the structural engineer).

4.7 and VII MCS) hit with epicenter near Cesi and Collecurti, towns located on the border between Marche and Umbria Regions. These shocks were also responsible for the collapse of the vaults in the upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi. The seismic crisis lasted several months; during subsequent events in 1997, other towns were struck, causing heavy damage to many MCUHES (October 3: (MD) 4.8 and VII MCS; October 4: MD 4.3 and VI MCS; October 7: MD 4.9 and VIIVIII MCS, MD 4.1 and VVI MCS; October 12: MD 4.5 and VIVII MCS, MD 4.9 and VIIVIII MCS). Before the seismic sequence, probabilistic and deterministic maps were available for the Italian territory, indicating PGAs not exceeding 0.4 g for the UmbriaMarche region. 3.2.1. The Reinforcement Measures The Upper Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi The result of the UmbriaMarche earthquake was the destruction of the vaults close to the facade and close to the transept and of a portion of the left transept. Furthermore, the presence of large cracks and permanent deformations was noted all over the vaults, leaving them in a very precarious and dangerous condition. Some
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(a)

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(c)

Figure 15. Photographs of the shape memory alloy device insertion for the: (a) Assisi Basilica tympanum; (b) San Feliciano Cathedral facade; (c) San Serafino Church.

factors increased vulnerability: 1) for the transept tympanum, constructed with a cavity wall with two faces and an inner fill, one of the causes of the partial collapse was the decay of the mortar connecting the stones of the external face with the inner fill; another cause was local interaction with the roof top; 2) for the vaults, the collapse was produced by a large volume of fill (mainly broken tiles and other loose materials accumulated over centuries of roof repairs in the springing zones); during the seismic activity, this fill, without any cohesion, alternatively acted only on one side, while on the other side the fill was detached. Moreover, the loose fill followed the vault movement, preventing their recovery and facilitating the increase of permanent deformations (Croci 1998a; 1998b).
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In addition to the very complex conventional restoration, 47 SMADs were used in the basilica to connect the roof to the two transept tympanums: 24 on the left (south) side, and 23 on the right (north) side (Bonci et al., 2001). Figures15a and 14a show details of this SMAD connection, such as: 1) the anchorage plate, inserted in the facade masonry wall during its partial reconstruction, attached to a threaded bar; and 2) a new reinforced concrete rib, built at the end of the existing reinforced concrete roof (built in the 1950s), to stiffen it and transfer the load of the new connections. The SMADs were connected on one side to the threaded bar and on other side to the rib, through a plate bolted to a counter-plate embedded in concrete. Three different sizes of three-plateau self-balanced SMADs (recognized by their different lengths in Figure 15a) were applied, with design forces ranging from 17 to 52 kN and maximum displacements ranging from 8 and 25 mm, to take into account the different properties required, because the distance from the transept lateral walls gradually increases toward the roof top. This was the worlds first application of SMADs to a building to improve earthquake resistance. It is worth noting that the cost of the SMADs installed in the upper basilica of St. Francis totaled less than 1% of the total restoration cost (including the cost of shock transmission units, other innovative devices used to connect the different parts of a steel truss installed at an intermediate height along the perimeter of the basilicas nave to increase side wall rigidity and thus avoid the aggravation of vertical cracks created by past earthquakes [Bonci et al., 2001]). 3.2.2. The Reinforcement Measures: The San Feliciano Cathedral in Foligno During the UmbriaMarche earthquake, Folignos Cathedral suffered heavy damage, including the detachment of the facade, with a horizontal displacement of 8 cm off the covering vaults. Such a detachment was caused by an incipient overturning collapse mechanism due to the absence of restraints on the orthogonal vertical walls and the roof. Thus, an improvement of the facade wall connection to the vertical walls and the roof was deemed necessary to increase safety levels against the facade overturning. This improvement was accomplished by inserting TD steel ties at a height of approximately 15 m, approximately 3/5 of the facade height, while the one between facade and roof was accomplished with 9 SMADs (Figures 15b, 14b, and 14c). These devices are of the same type as those used in the upper basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, with two- instead of three-plateau self-balanced SMADs. Each device is characterized by a design force of 27 kN and maximum displacement of 20 mm, and ends in tang plates, connected through pins to the clevis of the anchor frames. On one side, the anchor frame is welded to a new V-shaped beam, welded in turn to the existing beams of the modern steel roof (built in the 1950s). On the other side, the anchorage frame is connected to the masonry facade wall through anchor rods. A gap around the ends of existing steel beams, bearing on a PTFE (Polytetrafluoro-ethylene) -stainless steel sliding plate, permits relative displacements between facade and roof (which are controlled by the SMADs). 3.2.3. The Reinforcement Measures: The San Serafino Church in Montegranaro Another significant SMAD application was carried out in 2002 in the Church of San Serafino at Montegranaro (Ascoli Piceno, Italy), also severely
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Figure 16. The typical collapse mechanism of arches and vaults.

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damaged by the UmbriaMarche seismic event. The church and the adjoining monastery are the result of the reconstruction (1603) of a former thirteenth-century building that collapsed in 1431. In 1997, it suffered a wooden truss collapse and partial failure of the roof. Thanks to the Local Cultural Heritage Office, rehabilitation was immediately planned; the structural engineer analyzed the potential wall overturning mechanisms and suggested a reinforcing tie system. In particular, the designer worked out a retaining system of the two frontal tympana, the more vulnerable structural components in case of seismic loads due to the potential punching effect of the tie attachments to the wall and to the high accelerations to which they are subjected during earthquake. In order to improve the wall connections, control the displacements, and reduce the dynamic actions transmitted, the use of SMADs was decided for the facade, as in the previously mentioned applications (Figures 15c and 14d). The SMADs installed in the church are designed for working only under tension, with a peak force of 39 kN and peak displacement of 20 mm. 3.2.4. The Reinforcement Measures: The San Pietro Church in Feletto Another type of reinforcement measure using SMADs was employed against the collapse of chapel arches and vaults (Figure 16) in the San Pietro in Feletto Church (Treviso, Italy), where 6 (single tensional effect) SMADs were applied at the extrados in series with steel TDs (Figure 17). The SMADs are very small, with a peak force of 2 kN (4 devices) and 5 kN (2 devices), all with a peak displacement of 15 mm.

4. TESTING ON SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY DEVICES, MOCK-UPS, AND STRUCTURES 4.1. Shape Memory Alloy Choice and Characterization To identify the most suitable SMAs useful for antiseismic devices for MCUHES, an experimental campaign (Castellano et al., 1997; Tirelli et al., 1999; Renda et al., 2001) was conducted on several materials, purchased from different manufacturers, at the EC-JRC (Joint Research Center of the European Commission, Ispra, Italy) ELSA (European Laboratory for Structural Assessment) laboratory. Most of the materials tested were NiTi alloys. The materials were tested in the form of wires of 6 different diameters, ranging from 1 to 3.5 mm. These tests aimed to: 1) measure those mechanical
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Figure 17. The intervention with shape memory alloy devices at the San Pietro in Feletto Church.

properties for which a sufficient body of information was not yet available from either the literature or the manufacturers and that were important to SMAD applications in MCUHES; and 2) compare SMAs of different chemical composition, thermo-mechanical treatment, and diameter, leading to a final selection of the most suitable alloy(s). The research included quasi-static tests at different strain rates (both cyclic and monotonic), cyclic tests at different strain values, and dynamic cyclic tests at different amplitudes/frequencies, etc. All the tests were tension stress-conducted under controlled strain conditions. Figures 1819 show typical stress versus strain graphs, resulting from two of these tests: the cyclic test with increasing strain (Figure 18), and the cyclic test at the maximum superelastic strain (also called stabilization test; (Figure 19). The reduction in loading stress, increase in residual strain, and consequent reduction in the energy dissipated per cycle in subsequent cycles are evident (Figure 19). However, the changes are rapid during initial cycling but become very slow after several cycles. Thus it is possible to achieve the desired stability by cyclic-training the SMA wires prior to service. However, a design approach could even use SMA wires without any training, opting for a higher energy dissipation capacity rather than greater hysteretic stability. 4.2. Tests on Shape Memory Alloy Devices The behavior desired for SMADs to be used in series with horizontal steel ties (as discussed previously in point 13 in Sec. 2) was achieved through groups of suitably connected SMA wires, i.e., through elements provided with high modularity. This modularity makes it quite easy to adapt the constitutive behavior of SMADs to different design requirements, e.g., to achieve single- or multi-plateau SMADs. The SMADs were checked by a series of dynamic tests.
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Figure 18. Typical example of stress versus strain graph resulting from the cyclic test at increasing strain on a nickeltitanium (NiTi) shape memory alloy device sample.

Figure 19. Typical stabilization test on a nickeltitanium (NiTi) shape memory alloy device.

Figure 3 shows the constitutive behavior of a self-balanced single-plateau SMAD prototype, measured by dynamic cyclic testing where displacements were imposed with a sinusoidal law, at 25 mm amplitude and 1 Hz frequency. It is worth noting that the hysteretic behavior of said SMAD under cycling is very stable. An evolution of the aforesaid SMAD is the multi-plateau, self-balanced type. An example of the force versus displacement behavior of a three-plateau SMAD is shown in Figure 4. It is worth noting that the frequency dependence of SMADs is negligible, as can be observed by comparing the two graphs in Figure 20, referring to tests at different frequencies (1 and 4 Hz). This is due to a particular system, developed within the ISTECH project and patented by FIP Industriale (Selvazzano Dentro, Italy). In effect, without this system, the frequency dependence of the superelastic
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(a)

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(b)

Figure 20. Force versus displacement loops measured on a multi-plateau self-balanced shape memory alloy device during a sinusoidal test carried out at the FIP Industriale Laboratory (Selvazzano Dentro, Italy) at amplitude 15 mm and frequency 1 Hz (a) and 4 Hz (b).

behavior of SMAs, consisting of an increase of the slope of superelastic loading and unloading plateaus and a decrease in energy dissipation capacity, can be substantial. It is also worth noting that the graphs shown here refer to results of tests carried out up to the design displacement; that is why the stiffening effect (as discussed previously in point 3 in Sec. 2) is not visible in these graphs. 4.3. Shaking Table Tests A set of shaking table tests on brick masonry wall mock-ups (Castellano et al., 1999; Indirli et al., 2000) were performed (Casaccia ENEA center, Rome, Italy, and Seriate Ismes Laboratories, Bergamo, Italy), simulating a MCUHES portion, in particular a church facade with a tympanum (Figure 21). The aim of the tests was
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(a)

(b)

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(c)

Figure 21. Masonry mock-ups used in the shaking table tests (a and c) and shape memory alloy devices (b).

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M. INDIRLI AND M. G. CASTELLANO Table 1. Mock-ups features

masonry brickwork height three-leaf brickwork thickness masonry brickwork width brick dimensions mock-up total height

403 cm 36.5 cm 99 cm 5.5 11.5 24 cm 460 cm

mortar course thickness reinforced concrete base height reinforced concrete top curb height SMAD and TD connections height

$ 1 cm 22 cm 35 cm 342 cm

to evaluate the effectiveness of the SMADs for the prevention of out-of-plane collapse of masonry walls. Two identical masonry wall mock-ups were constructed (Table 1), each connected to a stiff steel frame at approximately three-fourths of their height. In fact, both brick walls simulated a portion of a historic building facade, while the steel frames represented the remaining part of the structure. The only difference between the two walls was the type of connection: the first wall was linked up to the rigid frame by two traditional steel ties (TDs), and the second was connected by a pair of SMADs. The two mock-ups were placed together on the shaking table. The SMADs were of the multi-plateau, self-balanced type, with a design initial force of 3.5 kN, and a first plateau force equal to 5.2 kN. Both TDs and SMADs were anchored to the walls using steel plates. Load cells were interposed between each device and the anchorage. Both identification tests and simulated earthquake were conducted, the latter at eight different intensity levels. The reference earthquake was synthetic, derived from the EC-8 spectrum for soft soil and also modified to achieve a rather flat spectrum in the range of the first two modal frequencies expected for both the mock-ups (230 Hz). The difference between SMADs and TDs became evident under higher excitations. The test results confirmed the ability of SMADs to substantially reduce the risk of earthquake-induced out-of-plane collapse of masonry walls. The TD wall collapsed with the mechanisms predicted by the numerical analyses; the first collapse mechanism was the overturning of the upper part, after a horizontal crack had formed just above the anchorage plates, occurring during test No. 6 (PGA: 0.6535 g). In test No. 7 (PGA: 0.7790 g), the same wall showed a crack at approximately 2 m height. This crack opened up completely (i.e., crossed the wall width) during the subsequent test No. 8 (PGA: 0.9390 g), thus causing the definitive collapse of the TD wall. It also showed evident cracks at its base, again after test No. 8. Conversely, the SMAD wall did not suffer any visible damage, even when subjected to an earthquake characterized by PGA almost 50% higher than the earthquake causing the first collapse in the TD wall. The different behavior of the two walls can be understood by comparing the peak accelerations measured at different points along the walls (Figure 22ad). In particular, Figure 22b shows such a comparison with reference to test No. 6, which caused the collapse of the upper part of the TD wall. In fact, the acceleration reduction provided by SMADs is impressive: for example, almost 50% at the top, and more than 60% at the connections level, in test No. 6. It is worth noting that the top maximum acceleration reached in the TD wall in test No. 6 (2.9 g) is even higher than that reached (2.8 g) in the SMAD wall subjected to a PGA 1.4 times higher (test No. 8, Figure 22d). Amplifications of acceleration between the shaking table and the wall top are 4.4 (TDs) and 2.3 (SMADs); instead, at the connections level (again in test No. 6),
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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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Figure 22. Peak acceleration values on the walls with shape memory alloy devices and traditional devices, measured at different heights.

the table acceleration is amplified by 3.6 and 1.4 (TDs and SMADs respectively). Figure 23 shows the SMAD force reduction and displacement increase, compared to the very rigid TD connections. The maximum force peak in the SMAD wall was reduced by 45% in test No. 6, when the TD wall collapsed due to a crack above the connections (force 13.3 kN); the SMAD wall did not show any damage until an equal force was reached in test No. 8. This shows the effectiveness of the new SMAD tying technique in reducing the acceleration amplification, owing to the reduced stiffness, force limitation, and energy dissipation offered by the SMA superelasticity. The SMADs remain in their first plateau up to test No. 6. In test No. 7, an increase in stiffness was noted. The second plateau was reached only in test No. 8, where a displacement of about 15 mm was recorded.

Figure 23. Force versus displacement loops measured in the connections at increasing seismic intensity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(2): 93119

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To conclude, shaking table tests demonstrated that a new tying technique using SMADs can be highly effective in preventing the out-of-plane collapse of peripheral masonry walls, such as church facades, poorly connected at the floor/roof level. Compared with TDs, the SMADs can increase resistance against out-of-plane seismic vibrations of such masonry walls by at least 50% (in terms of maximum PGA bearable without damage), owing to a reduction in top acceleration of at least 50%. Unlike TDs, SMADs can also prevent the collapse of tympanum structures. 5. NUMERICAL ANALYSES OF MCUHES WITH SMADS Several numerical analyses were performed during the research, many of them specifically devoted to MCUHES configurations with SMADs. First, discrete element method (DEM) models were applied. Suitable for studying masonry vulnerability and damage/collapse mechanisms, these models are able to accurately simulate progressive failure and large displacements/rotations between blocks, including the enhancing capability of TDs and SMADs. The selection of the case studies (bell tower, tympanum, arch) was done coherently with respect to the targets described in paragraph 3, adopting material mechanical properties in agreement with building codes, investigation results, and experience. Consulting references (Azevedo et al., 1999; 2000; Sincraian et al., 1998a; 1998b; 1999) for detailed information, it is worth noting that the DEM models highlighted the benefits of both TDs and SMADs and considerably contributed to the final results. Moreover, various finite element model (FEM) analyses were performed during the research, to study both experimental configurations and application solutions. The behavior of the mock-ups subjected to the shaking table tests (Sec. 4.3) was analyzed (in this case, also, provided with reinforcement, either TDs or SMADs), in order to predict their behavior under seismic excitations and suggest SMAD data for design (Biritognolo et al., 2000). Finally, a specific FEM model was applied for the Trignano Campanile under static/dynamic conditions (Cavina 1997), in order to evaluate SMAD pre-stressing, tie bar size and forces at the constraints (top and foundations). The results of in situ experimental tests (ambient and forced vibration) performed on the bell tower (Bongiovanni et al., 2000) have been successfully compared with the numerical ones (numerical values: two flexural modes, 2.70 and 2.90 Hz, a third torsional value, 6.90 Hz; experimental frequencies: 2.25, 2.60, and 5.50 Hz respectively). 6. CONCLUSIONS Theoretical, numerical and experimental studies have permitted the development of innovative rehabilitation techniques based on the use of SMA technology. The feasibility of using SMADs with different behaviors was demonstrated through the construction of a number of prototypes that underwent extensive testing. Shaking table tests showed that the SMAD-based tying technique can be highly effective in preventing the out-of-plane collapse of peripheral masonry walls, e.g. church facades and tympanums, poorly connected at the floor and/or roof level. Compared with traditional steel ties, the SMAD ties can increase resistance against out-of-plane seismic vibrations of such masonry walls by at least 50% (in terms of maximum PGA bearable without damage), owing to a reduction in top acceleration of at least 50%.
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The results of the research and its implementation led to several applications (for the first time in the world) of SMADs to MCUHES, in order to reduce earthquake damage, harmonize reinforcement measures with conservation criteria, eliminate some of the drawbacks of TDs, and increase the respect of each monuments specificity, complying with reversibility, compatibility and durability criteria. However, since SMADs are a modern evolution of traditional steel ties, likewise they cannot compensate for all the structural deficiencies of MCUHES in terms of earthquake capacity. Thus, they should usually be used in combination with other techniques, whether innovative or conventional. The inclusion in guidelines and/or codes of specific design rules for intervention with SMADs would be beneficial for further use of this innovative technique.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ISTECH Project funding by the European Commission is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks to all the research partners and teams, in particular to: R. Chiarotto, P. Galeazzo, S. Infanti (FIP Industriale, Padua, Italy), G. Manos (University of Thessaloniki, Greece), J. J. Azevedo, G. E. Sincraian (Istituto Superior Tecnico of Lisbon, Portugal), V. Renda, D. Tirelli (Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Ispra, Varese, Italy), G. Croci, M. Biritognolo, A. Bonci, A. Viskovic (La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy), A. Martelli, B. Carpani, M. Forni, M. Muzzarelli, B. Spadoni, G. Venturi (ENEA, Bologna, Italy), G. Bongiovanni, G. Buffarini, P. Clemente, G. De Canio, P. Funaro, G. Rienzo, and D. Rinaldis (ENEA, Rome, Italy). The contribution of S. Viani and other colleagues from ISMES laboratories (Bergamo, Italy) is also gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks to Mayor M. Mariani and the technical office of the Municipality of San Martino in Rio (Reggio Emilia, Italy) at the time of the earthquake (1996), as well as to the parish priest of the San Giorgio Church in Trignano. After the 1997 earthquake, the restoration project of the St. Francis Basilica in Assisi was designed by G. Croci and P. Rocchi, with the participation of G. Carluccio and A. Viskovic, under the supervision of A. Paolucci (the artistic coordinator of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage), C. Centroni (Superintendent of Umbria), and G. Basile. Furthermore, special thanks go to L. Marchetti (Superintendent of the Umbria Fine Arts Office at the time of the operations), L. Tortoioli, and S. Costantini (Umbria Regional Government). The on-site SMAD installation was done by FIP Industriale under the supervision of R. Paggetta (Umbria Fine Arts Office); the mathematical models and the analyses of the operations were done by A. Bonci and A. Viskovic. Designers of the rehabilitation of the Cathedral of San Feliciano (Foligno, Perugia, Italy) were G. Carini, G. Colombatti, and L. Radi. Designer of the rehabilitation of the Church of San Serafino in Montegranaro (Ascoli Piceno, Italy) was R. Mariani.

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