Digital-to-Analog Converters What we commonly refer to as a DAC today is typically quite a bit more.

The DAC will typically have the converter itself and a collection of support circuitry built into the chip. The first DACs were board level designs, built from discrete components, including vacuum tubes as the switching elements. Monolithic DACs began to appear in the early 70s. These early examples were actually sub-blocks of the DAC. An example of this would be the AD550, which was a 4 bit binarily weighted current source. This current source block would be mated to a separate part, such as the AD850, which contained a resistor array and CMOS switches. Together these would form the basic DAC. As we moved on in time these functions were integrated on the same die, additional digital circuitry, specifically latches to store the digital input, were added. Then a second rank of latches was often added. The purpose of the second rank was to allow the microprocessor or microcontroller to write to many DACs in a system and the updated them all at the same time. The input rank of latches could also be a shift register, which would allow a serial interface.

On the back end, since the output of the DAC is often a current, an op amp is often added to perform the current-to-voltage (I/V) conversion. On the front end a voltage reference is often added. Process limitations did not allow the integration of all these sub-blocks to occur at once. Initially, the processes used to make the various sub-blocks were not compatible. The process that made the best switches was typically not the best for the amplifier and the reference. As the processes became more advanced these limitations became less. Today CMOS can make acceptable amplifiers and processes combining bipolar and CMOS together exist. There are several advantages to including all this additional circuitry in one package. The first is the obvious advantage of reducing the chip count. This reduces the size of the circuitry and increases the reliability. Probably more important is that the circuit designer now doesnt have to concern himself with the accuracy of several parts in a system. The system is now one part and tested by the manufacturer as a unit. Next we will look at the various DAC architectures. When we refer to DACs here we are referring to the basic converter rather than the complete system.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER The basic ADC function is shown in Figure 6.42. This could also be referred to as a quantizer. Most ADC chips also include some of the support circuitry, such as clock oscillator for the sampling clock, reference (REF), the sample and hold function, and output data latches. In addition to these basic functions, some ADCs have additional circuitry built in. These functions could include multiplexers, sequencers, auto-calibration circuits, programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs), etc.

Similar to DACs, some ADCs use external references and have a reference input terminal, while others have an output from an internal reference. In some instances, the ADC may have an internal reference that is pinned out through a resistor. This connection allows the reference to be filtered (using the internal R and an external C) or by allowing the internal reference to be overdriven by an external reference. The AD789X family of parts is an example of ADC that use this type of connection. The simplest ADCs, of course, have neitherthe reference is on the ADC chip and has no external connections. If an ADC has an internal reference, its overall accuracy is specified when using that reference. If such an ADC is used with a perfectly accurate external reference, its absolute accuracy may actually be worse than when it is operated with its own internal reference. This is because it is trimmed for absolute accuracy when working with its own actual reference voltage, not with the nominal value. Twenty years ago it was common for converter references to have accuracies as poor as 5% since these references were trimmed for low temperature coefficient rather than absolute accuracy, and the inaccuracy of the reference was compensated in the gain trim of the ADC itself. Today the problem is much less severe, but it is still important to check

for possible loss of absolute accuracy when using an external reference with an ADC which has a built-in one. ADCs which have reference terminals must, of course, specify their behavior and parameters. If there is a reference input the first specification will be the reference input voltageand of course this has two values, the absolute maximum rating, and the range of voltages over which the ADC performs correctly. Most ADCs require that their reference voltage is within quite a narrow range whose maximum value is less than or equal to the ADC's VDD. The reference input terminal of an ADC may be buffered as shown in Figure 6.43, in which case it has input impedance (usually high) and bias current (usually low) specifications, or it may connect directly to the ADC. In either case, the transient currents developed on the reference input due to the internal conversion process need good decoupling with external low inductance capacitors. Good ADC data sheets recommend appropriate decoupling networks.

The reference output may be buffered or unbuffered. If it is buffered, the maximum output current will probably be specified. In general such a buffer will have a unidirectional output stage which sources current but does not allow current to flow into the output terminal. If the buffer does have a pushpull output stage (not as common), the output current will probably be defined as (SOME VALUE) mA. If the reference output is unbuffered, the output impedance may be specified, or the data sheet may simply advise the use of a high input impedance external buffer. There are some instances where the power supply is the reference. In these cases it is imperative to make sure the power supply is clean. The sampling clock input is a critical function in an ADC and a source of some confusion. It could truly be the sampling clock. This frequency would typically be several times higher than the sampling rate of the converter. It could also be a convert start (or encode) command which would happen once per conversion. Pipeline

architecture devices and sigma delta (-) converters are continuously converting and have no convert start command. Regardless of the ADC, it is extremely important to read the data sheet and determine exactly what the external clock requirements are, because they can vary widely from one ADC to another. TYPES OF MEMORY The Hard Disk Drive A hard disk drive (hard drive or HDD for short) is the long-term memory of a computer. This is where you store documents, music, games and other files while you are not using them.Internally, hard drives work like a record: there is a spinning platter, and an arm with a "head" that touches different parts of the platter to read from or write to them. On a record, information is stored in the peaks and troughs of a groove; on a hard drive information is stored in the polarity of tiny regions.Hard disks can store massive amounts of data: the largest drives now store more than 2 terabytes. Unfortunately the design relies on mechanical motion, and therefore is relatively slow and prone to failure. A modern hard disk can access stored information at about 70 megabytes per second. RAM Random-Access Memory (RAM) is entirely electronic. The name refers to the fact that this kind of memory can access any information at any time, with equal speed. This is in contrast to memory such as tapes, which have to wind to information, or hard drives, which have to spin to it. RAM is the fastest kind of memory, and is used to feed information to the CPU "brain" of the computer. Programs or documents are stored in RAM only while they are being used, like the short-term memory in a human brain. In RAM, information is stored in the state of thousands of electronic circuits or capacitors. This structure allows RAM to access information at speeds up to 3,200 megabytes per second. The information disappears without a power supply however, making this "volatile" memory. Flash Memory Flash memory is a kind of Random-Access Memory that is non-volatile, that is to say it is stable even without power. Flash memory stores information in thousands of floating-gate transistors, each with a changeable resistance to electric current. Though not as fast as RAM, flash memory has the advantage of being incredibly durable. Memory cards can survive all sorts of rough handling, and even immersion in water. This makes flash memory perfectly

suited for portable uses such as "thumb drives," camera memory and MP3 players. Flash memory is relatively slow; high speed flash memory can still only read 22 megabytes per second. Tape Drives Many computers use tape as a storage medium. Tapes look and function just like audio cassettes: there is a spool of magnetic ribbon, and information is stored in the changing polarity of the ribbon. Tapes are used almost exclusively by large organizations for long-term, stable storage. While hard drives are prone to mechanical problems, and RAM needs a constant power supply, tapes can sit in a closet for years and retain the same information. The drawback is that a tape must spool (fast-forward or rewind) to the desired data before reading it, taking considerable time. Once the correct part of the ribbon has been found, tapes can transfer information just as quickly as any modern hard drive, however. CDROM Memory CDROM stands for Compact Disk Read-Only Memory, and it remains a popular format for portable storage. CDROM disks are read in much the same manner as a record (or a hard drive): they are spun, and a laser light reads the peaks and troughs in the aluminum surface of the disk. CDs have reasonable durability, but speeds are extremely slow compared with other kinds of memory. The fastest CDROM drives on the market read at less than 8 megabytes per second. Interchangability One of the most confusing things about computer memory is that it can be largely interchangeable. It is possible to use RAM as a hard drive, or a hard drive as portable storage, and in specialized situations this is even common. For example, some new laptops now use flash memory instead of a hard drive. These "solid state drives" are much more durable than traditional hard drives, but transfer speeds are slower. Many companies manufacture external hard drives, which really are hard disk drives in a case, acting as if they were flash memory.

Batangas State University College of Engineering, Architecture, Fine Arts and Computing Sciences Electronics Engineering Department

Research 1

Submitted by: Villarosa, Chrysthel M. ECE 4202

Submitted to: Engr. Tirso A. Ronquillo

January 08, 2013