Introduction

An Analysis of Helicopter Rotor Modulation Interference

IVAN KADAR, Senior Member, IEEE Grumman Aerospace Corporation Bethpage, N.Y., 11714

In satellite-to-helicopter communications, interference exists on the incoming signal when the receiving antenna is located below the rotor blades. The degree of interference and techniques of analysis depend upon the wavelength of the source, the dimensions of the blade, and the relative geometry between the blade and the antenna location. This paper developes an analysis technique that allows bounding of this interference on the performance of communications systems operating in the interference environment. In particular, the effects of interference are evaluated for a

Abstract In satellite-to-helicopter communications, interference exists on the incoming signal when the receiving antenna is located below the rotor blades. A bound is established for the performance of a coherent fixed-tone ranging system operating at L band in this interference environment. The scalar diffracted field beneath the rotating blades, at L band and above, is found to satisfy the criterion of Fresnel diffraction, and is computed using the techniques of Fourier optics. The diffracted field is expressed in terms of a narrow-band signal. The amplitude and phase components are calculated from a Fourier Series expansion using the F FT algorithm. The significant harmonics of the phase component of the interference combine with the baseband of the narrow-band, phase-modulated ranging signal. This results in CW interference, and in rearrangement of the first-order, sideband, ranging-tone channel powers. The degradation in ranging accuracy is evaluated by computing the signal-to-interference (SIR) ratio for a set of ranging tones. The post-detection (SIR)pD at the output of the correlator is shown to be a function of the amplitude of the phase harmonics of the interference, the relative difference between the ranging tone and interference center frequencies (a function of rotor speed), the rangetone modulation indices, and the post-detection filter noise
bandwidth.

The analysis used here to evaluate this interference is based upon the premise that the techniques of Fourier optics are applicable at L band and above for most helicopter geometries examined [1]. In this case, the solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation with a harmonic source and specified boundaries [2] allows the formulation of Kirchhoff's approximation and satisfies the criterion for Fresnel diffraction [3]. Assuming a normally incident monochromatic plane wavefront (CW), the field beneath the opaque blades is found using Babinet's principle [31. The opaque rotor blades are replaced and approximated mathematically by an equivalent rectangular aperture of dimensions equal to the maximum blade width and length. The rotation of the blades (aperture) in this case becomes a one-to-one rotation of coordinate axes of Lhe diffracted field with respect to the field point (antenna location). It is assumed that the receiving antenna pattern is known with respect to the ground plane (helicopter structure) and that the total field will be merely weighted by the antenna pattern. The weighting of the field by the antenna pattern is assumed to be unity. The scalar diffracted field is expressed in terms of a narrow-band signal by finding its envelope and phase components. Both the amplitude and phase components of the field are expanded in a Fourier series, utilizing the FFT algorithm [4], to assess the performance of systems susceptible to the interference by finding the number of significant terms of the expansion for a particular geometry considered. For the case of the fixed-tone ranging system examined, the significant harmonics and the interference combine with the baseband of the narrow-band, phase-modulated ranging signal. This results in intermodulation interference and in rearrangement of the significant (first-order) sideband subcarrier tone channel powers [5], effecting the demodulation process. The degradation in ranging accuracy is evaluated by computing the signal-to-interference (SIR) ratio for a set of ranging tones. An example is given for the UH- l B helicopter, considering typical antenna locations.
Discussion

at L band.

satellite-to-helicopter fixed-tone ranging system operating

Manuscript received August 9, 1972.

434

As we are interested in evaluating the relative variation of the total diffracted field, the scalar theory formulation
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. AES-9, NO. 3

MAY 1973

of the diffracted field is adequate. This approach assumes that the incident field is unpolarized [61 ; i.e., it is made up of an assemblage of radiators which are randomly distributed in phase and polarization, or by a single random radiator. The results agree, for the case above, with the vector diffraction field for the deterministic case, where the source wave function is chosen to represent the scalar field component of the incident vector field [7]. In the case of the helicopter flying near the Earth's surface, the source (satellite) is practically at infinity and the source wave function becomes a uniform harmonic plane wave. Considering a uniform harmonic plane wave with unity (normalized) amplitude normally incident on a transparent aperture, the diffracted field can be expressed as a solution of Kirchhoff's formula (integral) subject to Kirchhoffs approximation [3]. Kirchhoff's integral scalar wave function for harmonic signals for every point in a source-free region, VO is given by [7]

I''l = 'l
=

I r I = ro
o

rO=aoyo- r
To

Fig. 1. Mathematically equivalent geometry. Symbols with underbars correspond to boldface symbols in the text.

g(r) = fsS0 Lexp (Jr -- r') Ir .-r'j

, exp

(r)
- r') nds

(jkIr ir -r'l

(1 (1)

where r = irl, (xo, yo, zo) are the coordinates of the field point, and a = aox + fo3y. It follows from inspection of Fig. 1 that
kR = k[r0 - (a0x+ 3y)]2 + d2
k [ro
-

VO is a region of space containing the field point (r from the origin) and is bounded by a closed surface SO; the gradient operator is with respect to the source point (r' from the origin); k is the wave number in free space; and the unit vector n is the surface outward normal. It is assumed that the time dependence is e-iwt in all equations, although not explicitly shown. The source wave function, g(r') in this case, is given by

(aox + 30y)
d2 2r0 1 d4 8r3 o J3j 0

(4)

If r0 > X and r0 > rt, (4) can be further approximated by

kR k[ro - (aox + 0y) + kR~~~~~~~~ + y2 with an error term for the Fresnel approximation [3]

g(r') = f(r')eikZ

(2)

(5)

where f(r') is the two-dimensional aperture function. The foregoing formulation of the diffracted field has 2 k[x2+y2 _ (aox + )21<y assumed a transparent aperture in an opaque background. (6) 8 r3j/2 In the case of the rotor blade, the equivalent aperture is opaque and occupies a finite region in space; hence, the If we assume that an angle error of e = ir/6, 6 > 0, in (1) field cannot be found directly using the above formulation. can be tolerated, then with the above approximations conBut we know that if the opaque aperture was not present, sidered, (6) requires the total field would be equal to the incident field g1 [given by (2)]. Applying Babinet's principle [3], the total e5r' -< -r (7) field may be expressed as 4X r'
3

where the larger the value of 6, the better the approximation becomes. Substituting (2) into (1), with the necessary wheregc is the diffracted field obtained from (1) by integrat- approximations considered, (1) yields [3] ing over the bounded region of the aperture. + In order to evaluate (1) in reference to the mathematically g(r) - y ) exp (jkzo) = Ir - r'l and equivalent system geometry (see Fig. 1), let R define r'2 = (aox + j3oy)2 + d2, following an approach used by Papoulis [3]. With direction cosines ao, go, and y0 [ f(x y) exp [-jk(aOx + 00y)] defined as
g
-

gi

g,

(3)

a0

=-

rO

(0
3

rO

ro

x[jk x2

dxd

(8)
435

KADAR: HELICOPTER ROTOR MODULATION INTERFERENCE

The Diffracted Field

The near-zone diffracted field beneath the stationary rotor blade (aperture) is given by (3) and (8). In order to g(xo,yo, zo, t) evaluate the field beneath the rotating aperture, certain properties of (8) have to be examined. Papoulis [3] has shown that the integral in (8) can be expressed as the two-dimensional Fourier transform of the function

exp(ikzo)j + ii /
( U')

exp

F.Iu2 + v 2' 4(__

~2

V )

g(x, y)

f(x, y) exp(k XY)

(9)

+ F( a - -~'F(b +v
+ F(
a

2( / I,

2I/

evaluated at u = (kxo/ro), v = (kyo/ro), wheref(x, y) is the two-dimensional aperture function, the exponential term is the "Fresnel kernel," and u and v are the transform variables where the two-dimensional Fourier transform of the function is defined as [3]: where
00
00

2)F( b+

(13)

gral function, defined as

f=

N/(7r/Azj, and F(x) is the complex Fresnel inteF(x) =e2jy' dy.

G(u, v)

g(x, y) exp [-j(ux + vy)] dxdy.

(10)

It is easy to see from theorems on Fourier transforms that if f(x, y) is rotated by an angle 00, its transform F(u, v) is The primed variables, u' and v', are referred to the rotated rotated by the same angle. It follows from the definition coordinate system, and are given by of G(u, v) [Eq. (10)], by direct transformation, that1 = u sin0 + vcos0 g(a x + b 1y, a2x + b2y) v - ucos0 - vsin0. (15)
<a*b2 -a2b1

i[r 14 j

-2

(14)

G(Alu+A2v,B,u+B2v)
[a1

where
LA1

LA2

B1]

La2 b2

b1

(11) In order to facilitate the numerical evaluation of (13), utilizing a digital computer, F(x) is expanded into its real and imaginary parts, where, in terms of the definition of the stored Fresnel integrals in [8], the expression for F(x) becomes

If we introduce polar coordinates in (11), viz.,

x = rcos0, u =wcos ,

F(x) = C(x2)
C(r) =
l J

jS(x2)
cos t

(16)

y = rsin0

v wsin 2,

-I

dt

then g(x, y) and G(u, v) become go(r, 0) and respectively. We then have, as shown in [3],

GO(w, 0),

(17)
S(Tr)

=N27

J sin t

J-T dt.

(12) Now, making the necessary substitutions in (13), the field is expressed as Therefore, the rotation of the blade in the spatial domain g(xO, YO, zO, t) = exp (jkzo) becomes a one-to-one coordinate transformation in the transform domain. It is assumed that the rotor rotates at a * {l + IyeiW[a+IjB]} (18) constant angular velocity, wrOtOr rad/s. Hence, 0 = 2wrotort Wblade t. where After some manipulations, the field (8) can be expressed 1 u2 + V2 as 2rr k =2a ly= 2 -, W =
a =
1

go(ar, 0 + 0 )

1 G

0 )

[C1 +C3]C2
+

denotes a two-dimensional Fourier transform pair.

[C1 +C3]C4

[S1 +S3]S2 [SI +S3]S4

MAY 1973

436

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Typical helicopter (UH-1B) showing candiFig. 2. date antenna locations.

o
and
C1

1s +S31 C2 + [Cl +C3]S2 + [C1 +C3]S4 + [Sl +S3]C4

22 ]'
S1

2N - 1, (19) and (20) can be represented by

N-1
= Xi a+~j [COS {& {akco [ N
k=l

2
+

[(t
=

= S

(ta

u4)]

utilizing the IBM DRHARM subroutine [8] to compute the coefficients ao0 l , b o b1, *, aNl, bN-l , aN, based C3 = C [a+ 2] S3 = S [(a + 2] upon the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm [4]. Before the FFT algorithm can be applied, however, one = S + b has to select N, the number of samples required to represent C4 S4 (b 2\ a bandlimited function to a specified accuracy, which is given by the sampling theorem [3]. If the function is not The magnitude of g(x0, yo, zo, t) is obtained by multiplying bandlimited, the number of samples required to reconstruct (18) by its complex conjugate and taking the square root the function from its sampled values is not defined. The of the resulting expression: approach in this case is to bandlimit the function prior to sampling. The amplitude and phase functions given in (19) Ig(xo,yO,ZO,t)l = [1 + 'y2(a2+ f2) and (20) are not bandlimited. Therefore, we examine the - 2'y cos W- 2ya sin W] 1/2. (19) time functions to assess the significant frequencies of interest and vary the sample size until the Fourier coefficients are The phase of g(xo, yo, zo, t) is given by stabilized, i.e., the aliasing error is made vanishingly small.
=

C2

-b-

])

S2

v')b ]

bR sin 7]4} + LaN(-I)i

(22)

(t) = tan1 sin kz +'ya cos (kzo - W) - a: sin (kz0 - W)] Lcos kzo -yo: cos (kzo - W) - Oya sin (kzo - ._
The total scalar diffracted field may be expressed as

Applications

tions system that uses the incoming signal to extract range, with candidate antenna locations as shown in Fig. 2. (21) Ig(xo, yo, zo, t)l The dimensions of the equivalent geometry, in reference This representation of the field allows the evaluation of the to Fig. 1, are: a = 1 foot, b = 24 feet, xo =O feet, yo = 4.5 effect on rotor interference of specific carrier modulation/ feet, zo = 6 feet, and the wavelength of the source is 0.6 feet demodulation techniques. (L band). Substituting the above parameters in (18), the amplitude and phase variation, respectively, of the diffracted field are evaluated and plotted in Figs. 3 and 4 as a Fourier Series Expansion function of blade rotation angle at xo = 0 feet, yo = 4.5 Taking 2N sampled values in the period (0, ir) of both the feet, and zo = 6 feet, using the IBM 360/67 time-sharing magnitude and phase of the field, i.e., xj, j = 0, 1, 2, computer. Note that the magnitude and phase of the field

The results of the analysis are applied to a typical helicopter, e.g., UH-IB [1], with an on-board communica-

Y(t)I(X0,YO0zO0t)

cos

[(t)] .

KADAR: HELICOPTER ROTOR MODULATION INTERFERENCE

437

-...-----........

----------

*-!

. . .:"-:"" . . : : : ': : : ':-:', l:;- -; ';, :::

......

,,

*t
'''- 1;-

s -.;-;--;-; - - ;- - -:- -~ ~ ~ ~. ~ ~-; -.- -!

-R
----,.

----,--

--------i

--

.t

l.

..........

,i.., ,,1,;,,;', ib ..............

-r/4

3/2

3rJ4
versus

O,

-w/4

BLA[E TATION 1E, RMD.

r/2
BLUIE ROTATION ANGLE, RPD,

3-r/4
versus

Magnitude of the diffracted field at (0', 4.5', 6.') Fig. 3. blade rotation angle.

Phase of the diffracted field at (O', 4.5', 6.') Fig. 4. rotation angle.

blade

TABLE

TABLE 11

Fourier Components of Amplitude of F ield

Fourier Components of Phase of Field

Cosine Coefficients

Sine Coefficients
0.0 -0.5979D-04 0.1419D-04 -0. 3446D-04 -0.4328D-04 -0.2804D-04 0.5186D-03 -0.2895D-03 0.1628D-03 -0.1236D-03 -0.1883D-03 0.1327D-03 0.6823D-04 -0. 3262D-04 -0.7018D-04 0.7659D-04 -0.2542D-04 0.6176D-05 -0.8117D-05 -0.5653D-05 0.2112D-04

Cosine Coefficients

Sine Coefficients

0.1018D+01 -0.7736D-01 0.917OD-02 -0.1488D-02 -0.1401D-01 -0.7249D-02 0. 11 19D-00 -0.535 3D-01 0.2635D-01 -0.1778D-01 -0.2438D-01 0.1561D-01 0.7368D-02 -0.3251D-02 -0.6494D-02 0.6614D-02 -0. 2060D-02 0.4675D-03 -0.5823D-03 -0.3843D-03 0.1367D-02
(monotonically decreasing)

0.2926D-01 0.6723D-01 -0. 1005 D-00

-0.41 37D-00 -0.4167D-01 0.8665D-01 -0. 1732D-01

-0.3223D-04
0.90 31 D-04 0.2596D-03 -0.4656D-03 0.4985D-04 0.1643D-04 -0.1259D-03 0.4158D-05 -0.2056D-03 0.6628D-04 0. 2511 D-04 -0. 265 3D-04

0.0

-0.4020D-04

0.1339D-03

0.6415D-03 -0. 1699D-02

0.2327D-02 -0.2294D-02 0.61 1OD-02 -0.6250D-02 0. 1819D-02

0.4989D-03 -0.2219D-01 0.6596D-02

0.9194D-02 -0.2664D-02 -0.1811D-01 0.3763D-01

0.2906D-03

0.7551D-04 -0.8212D-04
0.2532D-04 0.9438D-05 -0.2627D-04

(monotonically decreasing)

periodic in (0, 'r) with even symmetry. The amplitude variation is small, approximately 1.5 dB, and the phase variation is in the range of 0.2 to 0.6 radians. The waveshapes are complex and are expected to contain high harmonics of the blade frequency. Using 8196 sample values of the magnitude and phase function, to reduce aliasing, the significant harmonics of the blade frequency were computed and are summarized in Tables I and II, corresponding to a typical fundamental frequency of 10.9 Hz of blade rotation (a rotor speed of 324). Since the input data is real and even, the sine coefficients should be theoretically zero. The data in Tables I and LI show the bk vanishingly small, corresponding to the accuracy used in the computer program.
are

each of which modulates the RF carrier. By series of phase measurements starting with the lowest frequency tone, the succeeding ambiguities of each tone are resolved, ending with a precision phase measurement of the highest frequency tone [9]. The demodulator implementation in this case is assumed to consist of a second-order carrier tracking loop, followed by coherent phase comparison of the ranging tones, as shown in Fig. 5. The input signal in the absence of interference and noise is given by
waves, means of a

sine

f(t) = cos 2rfot + i

i=1

mi sin 2irfit)

(23)

Tone-Ranging System A fixed-frequency, side tone-ranging system is considered, where fo is the carrier frequency in hertz, mi is the ith where the ranging signal consists of a group of coherent modulation index, mi < r/2 radians for all i, and f1 is the
438
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

MAY 1973

f(t)

AT IF ouTpur

FRltM KTH SUBCARRIER ' FILTER fo(t)

|
COS

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
WKt

'

SIN WKt

F ig. 5.

Range-tone demodulator-correlator implementation.

ith ranging-tone center frequency. The interference causes the input signal to become modified as
M

K-1

Jj=O
j=O

(a

(26)

(24) where the a* are Fourier coefficients of the interference. Defining the predetection signal-to-interference ratio (SIR) i=1 as the desired ranging channel power for the kth tone to where 4i(t) is the phase component of the interference, the interference power, given by (20), with its Fourier coefficients given in Table II. M The phase-locked loop will follow the phase jump (do term) and will tend to average out the phase variation 2J2(mk) fJJ(mti) caused by the interference. Both the carrier power available SIR = i-l (27) to the loop and the subcarrier channel power will be rek-I duced, and the harmonics of the interference will combine J0 (mk) IJJ0(aj) with the ranging tones, creating CW interference in the j=O coherent demodulation process. Assuming K significant harmonics of the interference present, (24) is expanded using the Jacobs-Anger expansion Note that SIR is not a function of the total incident power. for Bessel functions, considering only first-order terms with intermodulation neglected, following the approach used in Range Error [5]. The ratios of the carrier power and the kth ranging-tone power, respectively, to the total incident power are given It is easy to show that, for a fixed-tone ranging system in the presence of interference as [5] in additive white Gaussian noise, the range error for the ith ranging tone is given by [9]
M
Pc

K-1

IJ

2(mi) IJ
j=O

2(aj)

(25)

i=l

OR i
where
c

2ifi

feet

(28)

Pr(k)
Pt

2J(mk)
JO(mk)

M
2 (m )

i="

is the speed of light, E = (Pr(k)IPt), No is the noise spectral density (W/Hz), and (2E/NO) A Q (capacity quotient). The range error in the presence of interference becomes
power
439

KADAR: HELICOPTER ROTOR MODULATION INIERFERENCE

ORi
where

-27rf\/SN
(SIR)(Q)

feet

(29)

2BL

j1
-00

2 sin wTI12d 22r

(34)

SNR= SR SIR +Q + T The above analysis of range error assumed that the interference was out-of-band of the ranging tone predetection (35) (SIR)pD = E{[y(T)12} E2{y()} filter. If the interference falls in-band, in addition to the change in the division of power, the interfering tone will combine with the desired ranging tone, causing CW inter- where y(T) is the output of the low-pass filter with input ference. fo(t), and E{-} is the expected value [3] . The desired signal plus interference for the kth ranging It is easy to see, by integrating y(t) =fo(t) cos wkt over tone at the output of the predetection filter (refer to Fig. 5) (0, 7), that can be written as

The ideal low-pass filter in this case becomes an ideal integrating filter with impulse response whose duration equals the reciprocal of the noise bandwidth. Define (SIR)pD as

fo(t)

B sin (wkt +
B2

VI)

+ A cos (wit +

0)
K-1

[cos (wi - wk)t cos 0

(36)

- sin (wi - wk)t sin e

Pt

i=1
-

7j f2(aj) j=0

A2
t-

2JI(ai)
j 2(ai)

JJJ =0

K-1

(aj)

(ml)

(30)

where the sum frequency terms are assumed to be outside the cutoff of the post-detection filter. Substituting (36) into (35) and taking expectations term by term, one easily obtains

t1

(SIR)PD
where
x

= A2 (sin2

2B2 sin2 4

where B and A are range tone and interference amplitudes, respectively, after power division, 4 is the phase angle to be measured, and 0 is a random variable, uniformly distributed in (0, 2ir). In order to evaluate the post-detection SIR, (SIR)pD, at the output of the ideal low-pass filter following the quadrature demodulator, certain definitions and assumptions have to be made. Define noise bandwidth BL(Hz) for a filter with frequency response H(w) as
cc

X/X2)

(37)

(wi -2wk)T -

BL =

2lTIHmax,(w) JIo

IH(W)12 dw.

(31)

The degree of interference in this case is a function of the range tone and interference amplitudes, the magnitude of the phase angle to be measured, the separation between the range tone and interference center frequencies, and the integration time. The range error in this case becomes

The ideal impulse response of the low-pass filter is given by

UR. = i-rfi v/NR

where

(38)

h(t)
where

PT/2(t

(SR)pD(Q

(32)

P PT= - ,Itl >T

O,

(SIR)PD + (Q) + 1
Conclusions

Itl> T

The effects of helicopter rotor modulator interference on the performance of a coherent fixed-tone ranging system operating at L band have been computed. The equations It follows from the definition of noise bandwidth, by direct derived for the near-zone diffracted field are expressed in a substitution of (33) into (31) and by application of Parseval's form suitable for the evaluation of other geometrical configurations. In particular, the narrow-band representation theorem [3] , that

h(t)

H(w)

2 sin wT/2

-jwT

(33

440

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

MAY 1973

and FFT expansion of the diffracted field provide a basis for the evaluation of systems susceptible to the interference. The results of the analysis have been applied to a typical (UH-IB) helicopter. Numerical values of the interference are evaluated for a typical antenna location, assuming unity weighting by the antenna pattern. The range error caused by the interference on a coherent fixed-tone ranging system has been computed in terms of the interference harmonics by evaluating the predetection and post-detection signal-to-interference ratios. The range error is clearly a function of the antenna placement and rotor speed. Numerical bounds on the ranging error have not been computed, since specific parameters needed would depend on the detailed design of the ranging system, which is not considered here. It is clear from Table II, however, that the interference levels are small; nevertheless, they impose an upper bound on the performance of the ranging system. As part of further work, it would be interesting to compare the analytical results with actual or scaled-model measurements. It is hoped that someone will undertake this endeavor.

References

[1]
121

[3]
[4]

Optics. New York: MoGraw-HilL 1968 J.W. Cooley and J.W. Turkey, "An algorithm for the machine

Pergamon, 1964. A. Papoulis, Systems and Transforms with Applications

K. Munson, Helicopters and Other Rotorcraft Since 190Z New York: Macmillan, 1969. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics New York:
to

[5]
[6] [7]

[81 [9]

C.C. Johnson, Field and Wave Electrodynamics. New York; McGraw-Hill, 1965 Fifth Edition (1970) IBM Technical Publications Department, White Plains, N.Y. S.C. Martin and W.D.T. Davies, "A simplified correlation technique for position location using earth satellites," presented at the AIAA 4th Communications Satellite Conf. Washington, D.C., 1972.

calculation of complex Fourier series," Math Computations, voL 19, April 1965. I. Kadar, "A simplified optimum selection of modulation indices for multitone phase modulation," Proc. NEC, paper 68CP514-COM, 1968. M. Kline and L W. Kay, Electromagnetic Theory and Geometrical Optics New York: Interscience, 1965.

Ivan Kadar (S'61-M'62-SM'72) was born on August 1, 1937. He received the B.E.E. degree from The City College of New York, N.Y., in 1962 and the M.S.E.E. degree from Columbia University, New York, in 1967. He has also been a part-time doctoral student in communications at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N.Y. He first worked, for Westrex Company, a division of Litton Industries, where he participated in the design of high-frequency SSB and AM subminiaturized communications modules, transceivers, and dual-diversity frequency multiplexed systems. He has been with Grumman Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage, N.Y., since 1963. For the past six years he has worked on the analysis, design, and development of advanced satellite and terrestial communications and navigation systems. His recent responsibilities have encompassed RF systems design and integration, the development of navigational algorithms, Kalnan filters, error modelling, simulations, and data processing and analysis. He is presently engaged in the analysis of navigation satellite systems, signal processing, and the effects of propagation, multipath interference, and signal distortion on time-of-arrival estimation. From 1963 to 1967 he was responsible for analytical and empirical analysis and studies pertaining to modulation and detection schemes covering the communications systems for the Lunar Module (LM). He has also served as consultant for companies in the area of communications theory and systems. Mr. Kadar represents Grumman Aerospace Corporation on the AIAA Technical Committee on Communications Systems, and he is an Associate Fellow of the AIAA. He is a registered Professional Engineer in the State of New York.
KADAR: HELICOPTER ROTOR MODULATION INTERFERENCE

441