GLOSSARY OF TECHNIQUES USED TO CREATE MEANING

Active voice/passive voice Writing that uses the forms of verbs which create a direct relationship between the subject and the object. Active voice is lively and more direct.
Eg. We had fun is written in the active voice; Fun was had is written in the passive voice.

Alliteration The repetition of the consonant sounds at the beginnings of words. It is used to produce sound that adds to the atmosphere or mood of the words, or perhaps even echoes their meaning.
Eg. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free

Allusion A reference to another text (famous person, literary work, even or place). This is usually used to clarify an idea or enhance meaning.
Eg. The playful advertisement for a brand of bathers showed pictures of their new products with the voiceover warning us: just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water . Most people in the TV audience understood the allusion to the promotional line to the film Jaws 2 and laughed (or at least smiled).

Ambiguity A word or phrase that invites at least two interpretations.

Eg. In act 2, scene 2 of Shakespeares Hamlet, the prince deliberately misinterprets Poloniuss words (not taking matter to mean printed matter but problem): Polonius: Hamlet: Polonius: Hamlet: Polonius: What do you read my lord? Words, words, words! What is the matter, my lord? Between who? I mean the matter that you read, my lord.

Analogy A comparison made between two things that share something in common. Usually used to introduce something unfamiliar.
Eg. Seamus Heaney, in his poem Digging, compares his pen to a spade and makes us think again about the way his poetry works by concluding: Ill dig with it.

Anecdote/anecdotal evidence A small story, usually based on an individual case that illustrates a point. Often used to introduce feature articles and essays and thought of as a poor substitute for real evidence.
Eg. A feature article about grandparents who have lost their grandchildren may begin like this: It all began when my daughter, Kris, went to visit a remote Greek island for three days . An argument in favour of smoking may rely on anecdotal evidence like this: My grandfather smoked for 47 years and he never developed cancer .

Anticlimax A point in narrative that promises to be the climax and then fails to deliver. Problems are not resolved, the truth is not revealed, things dont turn out the way we expected them to and a sense of disappointment is felt. Antithesis
Repeating a parallel syntactic structure with contrasting terms or a reversal of words. Setting up an opposition of contrasting ideas in a phrase or sentence. Eg. Help yourself, and Heaven will help you and Marriage has many pains, but celibacy has no pleasures.

Aphorism A short and pithy (tense; forcible) statement.

Eg. Knowledge is power.

Aside Words or lines spoken for the benefit of the audience or a particular character but which other characters on stage cannot hear. The lines reveal the characters thoughts, feelings or motivations. Assonance The repetition of a vowel sound to sound out or to create a particular effect.
Eg. Those who have seen thee seeking know thee well. The ee sound in seen, thee and seek are in assonance and create a pleasant effect on the ear. The repetition of the o in Seamus Heaneys poem, Death of a Naturalist lengthens the sound of each line and slows down its pace. Right down the dam gross-bellied frogs were cocked On sods; their loose necks pulsed like sails, Some hopped: The slap and plop were obscene threats .

Atmosphere The mood created by the language of a text.

Eg. Then, the house was grand now, the walls are scribbled upon and scarred the rails are rusted the lino is rucked and split like wounds. The words rusted, rucked and split create a feeling of neglect and decay. Underneath this, words like scarred and wounds suggest a sense of threat and possible violence.

Audience Those to whom a text is addressed. Bathos An attempt at passionate or lofty (elevated in sentiment) writing that overshoots the mark and produces, instead, a comic or trivial effect.
Eg. I am ready to sacrifice myself, she declared, for God, my country and my suburb!

Bias A leaning to one side of an argument by deliberately distorting the evidence. Usually provides an unbalanced view. Camera position The physical location of the camera at the time of shooting, including focus, framing and angle of shot. This influences the audiences response to the scene and its subject/s etc. Caricature The depiction of a character which exaggerates one or two of their qualities for the purposes of making fun of them. Clich A phrase or expression that has been worn out by overuse.
Eg. When a sportsperson is asked how they rate their chances in a competition they often give the clichd response, Ill just take it one game at a time.

Climax The part of a narrative or drama at which the crisis point is reached. Usually occurs towards the end of most texts, after which the problems raised earlier on can be resolved and the text can end with a sense of having been properly worked out. Colloquial In the manner of everyday speech. Casual, relaxed, neither slang nor formal. Connotation/denotation The denotations of a word are its primary meanings, the ones found in the dictionary. The connotations of a word are the associations we make with the word.
Eg. Mouse denotes a small rodent. However, its connotations may be, for one person, loveable pet; another may see it as laboratory specimen; and yet another may respond with fright regarding mouse as an alarming pest.

Context The surrounding circumstances. ie. Personal, social, cultural conditions Couplet A rhyming pair of lines. Descriptive language Language that creates a vivid (clear) picture of an object or scene through diction (choice of words, phrases or images in a text). To create descriptions writers use imagery and figurative language. The use of precise nouns, verbs, etc. and carefully selected details create a clear description. Dialogue Speech between characters in a narrative or drama. Often reveals thoughts, feelings, motivations, prejudices and fears of speakers or characters. The words of the speakers are set off by [ " " ]. Diction An author's choice of words. Since words have specific meanings, and since one's choice of words can affect feelings, a writer's choice of words can have great impact in a literary work. The writer, therefore, must choose his words carefully. Direct speech The speech of characters in a narrative presented directly and identified by the use of inverted commas. The alternative is reported or indirect speech in which case the narrator explains what the character said and thus there is no need to use inverted commas. Direct speech is usually more dramatic because it provides the impression that it is more immediate. Ellipsis

The omission of one or more words in a sentence, indicated by the use of three consecutive dots or stops. Often used when quoting another text to cut down the length of the quote. Emotive Language Words or phrases that evoke an emotional response and strongly position readers in relation to a subject.
Eg. A reporter writing about an air crash may use emotive language to describe the bodies at the site contorted or severed limbs, and the stench of burning flesh to shock us.

Empathy The involuntary association of a reader with a character or object in a text causing a physical reaction in the reader.
Eg. Viewers of the film Saving Private Ryan (Spielberg, 1998) may have found themselves flinching or even ducking for cover in the Normandy beach landing scene.

Emphasis Stress laid upon and importance given to a word or phrase in a sentence or paragraph. Usually indicated by placing the words to be emphasized in bold or italic type. Epigram A short statement containing wit, and often humour.
Eg. I can resist everything except temptation. (Oscar Wilde) God made women beautiful so men would love them; and he made them stupid so that they could love men. (La Belle Otero 19th century courtesan)

Euphemism A phrase or word substituted for one which is considered tasteless or too blunt.
Eg. To pass away is a euphemism for to die.

Figurative language Language that exceeds the literal meanings of words to achieve a special meaning or effect. Some of the most common figures of speech are simile, metaphor, repetition and personification.

Figure of Speech An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect. Similes, metaphors and personification are figures of speech, which are based on comparisons. Form The shape, style and structure of a text-as opposed to its content (page, length, placement and grouping of lines.). Foreshadowing This is a writers' technique in which the author provides clues or hints as to what is going to happen later in the story. It's like the music in a scary movie when we know that something bad is about to happen. Homily A sermon or written text intended to instruct and improve the audience morally. Hyperbole A figure of speech that presents an overstatement or exaggeration for emphasis.
Eg. Macbeth (Act 5, scene 1) - Lady Macbeth: Heres the smell of blood still. All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand .

Ideology A way of thinking about the world and people, including beliefs, values and attitudes. Idiom Phrases that mean something other than the logical or grammatical meaning that one would normally expect from the combination of words.

Eg. Neither here nor there, give us a break, no worries.

Imagery Occurs in the form of pictures conjured by a text in a readers imagination, the appeals made to the senses in a text (sight, taste, touch, hearing, and smell) The use of images serves to intensify the impact of the work. And the figurative language used in a text, that is, the similes, metaphors, personification, onomatopoeia etc. Inference The process of drawing a conclusion from data or evidence. Usually allows readers to make judgments about characters or events from a limited amount of information. Intertextuality The interdependence of texts. Texts often make references to other texts (allusion), either by direct reference or quotation, or indirectly by paraphrase or imitation to clarify ideas or enhance meaning.
Eg. The feature film Shakespeare in Love is connected to many other texts, but most noticeably to the play Romeo and Juliet. Romeo and Juliet is based upon a feud between two noble families; the film Shakespeare in Love is based on the rivalry between two London playhouses.

Irony The condition created by the difference between what is stated and what is actually the case. Dramatic- where the reader or viewer knows something that a character does NOT know. Verbal irony refers to someone knowingly exaggerates or says one thing and means another. Situational irony occurs when there is a difference between what is reported and what we would expect in that situation (contrast between what a reader and/or the character expects and what actually happens or exists). Jargon

The special vocabulary of particular trades or professions.

Juxtaposition Setting one thing beside another, usually to make a contrast and emphasise or highlight some particular aspect.
Eg. In Robert Frosts poem Out, Out- the beauty of the scenery is juxtaposed with the long and difficult hours of work that the young boy has to endure. This contrast highlights the lack of time he has for leisure or rest.

Meaning The connecting of one idea with another. Melodrama Dramas that rely on improbable events and sensational action to evoke strong emotional responses in the audience. Metaphor A figure of speech in which one thing is described in terms of another. The connection is implicit, whereas in a simile, the connection is made explicitly. Extended metaphor
more than one comparison is made that is based on a metaphor already introduced into the speech. Eg. One writer described erotic literature with this striking metaphora moral vulture which steals upon our youth, silently striking its terrible talons into their vitals, and forcibly bearing them away on hideous wings to shame and death. (Anthony Comstock)

Monologue A speech by a single person. They may be alone or they may have an audience. Mood The atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work, partly by a description of the objects or by the style of the descriptions. A work

may contain a mood of horror, mystery, holiness, or childlike simplicity, to name a few, depending on the author's treatment of the work.

Moral The lesson to be learned from a story or poem. Motif Any element that recurs frequently in a literary text that can help to develop and inform the texts major theme.
Eg. George Orwells Animal Farm (a satire of the Russian Revolution) is filled with songs poems and slogans to serve as propaganda, one of the major aspects of social control.

Narrative The way something is written can be first (I, we etc.), second (you) or third person narrative (they, he she, a name) Objective/subjective Objectivity means being able to maintain a distance and detachment from the subject matter. This means that a writers (or readers) feelings or prejudices will not affect the way an issue is presented in a text. A subjective text is one in which we are invited to think of the persona, the I, as the author. Onomatopoeia A figure of speech in which the sound of the word is an echo of its sense.
Eg. Whoosh, splat, pop, bang.

Oxymoron A figure of speech in which two opposites are combined for a striking effect.
Eg. A terrible beauty is born from W.B. Yeatss Easter 1916.

Paradox A statement that is apparently self-contradictory but still holds an attractive truth.
Eg. Hamlet says: I must be cruel to be kind.

Parenthesis A word or phrase inserted into an already complete sentence, to clarify an idea. This is usually done with brackets (although dashes can also be used). Parody An imitation of another text in order to send it up or make it appear ridiculous. The imitation usually works by exaggerating a particular aspect (subject matter, style, tone or vocabulary) of the original text, provoking amusement in readers.
Parallel sentence structure Repeating the same phrase, often to serve the same grammatical function in a sentence, creates parallel structure and enhances rhythm. Most people just refer to this as repetition for emphasis. In a speech to mark the signing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson repeats the phrase "We believe " at the start of a string of sentences, and another phrase " forbids it" to end another sequence of sentences to create a parallel structure.

Pathos The feeling of pity and sorrow evoked by tragedy. Persona The personality or mask adopted by a writer in a particular text.

Personification A figure of speech that gives human qualities to objects, animals or ideas.
Eg. The statue of liberty in New York Harbour personifies the ideas of justice, truth and balance with her lifted scales.

Propaganda Texts devoted to the purpose of spreading a particular idea or belief. Pun When a word can mean more than 1 thing - a play on words A play on words wherein a word is used to convey two meanings at the same time Purpose What the text is trying to achieve. Quotation Repeating the writing or speech of another Realism An attempt to present the real world in text Repetition Repeating a sound, word, phrase, line or idea to provide emphasis and raise importance of the ideas expressed. Referential language

Words that are justified by their truth.

Representation A construction in a text that tries to reflect some part of the real world, literally presenting again in order to challenge or support current cultural attitudes and beliefs.
Eg. Blue Heelers is a representation of part of the Australian police force. It is a construction because these pictures are not the real Australian police but one writers (or TV production groups) version of them.

Rhetoric The art of using language to persuade an audience. Rhetorical question A question that does not require an answer because the speaker or writer already assumes that the answer is obvious by the context in which the question is asked. The audience is persuaded by positioning them in ways that they cannot easily challenge.
Eg. See how you are positioned by this speaker who asks. Are we going to stand silent while our rights are ignored?

Rhyme The occurrence of similar sounds in lines of verse to provide a pleasant musical effect and to bind the lines together, thus providing structure. Internal- rhyming within the line of poetry. End- rhyming at the end of a line of poetry. Slant- approximate or near rhyme. When the words don't quite rhyme but come very close as in care and dear. Rhythm A regular beat

Sarcasm The use of praise in a tone that clearly implies criticism.

Eg. Well done! This is the second time youve turned up to class on time this year!

Satire A text that uses humour and exaggeration to criticise human foibles. Satire works to portray individuals, groups or institutions as ridiculous. Unlike comedy, the final purpose of satire is to provoke thought and political change.
Eg. Muriels Wedding satirises much of the ugly side of Australian middle-class family life.

Setting The time, place and context (social, historical, physical, moral, psychological etc.) in which the events of a story occur. Sexual Innuendo possibly sexual interpretation of an otherwise innocent uttering Simile A figure of speech in which an object is compared to another in one particular aspect. This comparison is set up by using like or as _______ as.
Eg. Wilfred Owen describes soldiers in the opening line of Dulce Et Decorum Est: Bent double, like old beggars under sacks.

Slang

A register of language associated with a particular location or occupation, more localised, more colourful, often considered more common than colloquial or formal language.

Stereotypes Models or templates for a particular kind of character. Stereotypes often define groups in very narrow terms such as dumb blond or the romantic Frenchman. Stereotypes can be damaging and divisive when they become the main way of thinking about a group of people. Suspense A technique used to keep readers wondering about the outcomes of events in a story. Creates a feeling of tension and anticipation in the reader. There are two kinds of suspense-that connected with causality (whodunit?) and that connected with temporality (what will happen next?). In fiction results primarily from two factors: the reader's identification with and concern for the welfare of a convincing and sympathetic character, and an anticipation of violence Symbol/Symbolism A character, an action, a setting, or an object representing something else can be a symbol. Most often, the symbol in a story is an object that represents its owner's character or situation, or both. For example, a secluded, near-empty apartment might represent the alienation and emotional emptiness of the tenant. Symbols are usually recognizable by the amount of emphasis they receive. Objects intended to be viewed as symbolic may be described in detail, be included in the title, be referred to frequently, or emphasized at the beginning or ending of the story. When we recognize a symbol and understand its meaning or meanings we see more clearly what the writer chose to emphasize.
Eg. The cross stands for Christianity.

Tense Time in literature, past, present or future

Theme The central idea of a text.

Tone The way language is used to reflect attitudes to the subject matter and the readers. If the text is spoken (or imagined as spoken) then the volume, pitch, emphasis and intonation will carry the tone. Readers and listeners will judge tone from past experience and contextual clues. Words used to describe tone include: serious, sombre, ironic, satiric, parodic, bitter, sarcastic, melodramatic, cynical, critical, knowledgeable, excited, mournful, forceful, wise, guarded, proud, sincere, light-hearted, didactic and flippant.
Eg. Faye Weldons Female Friends (1975) is either being serious and melodramatic in tone, or parodic and not taking the characters seriously. Readers will decide what is the case from the surrounding text.

Understatement
the opposite of hyperbole representing something as much less in magnitude or

importance than it really is.

Eg. Mark Twains comment The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated.

Voice The sense of personality and intelligence behind the words of a text. (Similar to persona or narrator). Wit The ability to express a fine idea with precision and perhaps humour. Subtle and clever, as in a witty remark.