Sustainable Utilization of Quarry By-Products

THEME 2 - SUSTAINABLE PROVISION OF AGGREGATES
SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF QUARRY BY-PRODUCTS
Research funded through Defras Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund
Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products
SUSTAINABLE AGGREGATES
Sustainable Aggregates: Aggregate resources produced from sand and gravel deposits, crushed rock or dredged from the sea contribute to the economic and social well being of the UK. Their production and supply has environmental effects. The Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) has provided funding to undertake work to minimise and mitigate these effects. This report is part of a portfolio of work that reviews ALSF and other work undertaken between 2002-2007 on promoting environmentally-friendly extraction and transport of land-won aggregates to provide a state of knowledge account and to highlight the gaps in our understanding and practices.
Written by: Evaggelia Petavratzi, Scott Wilson Edited by: Abbie Drew, MIRO; Neil Roberts Designed by: Sadie Ferriday, MIRO
This publication and references within it to any methodology, process, service, manufacturer, or company do not constitute its endorsement or recommendation by the Minerals Industry Research Organisation, English Heritage or The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
CONTENTS
Executive Summary 1. Introduction 1.1 Scope of study 2 Quarry nes denition and general description 2.1 Overview of Quarry Fines Production 2.2 Quarry scalpings 2.3 Quarry nes 2.4 The legislative framework Affecting quarry product 2.4.1 Minerals Planning 2.4.2 The Aggregates Levy 2.4.3 Mining Waste Directive 2.4.4 Interpretive Communication on waste and by-products 2.5 A t-for-purpose Criteria For quarry nes (and dust) 2.5.1 Generation of quarry nes and dust parameters of inuence 2.5.2 European Standards 2.5.3 Highways Agency specications 2.6 Summary 3 Production of quarry nes and mitigation practices 3.1 Production of quarry nes in the U.K. 3. 2 Minimising the generation of quarry Fines 4 Utilisation opportunities for quarry nes 4.1 The use of quarry nes in unbound applications 4.1.1 Bulk lling applications 4.1.2 Road pavement construction 4.1.3 Soil enhancement 4.1.4 Composting 4.1.5 Articial soils 4.1.6 Filler applications 4.1.7 Other applications 4.2 The use of quarry nes in bound applications
5 7 7 9 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 21 21 27 31 32 32 33 34 35 36 37 37 38
4.2.1 Controlled low strength materials 4.2.2 Construction products Manufactured Concrete 4.2.3 Construction products Heavy ceramics 4.2.4 Construction products Manufactured aggregates 4.2.5 Hydraulically Bound Mixtures 4.2.6 Asphalt applications 4.3 Summary of potential utilisation routes for quarry by-products 5 Barriers to utilisation 6 Conclusions 7 Recommendations for future work References Appendix Appendix I: Past research MIST projects Appendix ii: The interpretative communication on waste and by-products (com (2007) 59 nal) Appendix III: Fit- for- purpose requirements Appendix iv: Technical specications for manufactured concrete products
38 40 42 44 46 48 50 53 57 59 61 75 75 75 78 79
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report provides a desk study on the sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products, focussing on quarry nes. In this report, the term quarry nes refers namely material below 6 mm from aggregate and sand and gravel production, and includes quarry dusts (material below 75 m). Quarry nes are considered to be deliberately produced to full the grading requirements of specications. That is, the denition of quarry nes in this report does not restrict itself to material below 6 mm which is excess to market requirements.
Quarry dusts can include material from aggregate washing or from ltration systems. Quarry nes below 6 mm are an integral part of many aggregate products, but are sometimes produced in excess quantities that do not match market demand. Where a production/market imbalance exists, aggregate producers need to identify alternative utilisation routes. Often the inclusion of high quantities of dust (particles below 75 m) requires further processing to remove the unwanted fractions. There is no consistent denition for quarry nes used throughout the quarrying sector or construction industry. This leads to confusion of denitions in the published literature. The phrases quarry nes, dusts and wastes are used interchangeably, and are used to refer to materials which are of different particle size ranges, may, or may not be produced intentionally, and which may not be waste materials at all. In order to clarify future reporting, consistent denitions for quarry nes (and dusts and scalpings) should be developed and applied. One of the major obstacles to utilisation is the absence of specications by the industry that describe the different types of quarry nes This study investigated the potential use of quarry nes in unbound and bound applications. Quarry nes may nd their most economically viable use in quarry restoration. Certain types of quarry nes may be suitable for a variety of end uses with an associated prot for the aggregate producer. Literature review has shown that quarry nes are suitable for use in bulk ll applications (for example, backlling, inlling, general ll), in road pavement construction, in remediation and for the production of articial soils and compost. To some extent, quarry nes are currently supplied into these end uses depending on the availability of aggregate resources within geographical proximity in the according to their physical properties (such as composition, particle size) and potential end uses. The current European standards for aggregates provide some t-for-use criteria applicable to quarry nes, primarily related to grading specications. Fine aggregate is dened as the fraction of material below 4 mm for use in concrete, mortar, unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures, and below 2 mm for inclusion in asphalt products. Figures on available resources and quantities of quarry nes are based on estimates rather than real data and this is considered as a substantial barrier towards utilisation.
market. Other end uses such as llers in paper and paint or the use of quarry nes in Portland cement have been trialled or have been used on single occasions. The inclusion of quarry nes in innovative products (such as, green roofs, cob building) have not been implemented as yet. Bound applications reviewed in this report include various construction products such as concrete, heavy ceramics, and manufactured aggregates, in owable lls, hydraulic mixtures and asphalt. Trials have been undertaken for all these applications and some of them are in use in individual cases. Some of the barriers to utilisation identied through this desk study are related to the location of quarry nes, the limited awareness of potential markets by aggregate producers, the limited knowledge about quarry nes arisings and their characteristics, and the absence of fully developed t-for-use specications for a wide range of end products. Future projects should investigate such barriers, and this report proposes four possible areas for future work: n Mapping quarry nes: Quantities of excess quarry nes should be determined in order to promote sustainable utilisation. This project proposes the classication of quarry nes arisings into produced, stockpiled and marketed.
n Feasibility studies for quarry nes. Studies on specic material streams will provide an insight to the technical and economic viability of different utilisation routes. n Characterisation of quarry nes. To address the principal characteristics of quarry nes such as mineralogy, particle size, compositional consistency, temporal variability and storage and handling properties. n Development of good practice guides for the utilisation of quarry nes into different applications. These should include examples from current utilisation practices and refer to critical requirements that should be met for the incorporation of quarry nes into different end products.
1 INTRODUCTION
The work described in this report was carried out on behalf of the Mineral Industry Research Organisation (MIRO) by Scott Wilson; it was nancially supported by the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF). This project is part of Theme Sustainable Provision of Aggregates of the MIRO-ALSF Dissemination Project 2007/8 and focuses in Planning for the sustainable provision of aggregates with a particular view at Sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products.
Quarry by-products include overburden, quarry nes, and dusts, and are produced during the extraction and processing of aggregates. This report focuses on quarry nes, namely particles below 6 mm including quarry dusts (below 75 m). Quarry nes that are not being used in aggregate or other products commonly nd application in quarry restoration (Manning, 2004). However, this end use may not always be the most desirable one as certain quarry nes may have potential higher value end uses than restoration, or quarry space constraints may require the imminent identication of an end application, rather than long-term planned use in quarry restoration. Past research funded through the Mineral Industry Sustainable Technology Programme (MIST) has studied the utilisation of quarry by-products (listed in Table 19 in Appendix I), and this report has been commissioned to summarise the ndings from these previous projects and broader literature sources into one report.
1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this study is to enhance the industry understanding of the sustainable utilisation of quarry nes, and to identify any gaps in current knowledge. The term sustainable utilisation implies the use of quarry nes to their full potential to meet the needs of the present, while at the same time conserving natural resources and nding ways to minimise the environmental impacts associated both with quarry nes production and use. The main issues addressed by this project are: n Dening quarry nes. Over the years various denitions have been used to describe quarry nes. This study reviews various denitions in use and seeks to clarify the terminology in use across the industry. n Providing an overview of production gures for quarry nes and mitigation practices. The purpose of this overview is to describe the availability of quarry nes in the UK and to report on steps that the industry can follow to minimise the environmental impact associated with their production. Issues regarding the generation of quarry by-products are addressed by sub-theme Optimising the Efciency of Aggregate Production of the MIRO-ALSF Dissemination Project.
n Reviewing and reporting past and present research and development practices that demonstrate the utilisation potential of quarry by-products, including quarry nes. Two generic application approaches are discussed (a) unbound applications and (b) bound applications. n Assessing the obstacles faced by the quarrying sector and the end users when utilising quarry nes. The market, competition with other types of materials, and the end uses currently available are some of the areas where barriers may arise. n Identifying the steps necessary to increase the sustainable utilisation of quarry nes, outlining the gaps in knowledge and providing recommendations for future work.
2 QUARRY FINES - DEFINITION & GENERAL DESCRIPTION

2.1 OVERVIEW OF QUARRY FINES PRODUCTION
Quarry nes are produced from the full range of quarrying activities including: n Extraction (overburden removal, drilling and blasting, loading and hauling). n Rock preparation (such as pre-screening and primary crushing and screening). n Further processing (secondary, tertiary comminution stages, screening and treatment). Quarry nes comprise material less than (about) 6 mm generated from any of these activities. Quarry nes may be used as specic products (for example, as ne aggregate below 4 mm) or within other aggregate products (for example, as part of the overall grading for a Type 1 subbase). Quarry nes (that is material less than 6 mm) are an essential part of many aggregate products and are intentionally produced by quarrying activities in order to provide the required product gradings. Quarry dusts are materials less than 75 m and are included within the scope of quarry nes. The ow of a Grading requirement for production process, and the need for quarry nes and dusts aggregate product to be produced in order to meet specic product gradings, is exemplied in Figure 1, Figure 1 also shows schematically that the nes from early production processes (such as primary crushing and screening) may be useful in nal aggregate products and are not necessarily excess to requirements.
2.2 QUARRY SCALPINGS

Quarry scalpings are considered to be the coarse, clay contaminated material produced from pre-screening extracted rock before it is sent to the primary crusher (WRAP, 2006). Anecdotal evidence suggests that the application of the Aggregates Levy and the use of recycled and secondary aggregates instead, has inhibited sales of scalpings in low grade ll applications (WRAP, 2006). However, a model of sustainable aggregate sourcing indicates that if recycled and secondary aggregates are promoted to full their potential (that is, instead of being used as low specication lls), and if (where there is regional demand) increased processing is applied to scalpings, a balance between scalpings production and the market for low grade lls can be achieved in most areas (WRAP, 2006)
<75 m <6 mm Quarry dusts

Quarry fines
Production process
Grading of aggregate product
Primary crushing & screening
Secondary crushing & screening
Tertiary/Quaternary crushing & screening
Excess quarry fines, including quarry dusts
Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing the production and use of quarry nes to meet grading requirements
2.3 QUARRY FINES

This report focuses on examining potential markets for excess quarry nes and dusts that may result from an imbalance between the production process and market demand. This includes the production of excess quarry dusts produced from crushing and screening and collected through ltering systems (such as bag house lters). Dusts collected through ltering systems may currently be sent to landll as waste. Some aggregate producers use the term quarry dust when referring to quarry nes, or may only mean material produced in excess of market demand when referring to quarry nes or dusts (WRAP, 2006). The term quarry wastes is also used by some authors to refer to quarry nes and dusts even when these may not be wastes. Different quarries, or activities within the same quarry, may generate a range of quarry nes in relation to their particle size and composition. For instance, nes produced from primary screening may have higher or lower clay content than those produced through tertiary crushing and screening. Quarry nes are composed of the same mineral substances as the soil and solid rock from which they are derived, even though changes to their physical and chemical characteristics may have occurred. Quarry nes by their nature, are usually inert or non-hazardous. Disaggregation, mixing and moving to different locations, exposure to atmospheric conditions and to surface or groundwater, as well as segregation and the increase of surface area due to particle size reduction, may cause physical and chemical transformations with detrimental effects to the environment (BGS, 2003). According to past research, quarrying of limestone and dolomite typically produces 20-25% nes and sandstone/gritstone up to 35% nes (University of Leeds, 2007a). A schematic diagram of the various steps involved in the quarrying process, together with approximate estimates of quarry nes generated, is given in Figure 2. Quarry nes are commonly used by consumers as ne aggregates, when they comply with appropriate standards for the project. For instance, quarry nes below 4 mm may nd application as ne aggregate in concrete (BSI, 2002a). This is a common market for limestone nes, but the levels of dust (<75 m) may limit usefulness, and in such cases, aggregate washing may be required (WRAP, 2006). Igneous rock quarry nes may be unsuitable for use in concrete as they increase demand for cement and water demand (impacting on the strength and cost of concrete) (WRAP, 2006). The scope of the legislation in force does not provide a denition of quarry nes, but sets the boundaries on when such materials comprise a product, a by-product or a waste. According to anecdotal evidence, the fact that quarry nes attract the Aggregates Levy is believed to reduce their attractiveness and competitiveness in the market place (Manning, 2004; University of Leeds, 2007d). A simple classication scheme for quarry production residues based on the readiness of a material for use has been proposed several authors (Harrison et al, 2001; Harrison et al, 2002; Mitchell, et al, 2004), shown in Table 1. Quarry nes could be described as Type 1 materials (for example, limestone nes used without further processing) and Type 2 materials (for example, quarry nes used following washing). Generic classication systems, such as the one in Table 1, can be used to characterise mineral waste and identify potential end uses. This report focuses on quarry nes generated from the production of aggregates, although it is anticipated that part of its content may be applicable to other quarry operations.
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Description Example Potential end uses Unprocessed waste: large volume, low value industrial quarry scalpings; quarry Fill, low grade road stone, minerals; commonly used in construction applications; blocks; colliery spoil armour stone, brick clay market would be located in close proximity Type 2 Processed waste reclaimed minerals: only a small silica sand waste; Silica sand, kaolin, brick amount of processing is required; market largely local; a limestone waste; building clay, mineral ller, aglime, small amount of secondary waste will be produced stone waste aggregate Type 3 Processed waste added-value products: contain small Lead/zinc waste; pegmatite Fluorite, barite, feldspar, amounts of valuable minerals; potentially complex waste; silica sand waste rare earths, mica, heavy processing is required; major capital investment; minerals international market; large volumes of secondary waste Type 4 Beneciated wastes: contain small quantities of highly Specic mine wastes Gemstones, other high valuable minerals; complex processing requirements; large value metals volumes of secondary waste; international market Table 1: Mineral waste classication (Harrison et al, 2001; Harrison et al, 2002; Mitchell, et al, 2004)
Group Type 1
As shown in Figure 2, excess materials from quarrying processes are produced either through the initial stripping stages (overburden material) or during the extraction and processing phases (scalpings and quarry nes). It is common practice for quarries to reuse overburden material in restoration, as well as other excess materials (Manning, 2004). However, there is still an amount of material that remains unused, as a specied market that could absorb it does not exist, or is unaware of the potential use of the excess, including quarry nes (WRAP, 2006).Very often, dry quarry nes are stockpiled on site until a utilisation route has been identied, whereas wet material is deposited in tailing lagoons.
2.4 THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AFFECTING QUARRY PRODUCT

The various regulations discussed in this section may have an impact on potential utilisation approaches of quarry waste and therefore should be taken under consideration when planning quarry operations.
2.4.1 MINERALS PLANNING

The UK Government has set specic objectives in England for Mineral Planning (DCLG, 2006a), referring also to quarry waste and utilisation practices, with the aim for contributing to sustainable development. The focal point of these objectives is summarised in the bullet points below (DCLG, 2006a): n Sustainability: efcient and sustainable use of minerals and recycling of suitable materials; conservation of mineral resources; sustainable transport; integration of mineral planning policy with legislation on sustainable construction and waste management n Environmental protection: prevention and minimisation of mineral waste production; nature conservation; prevention and reduction of impacts on the environment and human health; environmental protection during restoration and after extraction has ceased n Production: securing adequate and steady supplies of minerals; maximising the benets and minimising the impacts of mineral operations over their full life cycle; t-for purpose use of high quality materials The Mineral Policy Statement (MPS1) sets also out Government planning policy on the provision of aggregates in England. The scope of this policy is (DCLG, 2006a): n To encourage the use of alternative aggregates where possible in preference to primary aggregates
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n To encourage the production of marine dredged sand where environmentally acceptable sources are available, adopting the principles of sustainability n To ensure that the remainder of supply is provided by primary sources (that is, sand and gravel, crushed rock)
[Overburden removal] * * (Feed size) Extraction (700-1000mm) Pre-screening (700-1000mm) * *Primary crushing & Screening (300-100mm) * *Secondary crushing & Screening (100-20mm) * *Tertiary/Quaternary crushing & Screening Up to 40% nes (*1) (20-10mm) Figure 2: Quarrying activities and estimates of nes generation per stage (source of data: (The University of Leeds, 2007c) End products * quarry nes (<6mm); consists of coarse, medium, ne particles (clay/silt <75m) * particulate matter (that is, collected from cyclones and bag house lters) (*1 depending on rock type and comminution practices) Figure 2: Quarrying activities and estimates of nes generation per stage (source of data: (The University of Leeds, 2007c) Up to 25% nes (*1) [Scalpings] Up to 20% nes (*1) [Drilling & blasting] * [Loading & haauling] * [Oversize rock]
In line with these national objectives (DCLG, 2006a), the full utilisation of quarry nes can contribute to Governments aim for sustainable development and environmental protection through the efcient use of minerals, the conservation of mineral resources (by using all quarry products, including nes), the minimisation of mineral waste production and also by ensuring that the supply of materials required for specic end uses is satised.
2.4.2 THE AGGREGATES LEVY

The Aggregates Levy is applied to primary sales of aggregates (Statutory Instrument, 2003). The purpose of Aggregates Levy is to create a viable market for recycled and secondary aggregates by increasing the cost of primary materials (DEFRA, 2007a). In addition to reducing the demand for primary aggregates, the Levy is expected to:
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n promote environmentally friendly extraction and transport n address the environmental impacts of past aggregates extraction n compensate local communities for the impact of aggregates extraction The Aggregates Levy also applies to quarry nes and is often seen as a barrier to utilisation, because recycled and secondary aggregates do not attract the Levy (Manning, 2004; University of Leeds, 2007d). However, not all natural aggregates (as dened in European Standards - see Table 3 are subject to the Aggregates Levy; certain materials are exempt, as summarised in Table 2. The Aggregates Levy is currently set at 1.60 per tonne. In the nal Budget 2007 report, the Government announced that this will increase to 1.95 per tonne from 1 April 2008 (HM Treasury, 2007). The Government also announced the introduction of an exemption from the Levy for aggregate arising from the construction and maintenance of railways, tramways and monorails. The exemption of certain materials such as china clay waste and slate waste might be expected to promote utilisation of these materials as aggregates. However, the distant geographical location of china clay and slate quarries and the cost of haulage of waste material to appropriate markets are the principal barriers that discourage their use (Smith et al, 2005 see Figure 8). The benets seen from the implementation of the Levy have been the reduction in sales of primary aggregates (by 8% between 2001 to 2005) and the reduction of pollution caused by noise, particulate matter and other emissions to air, visual intrusion, loss of amenity and damage to wildlife habitats (HM Treasury, 2007). In addition, the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) has (and continues to) supported research to assist the quarrying sector to move towards sustainability and improved environmental stewardship. In the case of china clay waste, the exemption from the Levy initiated research, which looked at potential utilisation routes and ways to overcome the barrier of transport through detailed feasibility studies (Smith et al, 2005). The focus on sustainable utilisation of quarry nes is sufciently recent that there are no statistical data that provide a proof of progress made regarding quantities used, applications, substitution of primary materials and sales gures.
2.4.3 MINING WASTE DIRECTIVE

The Mining Waste Directive (EU Directive 2006/21/EC) on the management of waste from the extractive industries aims to prevent any adverse impacts associated with waste produced from mining activities as well as promoting their minimisation, treatment, recovery and reuse (The European Parliament and the Council, 2006a). The Directive will require the implementation of a waste management plan and all non-inert waste producers will require a permit to operate. Quarry operations will have to manage their waste in more efcient ways, to investigate further mitigation practices where feasible (such as optimisation of processing plans, greater levels of equipment maintenance), and to look at potential waste utilisation routes (The European Parliament and the Council, 2006a). The Mining Waste Directive will be transposed into national law by 1 May 2008 and mine waste facilities would be subject to the new provisions by 2012 (DEFRA, 2007b). Table 2: Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy (Finance Act, 2001)
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Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy clay, soil, organic matter, vegetable coal lignite slate Shale china clay and ball clay waste colliery spoil spoil or waste from any industrial combustion process or the smelting or rening of metals drill cuttings from the seabed material arising from utility works aggregate arising from building sites aggregate extracted as a result of navigation dredging aggregate arising from highway construction, construction and maintenance of railways, tramways and monorails
Comments that is, clay quarries currently utilised by brick manufacturers that is, slate waste, off-cuts that is, china clay sand spoil from any process by which coal has been separated from other rock after being extracted for example, industrial slag, pulverised fuel ash, foundry sand that is, beyond the water mark for example from laying gas, water pipes material consisting wholly of aggregate arising from the site of any building or proposed building aggregate removed from inland waterways and harbours by dredging excluding borrow pits; material that consists wholly of aggregate arising from the ground in the course of excavation to improve, maintain or construct highway or a proposed highway
Table 2: Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy (Finance Act, 2001)
2.4.4 INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION ON WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS

The Waste Framework Directive (2006/12/EC) gives the denition of waste and accordingly materials can be either waste or not (The European Parliament and the Council, 2006b). The terms by-product and secondary materials, although commonly used by the quarrying and construction industry, do not have any legal meaning. Quarry nes which have a dened end market are not a waste. The Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 nal) aims to clarify when a material is waste or not in a production process context and to do so three new illustrative terms have been introduced in addition to waste (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). These terms do not represent a legal interpretation and they are used for clarication purposes only in this document. n Product the term is used to characterise materials that are deliberately created in the production process (for example, aggregates and most quarry nes) n Production residue - a material not deliberately produced, which may or may not be a waste (for example, quarry dusts collected in bag house lters) n By-product a production residue that is not waste The Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 nal) facilitates the distinction between product, by-products and waste by introducing a cumulative test comprised of three primary criteria that set the denition of the material in question. Hence, a material is a by-product if (Commission of the European Communities, 2007): 1. further use of the material is a certainty and not a mere possibility 2. no further processing prior to reuse is required 3. it is produced as part of a continues process of production
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The decision tree in Figure 9 (Appendix II) displays all the different steps that have to be satised in order to dene a material as a by-product. Criteria 1, 2 and 3 are examined in greater detail in Figure 10 (Appendix II) and Figure 11 (Appendix II), where three additional decision ow diagrams have been compiled for this report, based on the information in the Communication document. The decision tree in Figure 9 (Appendix II), suggests that if the material is deliberately produced, then this material should be considered a product, not a production residue. Quarry nes may be considered to be deliberately produced to satisfy the markets demand for graded and ne aggregates; hence quarry nes represent a product. In other words, the production of quarry nes cannot be eliminated from quarrying processes as the nes are a required component of aggregate products. However, when excess quarry nes are generated and the market cannot absorb them, or there is no planned use in restoration, then they may become a waste. Similar arguments can be applied to quarry dusts. Dusts collected in bag houses, or removed by washing to produce aggregates without dust, may currently be sent to landll as waste but could be considered a byproduct if a satisfactory market can be found and the conditions of Criteria 1 to 3 are met. That is, the ideal quarrying process would eliminate the production of these dusts if possible. According to the Criteria 1 (Figure 10 Appendix II) if a materials is not useable, does not meet the technical specications required for its use or there is no specied market for it, then it should continue to comprise a waste until a useful output has been identied. When only a certain proportion of the material can potentially be used then such a material should initially be characterised as waste until future circumstances change its status (for example, long term contracts between waste producer and user). For materials stored for an indenite amount of time prior to potential reuse, they should be considered as waste. Often materials may undergo several processing stages prior to reuse, such as washing, drying, mixing and comminution. Under these circumstances, additional clarication must be provided that explains whether materials are made ready for use as an integral part of the continuing process of production. In case that additional recovery processes are required prior to use, even if the subsequent use is a certainty, then Criteria 2 suggests that the material is a waste until the completion of this process. The decision ow diagram in Figure 11 (Appendix II) presents in more detail some of the sub-criteria that need to be considered. The case of Avesta Polarit (AvestaPolarit Chrome Oy, 2003) also provides some evidence on the application of Criteria 1-3 (Figure 12 Appendix II). Industry, legislative parties and research bodies often refer to quarry nes by giving different meanings to this term. As discussed earlier in this section, quarry nes may represent a product, or a surplus material when produced in excess quantities, and certain fractions such as the dust and ller material comprise a production residue. It is considered essential that quarry nes will be dened properly in order to avoid confusion and to enable their sustainable utilisation.
2.5 A FIT-FOR-PURPOSE CRITERIA FOR QUARRY FINES (AND DUST)

Quarry nes can comprise valuable alternative materials for use in a variety of end products and applications. Commonly, the decision making criteria upon which the suitability of quarry nes is determined, are based on technical specications and standards or on characterisation procedures developed by end users, such as construction product manufacturers. Therefore, it is end users that dene whether quarry nes comprise a valuable material.
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Technical specications cover a large variety of end products, but commonly they correspond to conventional primary aggregates. Quarry nes as well as other production residues do not necessarily behave in a way similar to conventional primary aggregates. For instance, parameters such as the compositional variability of quarry nes may be larger than that of conventional primary resources. Therefore, there is a need to develop t-for-purpose specications that will be applicable not just for conventional primary materials, but to other materials as well.
2.5.1 GENERATION OF QUARRY FINES AND DUST PARAMETERS OF INFLUENCE

Parameters such as rock type, extraction technique and processing route, affect the generation of quarry nes as well as their end properties, (for example, composition, particle size and shape). Although quarry nes are expected to consist of similar minerals to the rocks they are derived from, the exact composition by quantitative means may be different. The fragmentation patterns will also vary for different rock types. Research work on assessing the dust (fraction below 75 m, particulate matter included) generation from various ores has found that different rock types tested under specic mechanisms (such as abrasion), which simulate common processes such as conveyor belts, produced different amounts of nes with different physical properties (Petavratzi, 2006). A variety of parameters have been identied to inuence the generation of nes and dust from different ores (Petavratzi, 2006; Petavratzi et al, 2007): n Feed: mass/bulk volume, particle size, grain/particle shape, concentration of nes in the feed (<75 m), mechanical properties (strength, elasticity, brittle behaviour), fragmentation. n Mechanisms in involved industrial processes: Abrasion and impact represent the two primary mechanisms associated with operations, such as conveyor belts, milling and mixing, haulage roads, stockpiling and tipping. n Operational parameters: Blasting design, velocity of conveyor belts, mill type, haulage roads, time-scales of operations, drop heights during tipping and stockpiling. The properties of quarry nes and dust change in accordance with any of the above parameters. For instance, nes produced during primary comminution stages may have a different particle size distribution and composition (mineral weight %) to nes produced during secondary or tertiary crushing. Different types of nes may nd application in different end uses. In order to facilitate the wider utilisation of quarry nes, the properties of these materials should be determined to a level adequate to identify potential matches with end applications. Characterisation requirements for quarry nes will vary for different end uses. For example, using X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) may not be the best method to determine the composition of quarry nes intended to be used in cement because this technique does not characterise the material by quantitative means. In this instance, the qualitative analysis (XRD) determines the mineralogy of cement and it needs to be combined with some form of quantitative analysis, such as chemical testing.
2.5.2 EUROPEAN STANDARDS

The introduction of European Standards for aggregates during 2004 satised the need for specications for a broad variety of end applications and enabled the use of a wider range of aggregate resources. The European Standards do not discriminate between different resources and they refer to natural, recycled and
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manufactured materials (WRAP, 2007b). Materials that could potential be used as aggregates fall within the following categories (Quarry Products Association, 2007): n Coarse and ne aggregates are now split at 2 mm for asphalt and 4 mm for all other uses n Fines are dened as the inherent fraction of an aggregate passing 63 m n Filler is a material passing 63 m that may be added to inuence the properties of a mixture The British Standards Institution developed a series of national guidance documents (referred to as Published Document PD) to support the European Standards and to provide further clarications that t the UK market, and the production and nature of aggregates in the UK. A summary of the different European Standards and Published Documents is given in Table 3. The European Standards considered, are presented in more detail in following Sections of this report, where potential utilisation practices are discussed. The inclusion of recycled and manufactured aggregates within the scope of European Standards is considered a step forward. Nevertheless, specications are still based on an ideal grading. Research ndings from an industry scoping exercise have shown that the industry nds current specications stringent, and that they do not specify t-for-purpose aggregates (Mitchell, 2007a) (Project code: MA 4/5/003).
Standard Category Product Standards European Standard Number BS EN 12620 BS EN 13043 BS EN 13139 BS EN 13055 European Standard Title Aggregates for concrete Aggregates for bituminous mixtures and surface treatments Aggregates for mortar Part 1: Lightweight aggregate for concrete, mortar and grout Part 2: Lightweight aggregate for bound and unbound materials Aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures Armourstone Railway ballast Aggregates for concrete Aggregates for asphalt and chipping Aggregates for mortar Lightweight aggregates for concrete and mortar Lightweight aggregates for other uses Aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures Aggregates for Armourstone Aggregates for railway ballast Test method for aggregates General test methods (i.e sampling, petrography, repeatability reproducibility etc) Test methods- geometrical properties Test methods physical and mechanical properties Test methods thermal and weathering properties Test methods chemical properties
National Guidance Documents
Test methods
BS EN 13242 BS EN 13383 BS EN 13450 PD 6682-1 PD 6682-2 PD 6682-3 PD 6682-4 PD 6682-5 PD 6682-6 PD 6682-7 PD 6682-8 PD 6682-9 BS EN 932 part 1-6 BS EN 933 part 1-10 BS EN 1097 part 1-9 BS EN 1367 part 1-5 BS EN 1744
Table 3: European Standards for aggregates and associated documents
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2.5.3 HIGHWAYS AGENCY SPECIFICATIONS

The Highways Agency has developed a series of specications for road pavement construction (Series 500 to 1000) that permit the use of a wide variety of natural, recycled and manufactured aggregates (Highways Agency, 2004; Highways Agency, 2007a). Waste natural aggregates, such as china clay sand/stent and slate waste, are included in the list of secondary and recycled materials and quarry nes may be considered for use on a site specic basis (Highways Agency, 2004; Highways Agency, 2007a). According to a recent DEFRA funded project, alternative materials should clearly demonstrate what their contribution to an end use is. However, to do so, the principal elements and requirements of the end user should be understood and presented in a way that will assist both parties (material producers and end users) to identify potential matches of alternative materials DEFRA research states that characterisation should be undertaken both for the alternative material (for example, mineralogy, chemistry, particle size), and the end product (as set by technical standards). Hence, producers of valuable materials such as quarry nes should be able to supply appropriate information to end users which demonstrates that their materials are t-for-purpose. One of the outcomes of this previous research was the production of a characterisation framework that illustrates what the involvement of various alternative materials will be, if used in ve different construction products (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006; Petavratzi and Barton, 2007; Dunster, 2007). The characterisation framework covers the ceramic, cement, concrete, insulation and manufactured aggregates sectors (shown in Table 20 in Appendix III). Characterisation frameworks are able to promote the use of alternative materials and to assist during the initial identication stages of identifying utilisation practices. Relevant investigations undertaken for quarry nes have been extracted from the Waste Products Pairings (WPP) database developed through previous research (MIRO, 2007) and shown in Table 4. Several other end uses for quarry nes are identied in following Sections of this report and relevant specications are presented there. Development of specications that combine the nature of different materials with the particular requirements set by end users and technical standards is considered essential. Market trends (that is, demand, product preferences, and product trends) and economic factors (such as cost savings associated with the use of quarry nes, manufacturing costs) should also be considered in the development process of new t-forpurpose criteria. Work undertaken by the Highways Agency on the use of secondary and recycled materials is a good example of t-for-use specications (Highways Agency, 2004).
2.6 SUMMARY
There is no consistent denition for quarry nes used throughout the quarrying sector or construction industry. This leads to confusion of denitions in the published literature. The phrases quarry nes, dusts and wastes are used interchangeably, and are used to refer to materials which are of different particle size ranges, may, or may not be produced intentionally, and which may not be waste materials at all. In order to clarify future reporting, consistent denitions for quarry nes (and dusts and scalpings) should be developed and applied.
18
Quarry production residues Quarry washings (ne grained silts and clay from sand and gravel operations; more rarely from crushed rock operations Quarry washings
End use Manufactured aggregates
Progress (1)
Ingredient (2)
Pilot scale trials Filler or base material
Dense and Used in lightweight production concrete walling/ masonry blocks
Coarse/ ne aggregate
Analysis Of alternative Mineralogy, chemistry, LOI(%), moisture content, particle size, cumulative % passing 300 m150 m and 75 m Chemistry, bulk density, particle size, water absorption
Of manufacturing process According to BS EN 13055
Feedstock properties: grading, chloride content, sulfate content, effect on setting cement, Alkali/ silica reactivity Handling properties: particle size, moisture content, ease of ow, workability End product properties: according to BS EN standards on various concrete products (for example, BS EN 206) Testing on kiln feed: SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO End product: according to BS EN 197
Quarry nes and dust (a wide variety of compositions)
Portland Trials cement (CEM I)
Source of silica, aluminium and iron
Particle size, mineralogy, chemistry, other constituents, total sulfur, chlorine content, heavy metals, loss on ignition
Quarry nes, and washings) Facing brick Work trials Filler (primary contribution), clay substitute (secondary contribution), colourant (third contribution) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, bulk density According to BS EN 771-1:2003 for clay bricks (1) Progress made from the industry in using quarry production residues (2) The title Ingredient refers to the contribution of an alternative material to an end product Table 4: Examples of utilisation of quarry production residues in various construction products as found in the WasteProduct Pairings (WPP) database (MIRO, 2007)
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20
3 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES & MITIGATION PRACTICES

Saleable aggregates in the UK mainly comprise sand and gravel and crushed rock and according to British Geological Survey (BGS), there are currently 1723 active mines and quarries that produce primary aggregates (Table 5) (BGS, 2003). The section of this report gives an overview of the information that is currently available to describe production of quarry nes and mitigation practices. It is anticipated that sub-theme Optimising the Efciency of Aggregate Production of the ALSF Review Research Programme 2007-2008, will refer to these areas in more detail.
Mineral worked Sand and Gravel Limestone Sandstone Igneous and metamorphic rock Chalk Number of active sites 801 347 305 205 65 England 578 264 200 50 61 Wales 26 51 29 12 0 Scotland 119 13 41 97 0 Northern Ireland 78 19 35 46 4
Table 5: Summary of active aggregate quarries in the UK (BGS, 2003)
3.1 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES IN THE U.K.

The 2004 UK survey of waste arisings by sector has revealed that 29% of total annual waste arisings are generated by the mining and quarrying sector, which equal to approximately 100 million tonnes of mineral residues - Figure 3 (DEFRA, 2007c). Waste from mining and quarrying does not fall within the scope of controlled waste legislation therefore relevant regulations are not applicable.
Agriculture (inc. fishing) Mining and Quarrying Sewage sludge Dredged materials Household Commercial Industrial Construction and Demolition
Total = 335 million tonnes Source: Defra, ODPM, Environment Agency, Water UK 13 12 9 <1 5 32 <1
21
Figure 3: Estimated total UK annual waste arisings by sector: 2004, U.K (DEFRA, 2007c)
21
Ratios of waste to product are used to estimate arisings of mineral waste by DEFRA. Quarry waste is estimated using a waste to saleable product ratio equal to 1 to 9, that is one tonne of quarry waste is generated for every nine tonnes of quarry products The overall trend shows a decrease in waste arisings, which reects the decline in production. There are many uncertainties associated with such published statistics of mine and quarry waste, such as the consistency and reliability of the employed ratios. According to the British Geological Survey research, the data in Table 6 and Figure 4, are only estimates derived from an assumed ratio of waste to mineral that may be considerably different to the actual amounts. The term waste does not provide any indication of the nature of the material, any potential hazard to the environment or appropriate utilisation routes, and whether part of this material is already in use. Also, material generated at one site where it is regarded as waste, may be saleable at another because of proximity to a potential market (BGS, 2003). Research undertaken by Arup on behalf of Ofce of the Deputy Prime Minister (OPDM now the Department for Communities and Local Government DCLG) on land for mineral workings in England, investigated the areas of land permitted for the disposal of mine waste. However, this work makes no reference to the type or amount of waste permitted to disposed of in specic areas (Arup, 2000).
160,000 140,000 120,000 Tonnes (000s) 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Source: UK Minerals Year Book, BGS
Figure 4: Estimated total quantities of mining and quarrying by-products in the UK (1990 2004) (BGS, 2007)
Currently, the most denite source of information on mineral workings is considered to be the BGS BritPits database, which holds information for the majority of mineral sites in the UK (active, inactive, closed, and abandoned sites) (BGS, 2003; BGS, 2007). However, information on the quantities of mineral waste is limited except for materials on which extended research has been undertaken, such as china clay and slate (BGS, 2003; BGS, 2007; Smith, 2005). The reasons behind the limited data are (BGS, 2003; Mitchell, 2007a; University of Leeds, 2007c): n The statistical and planning community has shown small interest due to no direct commercial value of such materials n Commercial sensitivity issues n Having mine and quarry waste classed as non-controlled waste
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n Historically there has been no need to make estimates and the associated time and costs have meant data were not collected
UK Category 1990 2 Colliery 3 Coal
(3) (4) (2)
Waste arisings (Thousand tonnes) (1), (8) 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 16,112 9,292 20,537 14,507 8,180 39,039 1997 15,141 9,107 26,648 13,791 6,940 37,541 1998 1999 2000 8,594 7,005 2001 8,674 7,292 2002 2003
36,450 36,679 32,900 25,229 15,927 17,575 9,932 10,423 9,347 8,871 8,559 8,944
12,543 10,444 8,094 8,095
8,196 7,818 6,799 6,300
4 China Clay 5 Clay5) 6 Slate

(6)
27,339 26,205 22,526 22,156 22,778 23,283 19,756 16,335 15,172 13,799 15,174 16,725 7,180 7,200 6,520 9,240 8,040 5,500
21,608 20,738 21,388 19,839 19,469 18,875 14,110 13,560 13,096 12,352 12,114 12,041 9,000 7,220 9,580 11,020 14,840 18,000
7 Quarrying
(7)
42,413 40,403 38,525 39,464 42,115 40,769
35,434 36,530 36,223 36,897 34,190 33,849
TOTAL 143,069 137,244 124,990 118,759 112,593 112,795 107,666 109,167 100,788 96,586 95,886 96,073 95,608 96,882 1 Estimates are based on the production data in that years UK Minerals Year Book, published by British Geological Survey 2 Colliery waste estimate is based on deep-mined coal assuming a ratio of waste to saleable product of 1:2 Coal waste is based on opencast and other coal production and is also based on a 1:2 ratio. China clay waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 9:1 Clay waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 9:1 Slate waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 20:1 Quarrying waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 1:9 Figures are provisional
Table 6: Minerals waste arisings 1990-2003 (DEFRA, 2007e)
In an industry scoping exercise relevant to quarry nes minimisation, responses collected from interviews held with the quarry sector have showed that estimates on nes production at individual crushing stages could be technically feasible (Mitchell, 2007a) (project code: MA 4/5/003). Research carried out to estimate the generation of nes according to rock type indicated that (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003): n Limestone/ dolomite/ chalk quarrying generates around 20-25% nes n Sandstone/gritstone quarries produce up to 35% nes n Fines from sand and gravel pits vary enormously, but production percentages fall within 5 to 15% n Igneous rocks produce between 10 to 30% nes According to a survey on aggregate minerals for England and Wales, the total sales of primary aggregates for 2005 was 172.7 Mt, the total sales of crushed rock for aggregate use was 100 Mt, and the total sand and gravel sales was 72.6 Mt (DCLG, 2007). According to National Statistics gures for mineral extraction in Great Britain, for 2006, the total extractors sales for the rock types shown in Table 7 are 222.5 Mt (National Statistics Online, 2007). Taking into account the percentage estimates for quarry nes as reported above, approximate gures for the nes production are presented in Table 7. Table 8 provides some further information for the characteristics of quarry production residues and associated primary aggregates.
23
Quarry operation
Sandstone 3.54 Limestone 16.52 Igneous and 9.58 metamorphic rock Sand and gravel 10% 72.6 80.2 7.3 8.2 Total 172.7 222.5 28.4 37.84 * This estimate is for total nes production, which includes material sustainably consumed in aggregate applications. It does not imply that all the nes are excess to market demand Table 7: Estimates of quarry ne production based on total sales gures for aggregate use in England and Wales (data for limestone also include data for dolomite and chalk)
Typical % of quarry Total sales for aggregate use (Mt) nes (average (in England and (in Great Britain) values) Wales) 30% 10.8 11.8 20% 66.9 82.6 20% 22.4 47.9
Estimated nes production (Mt)* (in England and Wales) 3.2 13.4 4.5 (in Great Britain)
Estimated tonnages of nes have declined due to the reduced production of primary aggregates between 2001 and 2005. Research work has reported an estimate of 41.3 Mt that corresponded to 238 Mt of produced aggregates (based on the Collation of the results of the 2001 Aggregate Minerals Survey of England and Wales) (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). The data in Table 7 estimates the quantities of quarry nes produced. Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that this is estimated values and not actual data. Real data may not match the calculated data, because parameters such as the composition and physical characteristics of primary rocks and production residues, the processing routes and the end use potential of quarry nes may vary for different sites.
Aggregate type Sand and gravel Primary rock characteristics Composition: mainly quartz; other types of co-existing rock such as quartzite, sandstone, int, igneous (granitic) rock Particle size: 0.0625 mm<sand<4 mm 4 mm<gravel<64 mm Deposits: supercial, bedrock Limestone Composition: limestone calcite (CaCO3); dolomite/dolomitic limestone 10-50% dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2, calcite Particle size: various sizes following end product requirements, normally <10cm Extrusive bodies are of variable quality; -Intrusive bodies are of variable size; Particle size: depending on end use, normally < 10cm -rock types: granite, diorite, olivine dolerite and so on Wide range of sandstone types/ deposits; Particle size: depending on end use, normally < 10cm Production residues characteristics Supercial deposits Comments Possibility of radioactive Composition: mainly clay and silt; minerals [low hazard] in ne inert or non-hazardous; considerable tailings in some variation in production rates from a few quarries (areas percent up to 30% of total mined material; near granite) storage: in lagoons Bedrock deposits Composition: cobbles quartzites, igneous rocks, clay, silt Composition: similar to rock, but with Possibility of higher quantities of chert and clay; some included vein streams may also contain small amounts minerals of vein materials such as galena, sphalerite, pyrite, barite; variable quantities depending on the local topography and geology; non-hazardous Large variation in size very large oversize Possibility of blocks and very ne undersize particles; radioactive inert / non-hazardous [low hazard] and asbestiform minerals in ne tailings inert material Potential host for uranium ore deposits
Igneous and metamorphic rock
Sandstone
Table 8: Characteristics of primary aggregates and associated (BGS, 2003)
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The lack of actual data for mineral waste is seen as an obstacle to utilisation. Taking as example recycled aggregates (that is, from construction, demolition and excavation waste), extensive surveys have been undertaken to determine exact arisings and availability. This is a very critical step towards their use, as knowing the volume, nature, geographical proximity and availability of materials can assist the identication of t-for-use end markets and applications. A detailed feasibility study modelling the sustainable use of resources for the production of aggregates was undertaken for the West Midlands. This project investigated the supply of aggregates from primary, secondary and recycled sources including nes from crushed rock and sand and gravel quarries. This work developed an economic model that projects the potential sustainable resources for aggregate supply relative to construction demand, market price and resource availability (WRAP, 2006). The outcomes of this study are presented in more detail in Figure 5. Such feasibility studies are considered highly important for identifying benets and obstacles to utilisation in a local/regional level and promoting the sustainable use of aggregates by balancing the use of recycled, secondary and primary materials. A similar study has been undertaken for Scotland (WRAP, 2007). Software tools and the principles of Mass Balance could assist to evaluate with greater accuracy the generation of quarry nes. Earlier research work has developed software to assist the planning and evaluation of aggregate resources according to t-for purpose end uses. Such techniques could be employed even during early stages (that is, during exploration). The techniques use the principles of resource management and waste minimisation. Also software packages, such as the JK Simmet mineral processing simulator (JKTech, 2007), could assist to predict the generation of quarry nes. Mass balance has already found applications for various resources (for example, tyres, packaging, glass etc), but has not been extensively used for the mineral sector. A study undertaken on mineral resource availability and efciency for the North-West region of England found out that (4sight, 2007): n There is a high demand for minerals in the North West. The North West is a major producer of minerals and aggregates, but also the biggest net importer of aggregates in the UK n Very little is known of the full environmental costs of mineral ows and information related to mineral resources ows are not of sufcient detail and consistency n Tracking minerals from exploitation through to end use and nal disposal provides important information about a systems efciency, resource availability and management at the regional level. The use of any of the above tools would require the co-operation of the quarrying sector as the accuracy of results from studies using such research techniques would be dependent on provided data.
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Feasibility case study Sustainable resourcing of aggregate supply Scope of project: Development of an economic model that projects the potential sustainable resourcing of aggregate supply relative to construction demand, market price and resource availability Case study location: West Midlands Resource and product groupings: primary (crushed rock, sand and gravel, dust (residual), scalpings (residual)); secondary (IBA, PFA, FBA, glass, used foundry sand); recycled (C&D waste, excavation waste) Key variables identied: supply, costs, market price, and demand Results Shifts in resource use predicted for period 2004-2016 Crushed rock: n Recycled aggregates will be used increasingly for subbase and higher value graded aggregates (including concrete and asphalt) resulting to a signicant market lose for crushed rock products. n The production of low grade lls and scalpings will have to be increased to meet market demand and this will require changes to the output prole of crushed rock quarries. This increase is due to the shift of recycled aggregates to higher value products. The production of scalpings may remain uncompetitive due to distance from market. n Changes in production sales prole of crushed rock quarries will lead to a reduction in average selling price and potentially increase the production of crushed rock nes above market demand. Sand and gravel: n Recycled aggregates use will shift to higher value graded aggregates therefore sand and gravel producers will lose market share (market share falls from 19% to 15%) Scalpings: n These are used as lls to replace the demand previously met by recycled aggregates Surplus nes: n Stocks continue to rise. The costs of processing the material to a ne aggregate for concrete (according to the model) are uneconomic. Sensitivity analysis: n Removal of the aggregate levy and equivalent reduction in the market place did not affect the market of crushed rock products. This is due to the cost effectiveness of recycling in West Midlands and the proximity of sources of recycled materials to sources of aggregate demand and the relative distance of primary resources. Other results: n Investment in washing plants for the processing of crushed rock nes and scalping may be needed. Also there is a need to develop processes that minimise the production of dust.
Figure 5: Feasibility case study on the sustainable use of resources for the production of aggregates in West Midlands (WRAP, 2006)
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3.2 MINIMISING THE GENERATION OF QUARRY FINES

The minimisation of quarry nes is perceived as essential in order to achieve resource efciency, environmental protection and optimisation of the quarrying process. There is a need to minimise quarry nes for compliance with current legislation and the planning process. Environmental protection and social responsibility is of vital importance to the quarrying sector to reduce any adverse consequences (for example, in health and safety) and costs associated with the production of quarry nes (for example, storage, dealing with arisings transport, and handling). The minimisation of quarry nes could be achieved by carefully designing the quarrying process even during the early stages of exploration. Research projects carried out at Leicester University focused on minimising the inaccuracies associated with resource evaluation through statistical analysis and by exploring drilling techniques (Jeffrey et al, 2004) (project code: MA 3/2/002). A second project looked at developing a tool that could be used to identify the parts of a deposit that can produce good quality products with least waste, and thus to optimise extraction. This tool used the techniques of image analysis together with software development (Jeffrey et al, 2003a; Jeffrey et al, 2003b) (project code: MA 3/2/001; MA 4/02/002). The generation of quarry nes is due to extraction and processing operations in a quarry. As discussed in Section 2.2.1, there are several parameters that inuence the production of nes, which are relevant to the rock characteristics and the involved processes. However, careful design and optimisation of extraction and processing could minimise nes production. A good practice guide mainly focusing on comminution is presented in the goodquarry website and in Table 9 (The University of Leeds, 2007c). Modelling tools can assist the quick performance evaluation of quarry operations. Research projects, part of the MIST programme, have undertaken work using process owsheet simulators, such as the JKSimMet (JKtech, 2007) and Bruno (Metso minerals, 2007) and they have produced several case studies for sand and gravel (Figure 6) and crushed rock quarries ( University of Nottingham, 2003; University of Nottingham, 2005; Mitchell, 2007a; University of Leeds, 2007) (project code: MA 2/3/007; MA 4/1/002; MA 4/5/003) . The benet in using such tools is that changes to equipment settings (crushers, screens), material ow rates or alternative circuit congurations (such as replacing a cone crusher with an impact crusher) can take place through the software, and the subsequent changes in the throughput tonnage gures and product grading can be explored. The constructed model (depending on software package) can be calibrated to take into account the physical and breakage characteristics of the rock and it may also be possible to understand and monitor the performance of equipment. Modelling can be seen as an inexpensive way to achieve optimisation in processing operations and models can be produced using either theoretical or real data. The reliability of constructed models is closely related to the accuracy of data input. Therefore, process audits combined with mass balance studies are considered essential in collecting appropriate data. The use of software tools could assist to optimise plant processing routes with the scope to minimise the production of quarry nes, but in order to validate such studies, results should be accompanied by pilot or full scale trials. Case studies (such as the example given in Figure 6) demonstrate that it is possible to reduce the production of quarry nes, nevertheless costs associated with modications to owsheets may not necessarily balance the benets seen from reduced quantities of nes. However, feasibility studies could provide the detailed information needed to decide whether a modied processing route is viable.
27
Sandstone Quarry Mid Wales Three stage crushing circuit

Feed 700mm medium Sandstone
Screen 105mm Feed 400 tph Undersize 174tph
Process Flowsheet Original process circuit
Jaw Crusher Feed 226 tph Setting 125mm
Aggregate Product 0/20 250tph 100%
Horizontal Shaft Imapct Crusher Feed / output 250 tph Tip speed 45 m/s 35mm setting
Cone Crushers Setting 14mm Feed / output 79 tph
Screens 40 / 20 mm Feed / output 329 tph Output 12 tph +40mm 67 tph +20mm 250 tph -20mm 0/20 Aggregate
Feed 700mm medium Gritstone
Screen 105mm Feed 400 tph Undersize 174tph
Process Flowsheet Modified process circuit
Jaw Crusher Feed 226 tph Setting 125mm
Aggregate Product 0/20 300tph 100%
Cone Crusher Feed / output 300 tph 35mm setting
11
Cone Crushers Setting 14mm Feed / output 167 tph
Screens 40 / 20 mm Feed / output 467 tph Output 45 tph +40mm 122 tph +20mm 300 tph -20mm 0/20 Aggregate
Conclusions: n Process change: replacement of a horizontal shaft impact (HIS) crusher with a cone crusher n Product: 0/20 aggregate has been increased from 250 to 300 tph from the same feed rate 20% increase in production n Fines: the proportion of nes has been decreased from 38% to 30% 21% decrease in nes production
Figure 6: Case study example using the Bruno mineral processing simulator (Mitchell and Benn, 2007; The University of Leeds, 2007b; Metso minerals, 2007)
28
Quarry nes are produced from various activities, but the stages of blasting and comminution are considered the most liable to generate such nes. The amount of dust produced during blasting is estimated to be as high as 20% (The University of Leeds, 2007c). Investigation into the quarry nes generated at various crushing stages was carried out and some of the results are presented together with good practice suggestions, in Table 9 (The University of Leeds, 2007c). Research undertaken by BGS identied that the quarrying sector would consider using new technologies which reduce nes production if they were economically viable and that further research work is required in identifying the capital and operational costs associated with quarry nes (Mitchell, 2007a) (project cost: MA 4/5/003). When trying to optimise comminution circuits, all parameters of inuence should be taken into consideration including the physical properties and characteristics of the rock, the mechanisms involved in various processes and operational parameters (Petavratzi, 2006). Knowledge gained from comminution research (Evertsson, 2000; Bengtsson and Evertsson, 2006; Svedensten and Evertsson, 2005; Napier-Munn et al, 1996) should be used by quarry operators to optimise the performance of their equipment and to achieve lower quantities of quarry nes. The generation of quarry nes may cause adverse impacts on the environment (such as the local air, land, water, ora and fauna) and human health, and the mitigation of potential impacts is mandatory. Commonly, various dust control practices (conventional or alternative) are employed to minimise the impact of dust generated by quarry activities (Petavratzi et al, 2005; Petavratzi, 2006; EIPPCB, 2006). Health issues and the protection of fauna and ora are addressed through the management and protection of air quality. Fines produced from sand and gravel operations are commonly separated from the wanted fraction in washing plants and silt/clays are stored in lagoons. Although this process avoids the production of dust, it results in water consumption. Research has investigated the waterless removal of nes (Mitchell, 2007b) (project code: MA 4/5/002) as a different approach in reducing water consumption, and this is reviewed elsewhere (The University of Leeds, 2007a). Quarry nes are often stored in stockpiles prior to use within the quarry or in other end applications. A substantial quantity of quarry nes are replaced in the void created during aggregate production, once activities in a specic quarry have been terminated. In accordance with the Best Available Techniques document on the Management of tailings and waste rock, good management of waste rock can be achieved by minimising its volume in the rst place and by maximising opportunities for the alternative use of production residues (EIPPCB, 2004). The generation and minimisation of quarry nes is investigated in more detail by sub-theme Optimising the Efciency of Aggregate Production. The following Sections of this report focus on utilisation opportunities available for quarry nes.
29
Production stage Primary crushing
Rock type Igneous and metamorphic Limestone
Proportion of nes in the crusher product (weight %) 3 - 6% (j)1 to 10 - 15% (g)
Good practice Changes at the closed side setting (CSS) of jaw crushers (optimising the CSS) or the feed system (such as replace choke system with nonchoke system) may reduce nes. Overall, small quantities are produced (<5%) and any changes may have little effect on the total arisings of quarry nes. During secondary and tertiary crushing higher quantities of quarry nes are produced and minimisation of them will have an effect on overall nes production. Pre-screening of the feed can remove a substantial proportion of nes, avoid packing of material in the chamber and introduce a more uniform feed distribution to the crusher. Optimisation of the closed side settings of crushers may reduce ne material. The rotor speed of impact crushers is directly proportional to the production of nes. Slower rotor speeds may reduce the amount of nes produced.
6 - 7% (j) to 20% (hm)
Sandstone
1 - 2% (j) to 15 - 20% (j, g)
Secondary crushing
Igneous and metamorphic Limestone
0 - 23% (c)
15 - 25% (c) to 30% (hm)
Sandstone
10 - 15% (c)
Tertiary crushing
Igneous and metamorphic Limestone
5 - 30% (c) to 40% (hm)
< 20% to 40% (hm)
Sandstone
~15% (c) to 40% (hm)
(j) refers to jaw crushers (g) refers to gyratory crushers (c) refers to cone crushers (hm) 9: Estimation of quarry nes crusher Table refers to hammermill/impact produced during crushing (The University of Leeds, 2007c)
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4 UTILISATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR QUARRY FINES

The utilisation of quarry nes is seen as a way to minimise the accumulation of unwanted material and at the same time to maximise resource use and efciency. As discussed in Section 2.2, utilisation opportunities for quarry nes are identied by the end user, when t-for-purpose criteria become available that allows their use.Various utilisation prospects exist for quarry nes, which can broadly be classied into unbound and bound applications. Both categories of end uses may require some degree of processing of the quarry nes to be undertaken in order to comply with technical specications. End uses falling within any of the above categories are presented in detail in the following Sections. End applications may be of high or low value, or may require a small or a large volume of quarry nes. Where applicable, the above issues are discussed. Figure 7 illustrates the applications reviewed in this report. Some quarry nes may already be used in some of the discussed uses shown in Figure 7 or they may be future utilisation opportunities. Again, these parameters are discussed where appropriate. Applications Unbound soil remineralisation, compost, articial soils, remediation site restoration, landscaping manufactured aggregates road pavements ceramic products embankment construction landll capping ller applications manufactured sand cement making green roofs straw and clay blocks asphalt pavement, bituminous blocks synthetic rock kerbs bre reinforced pre-cast units grout products Bound concrete hydraulically bound mixtures
Figure 7: Current and potential unbound and bound applications for quarry nes
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4.1 THE USE OF QUARRY FINES IN UNBOUND APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes may nd use in several unbound applications as substitutes of primary aggregates, for example, in unbound aggregate mixtures, such as subbases and cappings. Technical specications for aggregates are set by standards, for example BS EN 13242 for unbound mixtures (BSI, 2002b), with the supporting National Guidance given in PD 6682-6 (BSI, 2003f). A summary of the content of the European standard and National Guidance document is given by the Quarry Products Association (QPA, 2004). Specications for unbound mixtures products and the specications describing unbound mixtures of aggregates are found in European Standard BS EN 13285. In the UK BS EN 13285, applies to granular sub bases and cappings. The aggregates in unbound mixtures must conform to the requirements of the BS EN 13242 for: n Crushed, broken and totally rounded particles n Resistance to fragmentation n Magnesium sulfate soundness A summary of BS EN 13285 is found elsewhere (QPA, 2004).
4.1.1 BULK FILLING APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes are commonly used in reclamation of mineral workings, both alongside the development of quarrying activities and during closure. Reclamation can be an economically viable use for quarry nes, because the material is used on site instead of being transported to a different location/end user (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). Reclamation plans are controlled by the permission granted to a quarry site. (DCLG, 2006b). Backlling or inlling of voids is applied in surface and underground mineral workings, although there are cases where void lling is unnecessary (DCLG, 2006b). For instance, the extraction of sand and gravel deposits frequently means that the workings extend beneath the water table. In these cases partial lling and landscaping can convert such sites into recreational areas (Bell, 2007). Inlling voids may use various materials such as quarry nes, overburden material, tailings, slurries from lagoons, and inert waste. The physical and chemical properties, the bulking and settlement characteristics, and the compaction and stability of the ll are of great importance in backlling or inlling activities (DCLG, 2006b). The use of quarry residues in quarry lling void applications is classied as high volume and low value. Often a owable ll is required for irregular, non-uniform voids and a case study demonstrating the use of quarry nes in inll grouts is given in Section 4.2 (bound applications). Sometimes quarry nes are used for landscaping purposes within the quarry, while this is still in operation. Quarry nes may also nd use in general ll applications such as embankments, which are considered as low value, but again they may require large quantities of materials. Currently several other alternative and secondary materials are utilised in similar ways; therefore, quarry nes will have to compete in the same markets as these materials, and with primary aggregates. Whether quarry nes are used in general ll applications will be determined primarily by the cost of transport. Where demand for such uses exists in close proximity to quarries, then quarry nes could easily satisfy this demand.
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Research work investigated the use of sandstone quarry sand in engineering ll applications and conrmed its suitability. The research also identied that moisture susceptibility and frost heave would prevent its use in unbound subbase applications, unless processing removed or diluted the ller fraction (Lamb, 2005). The performance of recycled materials including building debris, crushed concrete, and quarry nes as replacement for traditional materials (that is, primary aggregates), used as ne aggregate, was investigated by researchers (Touahamia et al, 2002). The shear strength characteristics of recycled materials and quarry nes were examined with, and without, reinforcement. Results suggested that recycled materials have lower shear strength values, but the presence of geosynthetic reinforcement in recycled materials and quarry nes increased the shearing resistance of materials (Touahamia et al, 2002). Overall, unprocessed quarry nes (Type 1 group materials as classied in Table 1) can be used as bulk ll in trenches, for backlling underground caverns, in embankments, in landll construction (that is, landll capping), in offshore reef bag construction and other general lling applications (Ghataora et al, 2004). Several other examples from research papers are found in an earlier report on the Exploitation and Use of Quarry Fines (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). The geotechnical criteria that specify material suitable for use as ll are described in the European Standard BS EN 1997-1 (BSI, 2004a) and a summary is shown in Table 10.
Principle requirements to be considered n good material handling properties Applications lls beneath foundation and ground slabs backll to excavations and retaining structures general landll including hydraulic ll, landscape mounds and spoil heaps embankments for small dams and infrastructure Fill properties Grading; resistance to crushing; compactibility; permeability; plasticity; organic content; chemical aggression; pollution effects; solubility; susceptibility to volume changes (swelling clays and collapsible materials); low temperature and frost susceptibility; resistance to weathering; effect of excavation, transportation and placement; possibility of cementation occurring after placement (for example,. blast furnace slags). Table 10: Geotechnical requirements for materials used in ll applications (BSI, 2004a) Criteria Strength; stiffness; durability; permeability
n adequate engineering properties n transport/storage requirements
4.1.2 ROAD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

The Specication for Highway Works allows the use of a range of reclaimed materials including quarry nes on a site (where construction occurs) specic basis (Highways Agency, 2007a). Series 600 on Earthworks set the specications for bulk ll materials which nd application either as a general granular ll or/and general cohesive ll (Highways Agency, 2007a). These specications set detailed criteria for unacceptable materials, which are determined by their potential hazardous nature and adverse physical properties (such as, grading, moisture content, plasticity etc). Also Series 600 puts the requirements for materials used as capping on their own or as part of a mixture. Table 11 provides a summary of material properties requirements as set in Series 600. Series 800 sets the specications for unbound mixtures for subbases, which have to conform to BS EN 13285 (BSI, 2003a) and the properties of aggregates must comply with BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b). For Type 1 Unbound mixtures only up to 10% by mass of nes below 4 mm is permitted.
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Previous research has investigated the use of quarry nes in road construction (Hills et al, 2001; Touahamia et al, 2002; Lamb, 2005; Rockliff, 1996; Rezende et al, 2002). Research undertaken by TRL explored the suitability of unbound sandstone quarry sand (SQS) in a 20 metres cycle path as well as the use of SQS underlain with scalpings. The unbound section performed well and showed no signs of deteriorations during the research. The section that combined the scalpings with the SQS performed well initially, but after a period a noticeable channel appeared that highlighted the potential for a large volume of water to washout any unbound material (Lamb, 2005). Other research investigated the use of alternative materials including quarry production residues in road construction and bulk ll (Hill et al, 2001). This work stated that it is more appropriate to simulate in situ loading (physical and environmental). Results suggested that the mechanical properties of alternative materials using performance based specications are equally good to conventional materials and they could potentially be used as bulk ll (Hill et al, 2001). Another project investigated the use of quarry waste for the construction of low-volume roads. The test material consisted of 65.9% (by mass) of gravel, 12% (by mass) of sand and 22.1% (by mass) of silt and clay. The material was considered suitable to replace natural primary aggregates without incurring signicant structural weakness. However, eld studies suggested that the performance of this material is dependent of its moisture content, which is affected signicantly during rainy periods (Rezende, 2003).
Material description Granular material as general ll Critical material properties grading uniformity coefcient moisture content moisture condition value In accordance with (BSI, 1990) BS 1377-part 2
Cohesive material as general ll
BS 1377-part 2 grading BS 1377-part 2 plastic limit BS 1377-part 2 moisture content moisture condition value undrained shear strength of remoulded material BS 1377-part 2 grading optimum moisture content moisture content Los Angeles coefcient BS 1377-part 2 BS 1377-part 4
Granular material as capping (ne grained )
BS 1377-part 2 Granular material as capping (ne grained) Complying with BS EN 13285 and BS EN 13242 Unbound mixtures Table 11: A summary of Series 600 Technical specications for bulk ll materials in MCHW 1 (Highways Agency, 2007a)
4.1.3 SOIL ENHANCEMENT

Quarry nes are considered a valuable additive to soils which may help to improve its quality by providing essential nutrients to plants (for example, iron, potassium, magnesium). Quarry production residues will tend to vary according to the source they are derived from. A summary of the benets that may be seen from the use of quarry nes in soils is presented in Table 12 (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).
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Benets Enhanced soil fertility and diverse soil biology Multi-season effects Enhanced plant establishment, growth and vigour Enhancement of avour, aroma and shelf-life of produce High dry matter content, drought resistance, nutritional value and some plant disease resistance of plants In compost, increases in process performance with integrated resource use and Carbon sequestration by calcium and magnesium carbonate formation, microoral accumulation and C-accumulation as soil and crop biomass Table 12: Benets seen from the use of quarry nes in soil (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004)
The use of quarry nes for remediation and soil improvement has been addressed by previous research (Madeley, 1999; Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth online magazine, 2007). Quarry nes and dust may be used to enhance plant growth. Several projects have been undertaken (UK and overseas), which explored the use of a variety of crops with quarry nes containing soils such as brassicas with basalt/ glacial silt (Szmidt, 1998; Szmidt, 2004), soybean with sand and gravel nes (Angeles et al, 1997), acacia with granite nes (Oldeld, 1998) and other (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004). Results varied for different trials and under some circumstances they were positive, whereas in other cases no signicant changes were recorded (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online magazine, 2007). Overall however the use of a suitable combination of crops with quarry nes can enhance plant growth. There is evidence that the use of quarry nes in soils may enhance crop value as well as animal and human nutrition. Plants grown in quarry dust amended soils have higher levels of essential elements and nutritional values when compared to those produced by conventional agriculture. Recent research has identied that the nutrition content of fruits and vegetables has been dropping since initial records were taken (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online magazine, 2007). Hence, nding ways to achieve soil remineralisation and nutrition content increase is considered critical. Another benet seen from incorporating quarry nes in soils is that this action may have a positive effect on carbon cycling, but further research is required however to demonstrate this (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online magazine, 2007).
4.1.4 COMPOSTING
Quarry nes may also nd application in composting. Research in this area has been less active and only a few trials have been undertaken. Results from some trials have not shown any clear benets from the incorporation of quarry nes in compost. In another occasion, work at Glasgow University (Graham, 2001) and the Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) (Szmidt, 2004) has determined small but signicant increases in compost temperature at relatively high rates of quarry nes (20 kg/m3). Also ammonia production from compost was lower in the presence of quarry nes suggesting a lower odour potential (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).
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In the UK, some extensive work, funded through the MIST project investigated the use of basaltic quarry nes with organic process residues for the development of growing media.Various combinations of quarry nes and compost were trialled and grass and tomato plant pot experiments were set up to assess the performance of different blends. Field trials, at a local quarry were also set up. The main parameters investigated were plants growth, the leachability of nutrients and potential contaminants, and physical properties (such as, inltration, water holding capacity, and shear strength) of blends tested in lysimeters. Results suggested that most quarry nes interact positively with compost and vice-versa to allow development of novel growing media suitable for horticultural and land restoration uses. However, further research work is required to understand and assess the inuence of quarry production residues on compost (Guillou and Davies, 2004) (project code MA 1/3/003). Specications for composted materials are set by the Publicly Available Specications for Composted Materials (PAS 100, 2005). The BSI PAS 100 covers various key elements related to composting such as process control, input materials, sanitation, stabilisation, quality requirements, sampling frequency, classication and others (PAS 100, 2005). However, according to PAS 100 and the compost quality protocol, quarry production residues are not included in the list of permitted materials (PAS 100, 2005; Environment Agency et al, 2007). The latter is limited to biodegradable materials only. The deliberate addition of nonbiodegradable materials (for example, basaltic nes) is not allowed. The provision of data that justify the suitability of quarry nes in the composting process could permit incorporation. This however will have to be classied on a case by case basis (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).
4.1.5 ARTIFICIAL SOILS

Quarry nes may also be used to produce articial soils. The British Standard BS 3882 (BSI, 1994) species topsoil requirements. According to BS 3882, three grades of topsoil are established, premium, the general purpose, and economy grade (BSI, 1994). Topsoil is classied to any of the above grades after review of the following characteristics (BSI, 1994): n n n n n n Textural classication Maximum stone content pH value Nutrients content Loss on ignition Exchangeable sodium percentage
Past research into articial soils suggests that blending quarry production residues (such as sandstone quarry sand) with organic material (i.e compost, agricultural waste) might produce an articial soil (Lamb, 2005; Keeling et al, 2001; Mitchell et al, 2004). Results determined that the textural classication of premium grade topsoil can be achieved by using a 70:30 (v/v) blend of the ller fraction (<75 m) of sandstone quarry sand or as produced sandstone quarry sand and a suitable organic material. The grading requirements for premium topsoil are met by the ller fraction, but not from the as produced sandstone quarry sand (Lamb, 2005). Specic types of quarry nes, such as from limestone quarrying activities may be used to remediate acidic soils. In a project funded through the MIST programme, limestone quarry nes were used in combination with steel slag nes and compost to remediate acidic colliery spoil sites. Grass growing trials were undertaken at various compositions of colliery spoil, limestone dust and steel slag. Results conrmed that the most appropriate mix will contain 5% of each limestone and compost and 4% of steel slag (Tarmac Ltd
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and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA 4/2/019). Further research is currently undertaken from Birmingham University in remediated acidic sites using quarry wastes (project code MA 6/4/02) (Birmingham University, 2007).
4.1.6 FILLER APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes may substitute primary materials which are used as llers in paper, paint, plastics, rubber and elsewhere. Mineral llers are used in a wide range of commodities and commonly comprise ne grained materials (<2 mm). Fillers used in certain end uses must full specic requirements. For instance the production of photocopier paper and household paints must use llers with high brightness levels and good rheological properties. In order to satisfy such demand, primary materials like kaolin, calcium carbonate or talc are used and sold at a relatively high cost in order to recover total production costs (extraction and processing). Quarry nes could not comply with the requirements for high value ller applications. Nevertheless they could be used as general llers in papermaking (for example, packaging paper), pigments (for example, marine paint), plastics (for example, glass reinforced plastics), membranes and rubber (tyres, cable) (MIRO, 2001a; Bonney et al, 2000). Research investigated the use of mineral residues of calcareous and siliceous composition from aggregate quarries in end uses such as elastomeric membranes, paints, paper and plastic. The aim of this research was to develop low cost by-product llers where product specications and end use do not demand highgrade llers. Siliceous and calcareous quarry nes have been shown to be suitable for use in elastomeric membranes and a large scale trial was carried out for the calcareous materials. Trials were undertaken to establish the compatibility of these materials with paints, but results were not positive. However it was found out that micronised calcareous quarry nes could partially substitute extenders and produce a reasonable quality of paints. The use of calcareous micronised quarry nes in the production of glass reinforced plastics was also examined and it was found out that partial substitution of extenders does not impair the quality of the panels produced. Finally, micronised calcareous quarry nes could substitute up to 5% wood pulp in paper pulp without inuencing the production procedure (MIRO, 2001a; MIRO, 2001b; Bonney et al, 2000).
4.1.7 OTHER APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes could also nd use in the production of Portland cement. The cement sector has been active in trying to utilise such material for the preparation of kiln meal (Petavratzi and Barton, 2007). The cement making process requires four major constituent oxides to be present, namely CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. Therefore, quarry nes with the above constituents may be applicable for use. Materials used in clinkers recipe are blended to specication prior to use and it is anticipated that various other alternative materials may be found suitable. The production of meals suitable for cement is often undertaken by a secondary industry sector specialised in blending. Quarry production residues, which present some of the essential ingredients and low compositional variability, could be used in cement manufacture (Petavratzi and Barton, 2007). Current cement standards (BS EN 197-1) only refer to well established alternative materials (i.e pulverized fuel ash) commonly used for the production of blended cements (BSI, 2000a). The use of quarry nes and other alternative materials pre-kiln is relatively new and further research work should be undertaken to determine its full potential.
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Finally quarry nes might nd application in new, innovative products such as green roofs, eco-friendly slates, cob building, light earth or straw clay, earth bags and earth plasters. In green roofs, clay, silt and quarry nes could be used in the soil and aggregate mixtures, and scalpings in the aggregate mixture. The particle size distribution and particle shape of quarry production residues are considered critical parameters that will determine their utilisation potential. Currently there are no specications on green roofs in the UK and the market is limited, although it is anticipated that changes will be seen in the near future due to active research and development. Further information can be found in GreenSpec website (GreenSpec, 2007a) and the Green Roof Centre (The Green Roof Centre, 2007). Eco-friendy slates for roong are produced by one manufacturer in the UK by resin-bonded recycled plastic and dolomite/limestone nes. Dolomite or limestone comprises a ller material in this application. Byproduct llers derived from quarry nes might be suitable to this product, but further research should be undertaken to determine this. (E-C-B-UK, 2007; GreenSpec, 2007b). Quarry production residues could also be used in earth construction applications. For example, clay, silt and quarry nes could be used in cob building and straw clay end uses. Again more research work is required to determine the applicability of quarry nes in earth construction. More information on earth construction can be found elsewhere (Sustainable Build, 2007).
4.2 THE USE OF QUARRY FINES IN BOUND APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes could be diverted and utilised in various bound applications such as controlled low strength materials, masonry products, asphalt and asphalt surface treatments, hydraulic bound mixtures and mortar. Technical standards (British and European) specify the requirements for aggregate materials used in bound applications. The BS EN 12620 sets the criteria for aggregates to be used in concrete (BSI, 2002a). The accompanying National Guidance Document PD6682-1 provides information on the application of the standard to the UK (BSI, 2003g). The product standard BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e) and the PD 6682-2 (BSI, 2003e) corresponds to aggregates used for asphalt and surface treatment. The BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b) and the supporting PD 6682-6 sets the specications for aggregates used in hydraulic bound uses (BSI, 2003f). Finally the BS EN 13139 (BSI, 2002c) and the National Guidance PD 6682-3 (BSI, 2003h) set the requirements for aggregates used in mortar. The content and relevance of the above technical standards with quarry production residues is discussed in the following sections together with ndings from relevant research that demonstrate the potential utilisation of quarry nes in bound applications.
4.2.1 CONTROLLED LOW STRENGTH MATERIALS

Controlled low strength materials (CLSM) are dened as self-compacting, low strength, cementitious materials used primarily as backll in lieu of compacted ll (ACI, 1999).Controlled low strength material is characterised by high workability, low density and low strength, which allows for self-compaction. Fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and waste foundry sand, are commonly found in owable ll mixtures (Naik et al., 2003), but non-standard materials such as quarry nes may also be used to produce CLSM as far as they satisfy the requirements for intended applications. According to the Federal Highway Administrations (FHWAs) Ofce of Research, Development, and Technology, quarry residues such as screenings, pond nes and baghouse nes can be used as a ller
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aggregate or as a partial or possibly a complete replacement for the pozzolan component in owable ll mixes (TFHRC, 2007). Screenings may substitute sand, whereas pond and baghouse nes could partially or completely used instead of conventional aggregates. It is anticipated that nes produced from comminution and screening will not require any additional processing except from some minimal sizing or drying if they exhibit high moisture content. Pond nes will require some type of dewatering prior to use. Engineering properties of quarry residues that are of particular importance to quarry nes are gradation, moisture content and unit weight, whereas properties such as the mix strength, the owability, the time of set and the bleeding and shrinkage determine the performance of the controlled low strength material (CLSM) (TFHRC, 2007). Research investigated the use of y ash, rice husk ash and quarry dust as potential by-products in controlled low strength materials. Quarry nes were obtained from a granite quarry and comprised material below 4.75 mm. Trials explored different mixtures such as cement-y ash-quarry nes, cement-quarry nes and cementrice husk-quarry nes (Nataraja and Nalanda, 2007). Engineering properties such as owability, density, uniaxial compressive strength, stress-strain behaviour, water absorption and volume change were investigated. Results suggested that the engineering properties of CLSM can be achieved satisfactorily using a very small amount of cement and a large amount of quarry nes. When the by-product content was increased, the water-cement ratio also increased linearly to get a specic ow. Quarry nes could substitute sand in CLSM. Quarry dust content (<75 m) as high as 96% by weight, could be mixed with owable ll without noticeable segregation and bleeding. The uniaxial compressive strength test results were acceptable and the stress- strain behaviour results suggested that quarry nes could be used for soil-like material applications in producing CLSM (Nataraja and Nalanda, 2007). In another project quarry nes were used as the main constituent of a pumpable inll grout (Tarmac Ltd and Associates, 2007; Ghataora et al, 2004) (project code: MA 4/2/019). Laboratory trials and modelling studies were carried out to establish the constituents of potential mixes, and were followed by eld trials that veried the pumping qualities of a selection of mixes (Ghataora et al, 2004). Limestone quarry nes below 4 mm were used in eld trials and several mixtures were prepared with different ratios of water-cementquarry nes and in one of the trials foaming agent, whereas the effect of pumping aid was also investigated. Two different eld trials were undertaken and both explored the pumpability of different mixtures and the compaction properties. The objective of these trials was to examine the suitability of owable lls in underground void lling and back-lling applications. The product expected to be utilised in underground void lling was required to have free owing properties, to be able to be pumped long distances, to have a low strength and to contain a high content of quarry nes. The properties investigated for the material used as a backll were the pumpability, 3-day strength, bleed and segregation after placement. Results suggested the following: (Tarmac Ltd and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA 4/2/019): n Quarry nes could be pumped by hydro-transport techniques using water only n Quarry nes could be developed into cementitious pastes and pumped over long distances n Pastes based on quarry nes can be pumped over long distances without segregating thus providing an alternative material to pulverized-fuel ash n Overall the pumpable grouts would be suitable for low value, bulk inll products such as void inll or reinstatement of utility excavations. Limestone quarry nes were used in one project as a substitute for natural sand (approximately to 50% by
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mass) for the production of selfcompacting concrete (SCC). Fines content (<75 m) of 10% (by mass) was included in the limestone quarry nes, which was absent in the natural sand. The substitution reduced the requirement for chemical admixtures, without affecting the strength of the self-compacting concrete (Naik et al, 2005). In one research, three types of limestone quarry nes were tested as substitutes for cement. Results suggested that a 10% replacement of cement with quarry nes produce a self-compacting concrete with good rheological properties in its fresh state and compressive strengths and drying shrinkage at hardened state (Felekoglu, 2006). The use of granite quarry nes in self-compacting concrete was investigated against limestone nes. Granite nes had a ner particle size distribution and higher akiness index than its limestone equivalent. Research demonstrated that granite nes could be successfully incorporated into SCC. When granite nes were compared with limestone particles, then it was concluded that they required a higher dosage of superplasticiser for similar yield stresses and rheological properties for routine use in SCC. The consistency of quarry nes overtime may be an issue, and durability issues such as alkali-silica reaction should be investigated in detail (Ho et al, 2002). Other examples are reviewed by other authors (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). Geotechnical design and properties are determined by European standards (Eurocode 7) (BSI, 2004a), whereas the properties of the aggregates used in controlled low strength materials should comply with BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a).
4.2.2 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED CONCRETE

The use of quarry nes in concrete is well established, in particular where arisings become available from local sources (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). Technical specications for concrete are given in BS EN 206-1 (BSI, 2000f)( and the complementary British Standard, BS 8500 (BSI, 2006a; BSI, 2006b) (part 1 and part 2). Other standards which relate to specic end products exist and some of them are summarised in Table 21 in Appendix IV (Price, 2002; WRAP, 2007c). Specications for aggregates used are given in BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a). The production of concrete requires the use of coarse aggregate (>4 mm) and ne aggregate (<4 mm) and in some cases also ller aggregate (< 63 m). Filler aggregates are obtained by processing natural, recycled or manufactured aggregates. In some European countries it is common practice to set a minimum nes content and to use ne ller aggregate, as it may be benecial in minimizing voids and bleeding in concrete (BSI, 2003g) The aggregates for concrete standard species the geometrical, physical and chemical requirements for aggregates and a summary of them is given in Table 13.
BS EN standard requirement Properties Geometrical Aggregate sizes Grading Aggregate shape Shell content Fines content Physical Fines quality Resistance to fragmentation Resistance to wear Polished stone value Aggregate abrasion value Durability Applicable to/Methodology (Sieve apertures) Coarse and ne aggregate Coarse aggregate (akiness index) Coarse aggregate Coarse, ne, ller aggregate (up to 11% for all-in aggregate) Fine/Filler aggregate (Harmfulness that is, clay content) Los Angeles method Coarse aggregates Coarse aggregate (for highways surfaces uses) Magnesium sulfate soundness test
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Chemical
Chlorides Sulphur rich compounds Other constituents Carbonate content
Water soluble ion chloride Acid soluble sulfates and total sulfur Constituents that alter setting and hardening of concrete Fine aggregates concrete pavement surface sources
Table 13: Requirements for aggregates for concrete according to BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a)
Technical specications on the use of aggregates for mortar are set by BS EN 13139 (BSI, 2002c), with the supporting National Guidance given in PD 6682-3 (BSI, 2003b). Grading requirements place greater emphasis on consistency of products based on typical grading gures with controlling tolerances and overall requirements on designated sieves (QPA, 2007). Quarry nes may be produced to comply with standards for concrete or mortar, specication. There are cases when the nes cannot meet the technical requirements, or the local concrete or/and mortar market cannot absorb the quantities produced, or that even a suitable local market may be absent. Under such circumstances, quarry nes remain unused. Unfortunately there is little data on the technical suitability and market availability for quarry nes to be used in concrete or mortar, and the only existing information comprises anecdotal evidence provided from interviews with the industry (Mitchell, 2007a) (project code: MA 4/5/003). According to such anecdotal evidence, hard rock and sandstone quarries produce nes as a result of high demand for 10 mm aggregate. At some hard rock quarries, demand exceeds supply and aggregate producers re-crush single-size aggregate to create more nes. Sandstone quarry nes produced from some sites are consumed locally, whereas some other sites have no sales and stockpiles are increasing, often matching a critical level, which constrains the continuity of quarrying activities (The University of Leeds, 2007a). Research has investigated the use of quarry nes in various concrete applications. The International Center for Aggregates Research (ICAR) explored the use of micrones (particles below 75 m) in concrete. According to American Standards (ASTM C33) a maximum of 7% (by mass) micrones is allowed in some applications, when adverse constituents such as clay or shale are absent. Trials were undertaken using 63 samples of ne aggregate from seven different rock types and characterisation included standard tests such as specic gravity, gradation, absorption, uncompacted void content, as well as less commonly used tests, like laser diffraction, particle sizing, chemical analysis and the methylene blue method. Tests were conducted on mortar mixes containing ne aggregate. Findings suggested that manufactured ne aggregate mortars with high nes content generally had higher exural strength, improved abrasion resistance, higher unit weight and lower permeability due to lling of pores with micrones. Compression strength and shrinkage were within generally acceptable ranges. Manufactured ne aggregate can be produced from a variety of rock types such as limestone, granite, quartzite, diabase and dolomite. Hence concrete can be manufactured using all of the aggregate, including micrones from 7 to 18% without the use of admixtures (Ahn and Fowler, 2001). The use of limestone nes (90% of material passing 300 m), cumulated from limestone quarrying activities, was examined by one research project. This work looked at the use of limestone nes combined with Portland cement (with or without the use of waste glass powder) (Turgut, 2006). Other research looked at the use of limestone nes with a small quantity of Portland cement was explored for the production of articial stone. Cement to limestone dust ratio and compaction pressure, were considered as the two independent process variables and compressive strength represented the dependent variable (Galetakis and Raka, 2004a; Galetakis and Raka, 2004b). Experimental work from both projects showed that quarry dust cement combination can be utilised for the production of moulded masonry blocks with acceptable
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mechanical and physical properties (Turgut, 2006; Galetakis and Raka, 2004a; Galetakis and Raka, 2004b). Hanson Aggregates manufactures structural concrete in Wales (Craig-yr-Hesg) using 12% unseparated sandstone quarry nes. The product is being sold as standard C35 strength concrete (35 N/mm2). However measurements identied that the strength of the nal product would be considerably higher than 35 N/mm2 after 28 days. Therefore, it was proposed that, if the ller was to be removed, then much greater proportions of the coarser grained material could be incorporated into the mix, while retaining the desirable strength value (Lamb, 2005). Also sandstone quarry sand (SQS)is used in block manufacture, in a mass percentage up to 10% of 6 mm aggregate to prevent balling and voids. This is common practice for a number of companies in South Wales (Lamb, 2005). The ller fraction of the sandstone quarry sand (SQS) was tested as a cement replacement material. Physical and chemical analysis results determined that this material could be used as a cement substitute, subject to the end user requirements and materials availability. The leachate results showed a signicant increase in lime, when SQS was added to mortar, which may cause eforescence on concrete products. The pozzolanicity results were positive, but it was found out that this material contains a very high insoluble residue, which limits its use in cement only as ller. Although overall results were considered positive, it was thought that further work would be required to determine if additional routine testing requirements were essential for using SQS in cement. It was also unclear if it would be practical for the quarry to separate the ller from the SQS and also dry the material prior to inclusion with the cement mix (Lamb, 2005). The use of silt and clays (SiO2 composition) obtained from crushed granite stone (<150 m and between 75 and 150 m) was tested as cement substitutes and it was found out that up to 25% of cement replacement could be achieved without affecting the durability of concrete, namely parameters such as strength, workability and impermeability. Silt and clays expressed reactive properties and they could be used as reactive minerals. Although the inclusion of silt and clay increased the water / cement ratio, it was thought that the problem could be solved by using high specic surface area material with a superplasticizer admixture (Chan and Wu, 2000). The production of concrete for sea defence structures using limestone quarry nes was investigated by laboratory experimentation undertaken by the University of Birmingham. The aim was to produce concrete structures for erosion control. The strength of concrete at 28 days was higher than the specied, but the project did not move forward as economic evaluation showed that this application was not cost effective (Ghataora et al, 2004). An analytical literature review is presented in the report Exploitation and use of quarry nes and further literature ndings can be reviewed there (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).
4.2.3 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS HEAVY CERAMICS

Heavy ceramics such as bricks, tiles and pipes could absorb some quantities of quarry nes from local sources, but it is expected that utilisation rates will be much lower than in concrete and controlled low strength applications. The market for bricks has changed signicantly after the introduction of concrete blocks, as the latter replaced common bricks. This resulted to a shift to producing facing bricks used for aesthetic purposes (BGS, 2007). Brickworks commonly own clay quarries, which provide the primary raw
42
materials. However, other constituents derived from primary, secondary and waste sources are also utilised in order to satisfy market competition, which requires from companies to produce large portfolios with different product. Technical specications on masonry products, as described in BS EN 771-1, (BSI, 2003i) apply to ceramic products such as bricks and they set the requirements for a variety of physical properties such as density, dimensions, thermal properties, compression strength, water absorption and others. Fit-for-use criteria for raw materials are not currently available, because historically brick manufacturers utilised only primary materials from their own clay quarries and the use of alternative materials has not progressed sufciently to require the development of a new set of specications. A recent research project looked at the utilisation of various alternative materials in brick making. A characterisation framework was developed based on end user requirements. The framework aimed to characterise constituent materials according to their contribution to the end product (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006). The approach and ndings of this research is presented in Section 2.2.2 and Table 4. Depending on the physical (that is, composition) and chemical characteristics (for example, soluble salts content) of quarry nes, they may be used as ller, clay substitute, colourant, uxing agent or even body fuels (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006). Examples of quarry nes that could potentially be suitable for use in bricks categories are given in Table 20, in Appendix III. According to responses from brick manufacturers, the inclusion of quarry nes in bricks, in a percentage of 3 to 5% by mass, is possible without affecting the appearance and properties of end product. Nevertheless the brick sector will only choose to introduce materials to the process that will provide some clear benets to the appearance of the end product (for example, desirable colour) or the manufacturing process (for example, uxing) (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006). The incorporation of quarry nes in ceramic products has been explored by several other research projects and a summary of ndings is shown in Table 14. A review of other literature sources can be found elsewhere (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).
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Project Acid resisting bricks from kaolin ne quarry residues, granulated blastfurnace slag (GBFS) and granite-basalt ne quarry residues
Findings The performance and characteristics of these bricks were compared with conventional ones made of clay, feldspar and sand. The study suggested that it is possible to produce acid resistant bricks, which satised the technical specications in place, by using (by mass) 50% kaolin nes, 20% granite-basalt nes and 30% granulated blastfurnace slag at a ring temperature of 1125 oC. Recovered slate waste in This study examined the characteristics of the raw materials (slate sintered structural tiles waste), the sintering process, the suitability for processing by powder manufactured by powder technology and the nal properties of the end product. The obtained technology results showed that recovered slate waste is a suitable material for use in ceramic tiles, since their properties are within the range of those of conventional ceramic tiles Slate powder waste in ceramics Green ceramic pieces from slate powder waste have a potential use using the slip casting process in the manufacturing of ceramic pieces by the slip casting process. Unred earth bricks (that is, Although currently there is no clear evidence that demonstrate the compressed unred bricks, use of quarry nes, it is believed that clays and manufactured sand light unred bricks, unred clay produced as by-products from the extraction of aggregates could bricks) nd application in unred bricks. Marble and granite reject to Addition of up to 30% (by weight) of non-beneciated, ne grained enhance the processing of clay and low iron marble and granite reject in red clay based mixture did products not alter the properties of the end product and reduced the ring temperature. Granite sawing wastes in ceramic Granite wastes have physical and mineralogical characteristics similar bricks and tiles to those of conventional ceramic raw materials. The technological characteristics are in agreement with standards for ceramic bricks and tiles. Additions up to 35% (by weight) can be achieved at ring temperatures up to 1200oC.
Reference (El-Mahllawy, 2007)
(Campos et al, 2004)
(Mansur et al, 2006) (GreenSpec, 2007c)
(Segadaes et al, 2005)
(Menezes et al, 2005)
Table 14: Literature ndings on the use of quarry nes in heavy ceramic products
4.2.4 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS MANUFACTURED AGGREGATES

The production and use of manufactured aggregates, although limited currently in the UK is expected to increase in the future due to changes in legislation and government initiatives, such as the work undertaken by WRAP (The Waste and Resources Action Programme) that promote the specication of good practice recycled content products (WRAP, 2007d). Manufactured aggregates produced using only quarry nes will result to dense products and their end applications is considered limited as primary aggregate sources are readily available at lower cost. However the production of lightweight aggregates is benecial, because it could assist to the development of lightweight products and at the same time consume waste materials and by-products that are currently being landlled. Technical specications for lightweight aggregates for concrete are set by BS EN 13055. Part 1 (BSI, 2002d) together with the National Guidance Document PD 6682-4 (BSI, 2003c). Part 2 of BS EN 13055 species lightweight aggregates for bound and unbound materials (BSI, 2004b) and it is accompanied by the National Guidance Document PD 6682-5 (BSI, 2005). Research in this area has been active and several trials and projects have been developed that investigated the use of quarry nes in the production of manufactured aggregates. The quarrying of ragstone in Kent produces in excess approximately 200,000 tonnes of poor quality ne grained material and research was conducted to identify the suitability of this material in the production of manufactured aggregates. In the South-East of
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England, only 40% of the aggregate required for construction can be supplied by local sources, which is seen as a driver towards the use of manufacture aggregates. Quarry nes comprises poorly cemented sandstone with high nes content (16.5%) and it has not been found to be suitable for use as an engineering material or as ne aggregate in concrete. Washing the nes could remove the excess nes content and provide an appropriate concrete aggregate, but the installation of a washing plant is expensive. Quarry nes were blended with other solid waste products (namely cement kiln dust, ground granulated blastfurnace slag and pulverized-fuel ash) and were pelletised in a CO2-rich atmosphere. The nal products may nd potential use as secondary lightweight aggregates, for structural concrete, concrete block manufacture or highways application, if proved suitable through compliance with BS EN 13055 (Padeld et al, 2004). The potential use of quarry nes (<4 mm) combined with recycled plastics for the production of manufactured aggregates was investigated by research. The Plasmega process involved the mixing of shredded plastic waste and quarry nes at controlled temperatures to produce lightweight aggregates. A range of different plastics to nes ratios, which varied from 60 to 80% for quarry nes and 20 to 40% for general plastic waste, were used in these trials. Plastic waste was delivered in bales and consisted primarily of general waste (variety of plastic). Contaminants such as wood and metals were separated before and during shredding. Quarry nes consisted of gritstone and limestone, but trial batches were also produced using steel slag, lagoon silt, sand and china clay waste. Fines were added to the mixer rst followed by the shredded plastics and combined together at a temperature between 250 to 260oC for 6 to 8 minutes. The mix was fed directly into a briquette plant that produced a 40 mm diameter ovoid, which were subsequently crushed using a hammer mill. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the properties of the nished product and small scale trials were undertaken of the use of Plasmega in asphalt, concrete and block manufacture. Results suggested that from a technical point of view, the process technology appears to be viable and aggregates of consistent quality can be produced for the 50:50 and 60:40 nes/plastic blends of materials. Based on the aggregate abrasion value and the magnesium sulphate soundness value, the produced aggregate is considered a hard and durable material. The polished stone value results especially for the limestone mixes suggested that the manufactured aggregate may not be suitable for surface course material. Asphalt materials containing the lightweight aggregate required an extra binder to achieve full coating and to ensure durability of the material. Overall it was concluded that the Plasmega aggregate could potentially be used in asphalt and unbound applications, but further work should be carried out through full scale trials to determine this. The fundamental obstacle to the process was considered to be the ready supply of usable waste plastic at cost appropriate to make the product competitive (Tarmac Ltd and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA 4/2/019). Lightweight aggregates were produced using marine clay and a CaF2-rich semiconductor industry sludge using a bench-scale rotary kiln. The scope of this study was to produce an aggregate source in the area of Singapore, utilising marine clay produced during excavation in construction sites, which is currently treated as waste. Different clay to sludge ratios were trialled (90/10, 70/30, 50/50 (mass %)). All three mixtures showed good bloating behaviour during ring and the ceramic pellets (1 1.5 cm diameter) had densities below that required for lightweight aggregates. The water absorption of the aggregates was high due to large pore size, which could be altered by changing the clay to sludge ratio or the ring conditions. Also the composition of the aggregate showed a signicant loss of uorine (40-60%) during processing, but leach testing suggested that aggregates would not pose a human or environmental hazard due to uorine mobilization. The aggregates were considered suitable for the manufacture of low strength building blocks (Laursen et al, 2006). Clay produced from aggregate quarries could also comprise the binder rather than the
45
base material in manufactured aggregates. In other work lightweight aggregates were produced using a rotary kiln by mixing combustion ashes such as pulverized-fuel ash, incinerated sewage sludge ash, municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash with a binder such as clay (Wainwright and Cresswell, 2000; Wainwright and Cresswell, 2001). Unless energy consumption associated with the production of lightweight aggregates is reduced, the wide use of such materials is expected to be limited as the competition from alternatives such as primary, secondary and recycled aggregates is high. A project currently carried out within the Fifth call of the MIST programme investigates the use of microwave technology to produce lightweight aggregate from quarry wastes, which may result in energy savings. This project is currently underway and it is expected to establish the technical and economical feasibility of microwave processing in the manufacture of sustainable construction materials (The University of Nottingham, 2007) (project code: MA 6/4/006).
4.2.5 HYDRAULICALLY BOUND MIXTURES

Hydraulically bound mixtures (HBMs) comprise a combination of aggregates with binder mixtures that set and harden in the presence of water. Hydraulically bound mixtures can employ different types of hydraulic binders and they are therefore classied as Cement Bound Granular Mixtures (CBGM), Slag Bound Mixtures (SBM) and Fly Ash Bound Mixtures (FABM). Cement bound mixtures commonly use Portland cement, whereas slag bound mixtures and y ash bound mixtures utilise granulated blast furnace slag (and depending on mixture type also include partially ground granulated blast furnace slag and ground granulated blast furnace slag) and y ash respectively as the binder phase. Hydraulically bound mixtures nd application in road (major, minor roads) and paving construction (paved areas, heavy duty paving), in shore and slope protection, ood protection, dams, liners, container embankment structures, river/canal bank protection and backll. In pavement construction, HBMs can nd application in base, subbase and capping layers. Quarry nes could be utilised as an aggregate or in the production of alternative binders (for example, in composite cement), material below 4 mm could nd application as ne aggregate in HBMs. Technical specications on aggregates for hydraulically bound mixtures are given by BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b) and the accompanying National Guidance document PD 6682-6 (BSI, 2003b). The European Standard sets specic requirements for the geometry, physical, chemical and durability properties of aggregates, a summary of which is shown in Table 15. The Manual of Contract for Highways Work,Volume 1 and Series 800 (Highways Agency, 2007a) sets the requirements for hydraulically bound materials used in road pavement. According to Specication for Highway Works, china clay and slate waste is included in the list of alternative materials that could be used as aggregates, whereas the use of quarry nes may be considered by the Overseeing Organisation on a site specic basis. Also the Interim Advice Note 73/06 (Highways Agency, 2006) provides guidance on the construction of road pavement foundations and has to be applied during all road construction, implementation, improvement and maintenance works. The European Standards for HBMs are divided into two main series, the BS EN 14227 series (BSI, 2004c), which covers specications for hydraulically bound mixtures and the BS EN 13286 series which cover test methods for HBM (BSI, 2003d). The use of sandstone quarry sand (SQS) in cement bound road subbase was investigated. Physical data suggested that the material would form a good subbase in terms of strength and compaction. The sandstone quarry sand could comfortably meet the specication for a cement bound subbase (CBM 1). Four different mixes utilising 50, 75, 100 and 125 kg/m3 cement contents based on a density of 2,200 kg/m3 were prepared and test cubes were compacted at moisture content of 9% by mass of aggregate. Results suggested that
46
blocks displayed a steady increase in compressive strength with cement content. The 4.5 N/mm2 requirement for CBM1 was satised for materials with cement content falling between 75 and 100 kg/m3. Also, the 7 day compressive strength of 4.5 N/mm2 would be achieved by materials with 100 kg/m3 cement content and by adding approximately 4% of cement to SQS (Lamb, 2005). The utilisation of recycled and secondary materials in hydraulically bound mixtures has been studied in the past (Dunster et al, 2005a; Dunster et al, 2005b). Alternative materials such as silt dredging, pulverized-fuel ash, clay and steel slag nes were trialled in applications that involved stabilisation for erosion protection and in road construction and paving (Dunster et al, 2005b). The advantages seen from using alternative materials in HBM were end product related (such as, higher strength was achieved), economic (for example, avoid disposal cost or transport of primary aggregates), environmental (such as, reduced pollution associated with transport) and operational (such as, easy to handle and use). Technical guidance on the use of alternative materials in HBMs for different applications such as in major road or minor road construction, erosion protection, liners and heavy pavement was produced within this project (Dunster et al, 2005c; Dunster et al, 2005d; Dunster et al, 2005e). The referenced case studies provide some good examples of utilisation of alternative materials in HBM and it is anticipated that similar benets could be achieved by using quarry nes. Research is currently being undertaken within the MIST programme (sixth call Thematic Value: Optimising Resource Value) on the use of quarry dust in hydraulically bound mixtures for construction applications. The scope of this project is to carry out a detailed literature review of existing studies, to develop specications for HBMs with quarry nes in their structure, to undertake laboratory investigation and to produce a guidance document and technical report which will include all project ndings. It is anticipated that this project will be completed during 2008 (Scott Wilson, 2007) (project code: MA 6/4/003).
BS/EN standard Properties requirement Geometrical Grading Applicable to/ methodology Coarse, ne and all in aggregates (determines sieve apertures; break point between coarse and ne aggregates = 4 mm)
Crushed and broken Coarse aggregates (assesses the potential for mechanical interlock between the surfaces coarse aggregate particles; in accordance with BS EN 933-5:1998 (BSI, 1998) Fines content Coarse, ne and all-in aggregates (percentage passing a 63 m sieve; the Specication for Highway Works however species a 75 m sieve; adopted category will be determined from end use) Los Angeles test Coarse aggregate (Micro-Deval test) In accordance with BS EN 1097-6 (BSI, 2000b) Applicable to blast furnace slag aggregate only Low content in aggregate sources in the UK, so unless stated this is not applicable
Physical
Resistance to fragmentation Resistance to wear Particle density
Chemical
Acid-soluble sulfate Total sulfur
Constituents which Commonly not applicable in the UK alter the rate of setting and hardening of hydraulically bound mixtures Durability Based on water In the UK, aggregates are considered satisfactory without further testing if they absorption value conform to water absorption WA242. Aggregates with water absorption above 2% should satisfy general purposes uses if they conform to the magnesium sulfate soundness category MS Table 15: Requirements for aggregates for hydraulically bound mixtures35in accordance with BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)
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The use of quarry nes is under investigation by Scott Wilson and Transport Research Laboratory. This project is due to be completed in 2008 (Scott Wilson and TRL, 2007). The objective of this project is to characterise a range of different quarry nes, with and without hydraulic binders, and to develop procedures for the use in pavement engineering. (Scott Wilson and TRL, 2007). Further information and case studies on the use of quarry nes in hydraulically bound mixtures can be found elsewhere (Manning, 2004; Zoorob et al, 2002).
4.2.6 ASPHALT APPLICATIONS

Quarry nes may be used in asphalt paving and surface treatment as ne aggregate or/and ller. Technical requirements for aggregates used in asphalt are covered by BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e) with the supporting document PD 6682-2 (BSI, 2003e). According to BS EN 13043, ne aggregate suitable for asphalt comprise the particle size fraction below 2 mm and as ller, the aggregate most of which passes the 63 m sieve, which can be added to construction materials to provide certain properties. A summary of requirements for aggregates used in asphalt according to BS EN 13043 is shown in Table 16. The Specication for Highway Works, Series 900 sets the requirements for bituminous bound materials used in road pavement construction (Highways Agency, 2007). Also technical standards such as the BS EN 12697 (part 11) (BSI, 2000c) species the compatibility between aggregate and bitumen and the BS EN 13179 (BSI, 2000d) describes testing for ller aggregate used in bituminous mixtures. By the beginning of 2008, new European Specications for asphalt, its constituents, and methods of testing will be introduced (QPA, 2007b).
BS/ EN standard Properties requirement Geometry Grading Fines content Applicable to/ methodology Coarse, ne and all in aggregates; break point between coarse and ne aggregates = 2 mm Fine aggregate (percentage passing a 63 m sieve; the methylene blue test is not considered sufciently precise in the UK; compliance with the nes content limit or evidence of satisfactory use is required instead; in British Standards a 75 m sieve is specied) Los Angeles test Coarse aggregates (In accordance with BS EN 1097-8 (BSI, 2000e); guidance on minimum polished stone values is given in the Highways Agency Design Manual For Roads and Bridges (Highways Agency, 2004) Measurement of the aggregate abrasion value (in accordance with BS EN 1097-8) (BSI, 2000e) The magnesium sulfate soundness test is recommended Testing is recommended for recycled aggregates only Recommended tests: particle size distribution and loose bulk density in kerosene in accordance with BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e)
Physical
Durability Chemical
Resistance to fragmentation Resistance to polishing of coarse aggregate for surface courses Resistance to surface abrasion Soundness Coarse lightweight contaminants Requirements for ller aggregate
Table 16: Requirements for aggregates for asphalt and surface treatment (BSI, 2002e)
The use of quarry nes as aggregate or ller for asphalt has been investigated by research, and where possible, such materials are utilised. A good example is the use of china clay waste in the A30 Bodmin to Indian Queens dual carriageway, where approximately 800,000 tonnes of material have been utilised for the new road and asphalt layers. The use of china clay waste reduced the demand for primary materials, minimised the pollution from long distance transport of quarried stone, as well as reduced the associated
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costs, and provided social benets such as less nuisance to local communities from transport, and employment opportunities (Highways Agency, 2007b). The REFILL project, funded by the EU BriteEURam programme, investigated the use of quarry nes from the sandstone Leadhill Quarry (Scott Wilson Ireland) in various end uses including asphalt. Assessment work was focused on incorporating 0-2 mm nes in typical surface (wearing) course asphalt mixtures and subsequently examined impact durability. Results suggested that the mixtures are not suitable due to the high ller content (~23%). Additional testing with blends of nes with 3 mm single size aggregates provided satisfactory results due to the lower ller content of these mixtures (Mitchell et al, 2004). According to the International Center for Aggregates Research, the physical and chemical properties of ne material are critical when utilised in applications such as hot-mix asphalt. In particular properties such as surface free energy, chemical interaction potential, surface area and aggregate shape characteristics (angularity and texture) can impact the adhesive bond between the aggregate and binder. Testing trials were undertaken with a variety of combinations of bitumen and aggregates for determining mixtures performance, whereas the inuence of aggregate shape was evaluated by modelling techniques (Bhasin and Little, 2006; Masad et al, 2004). Several other research projects examined the use of quarry nes as well as recycled and secondary aggregates in asphalt and bituminous mixtures. A summary of the outcomes of these projects is shown in Table 17.
Project Evaluation of marble waste dust in the mixture of asphaltic concrete Use of aggregates produced from marble quarry waste in asphalt pavement Findings Use of marble dust as ller material. Optimum ller/ bitumen content was obtained and results suggested that marble dust can be used (unprocessed in asphalt mixtures) Marble and andesite quarry wastes were compared with conventional materials for use as aggregates in asphalt pavement. The physical properties of the aggregate were found to be within specied limits and they could potentially be used in light to medium asphalt pavement binder layers Use of recycled aggregates such as glass and incinerator bottom ash (IBA) in a resurfacing pilot project. Recycled aggregates replaced the ne aggregate in asphalt. The recycled glass and IBA performed well. Materials were found to be highly consistent and comparison with primary materials gave good results Use of pulverized-fuel ash, incinerated sewage sludge ash and steel slag for the development of bitumenbound blocks (Bitu-blocks), which are made by 100% recycled aggregates. Compressive strength results were at least equal to concrete blocks and appeared to be more stable than conventional masonry blocks. Literature review report presenting several other examples Reference (Karasahin and Terzi, 2007) (Akbulut and Gurer, 2007)
Case Study A316 resurfacing project
(Transport for London, 2005)
Development of bitumenbound waste aggregate building blocks
(Forth et al., 2006; Van Dao, 2006; Zoorob et al, 2002))
Exploitation and use of quarry nes
(Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003)
Table 17: Literature ndings on the use of quarry nes and alternative aggregates in asphalt applications
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4.3 SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL UTILISATION ROUTES FOR QUARRY BYPRODUCTS

In Section 4, several end uses, which could potentially be applicable to quarry nes, have been discussed. These include the use of quarry nes in unbound and bound applications. As mentioned earlier in this report, quarry nes are most often economically used for restoration purposes, but a fraction of these materials remain unused and the objective of this report is to identify potential end uses for these materials. A summary of the trends identied in Section 4 is given in Table 18 (a and b).
End Use Quarry restoration Backll/inll of voids General ll (i.e embankments) Road pavement construction (i.e sub-base, capping) BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b) BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b) Specications for Highway WorksSeries 600 and 800 (Highways agency, 2007a) BSI PAS 100 BS 3882 Specications Type of quarry byproducts *1 Type 1 and Type 2 (and often inert waste from secondary sources) Type 1 and Type 2 Type 1 and Type 2 Mainly Type 2Type 1 in certain circumstances (such as high consistency material) Type 1 and Type 2 Current level of exploitation *2 In use predominant end use In use (in a few projects) In use if found locally / Trials In use if found locally / Trials Utilisation potential *3 High volume low value High volume low value High volume low value High volume low value Benets Re-use of overburden material and production residues Use of large volumes of quarry nes Minimisation of exploitation of primary aggregates Less pollution produced from the production and transport of primary aggregates Enhance plant growth; soil fertility; added nutritional value Minimisation of quarry residues Environmental and social benets seen from enhanced health of soils and plants Low cost llers
Remediation; articial soils; compost
In use in some areas
High volume low value
Filler applications (for example, paper, paint, plastics, rubber) Portland cement kiln meal
European Standards on llers critical properties BS EN 197 (BSI, 2000a)
Type 2
Type 2 and Type 1 (in certain circumstances (for example, high consistency material) Innovative Green Type 2 and Type 1 (in Not in use Low volume Low cost primary products (for specications certain circumstances high value materials example, green design guides (for example, high roofs, eco-slates, consistency material, cob building ) composition) (*1) Mineral by-products classication as determined by REFILL research project check Table 1 for further information (*2) Based on literature review ndings (*3) Term Volume refers to quarry nes volumes potentially utilised; term Value corresponds to end use Table 18a: Summary of potential end uses for quarry nes
Trials with Low volume mineral residues high value of calcareous and siliceous composition Trials/In use Medium to Substitution of primary high volume - materials medium value
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End Use Controlled low strength materials self compacting concrete Manufactured concrete
Specications
Type of quarry byproducts *1 BS EN 12620 (BSI, Type 1 and Type 2 2002a)
Current level of Utilisation exploitation *2 potential *3 Trials High volume low value
Benets
Heavy ceramics
BS EN 12620 (BSI, Type 1 and Type 2 2002a); BS EN 206 1 (BSI, 2000f); BS 8500 (BSI, 2006a; BSI, 2006b) BS EN 7711 (BSI, Type 1 and Type 2 2003i)
Manufactured aggregates
BS EN 13055 (BSI, Type 2 and Type Minimisation of quarry 2002d; BSI, 2004b) 1 in certain residues circumstances Reduced exploitation of (such as material primary aggregates consistency) Hydraulically BS EN 13242 (BSI, Type 2 and Type Trials/In use Low volume If sourced locally, bound mixtures 2002b) 1 in certain low to circumstances medium value reduced emissions/ pollution from transport (such as high consistency material) Asphalt BS EN 13043 Type 2 Trials/In use (in Low volume (BSI, 2002e); certain cases) medium Specications for value Highway Works - Series 900 (Highways Agency, 2007a) (*1) Mineral by-products classication as determined by REFILL research project check Table 1 for further information (*2) Based on literature review ndings (*3) term Volume refers to quarry by-products volumes potentially utilised; term Value corresponds to end use Table 18b: Summary of potential end uses for quarry by-products
In use (if found Low volume locally)/trials low to medium value (depending on end product) In use/trials Low volume low to medium value Trials/In use Low volume medium to high value
Substitute of natural sand/ aggregate
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5 BARRIERS TO UTILISATION
Quarry nes can be suitable materials for a variety of end applications; however, currently their utilisation is not widespread to the level it would have been expected mainly due to reasons related to the geographical position of quarries. Very often quarries operate in remote location from potential end users and the cost of material to them includes high transport costs, which discourages their use. A good example of the effect of transport cost to utilisation is the china clay by-products in Cornwall, which although they represent a suitable material for various end product, their use has been limited to local markets only. A case study of china clay sand is given in Figure 8, which presents in detail the drivers and constraints associated with the sustainable use of these materials. There are occasions where producers of aggregates are not aware of potential utilisation routes for their quarry nes in the local area, and these materials remain unused. The principles of industrial ecology and industrial symbiosis could prove benecial in such cases for identifying markets in close geographical proximity that can absorb these materials. Government initiatives like the National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (NISP), aim to assist the industry to develop linkages and synergies between businesses in a local/ regional level and this way to turn unutilised material into a resource. Another obstacle, reported by research, is the application of the Aggregates Levy to quarry nes (Manning, 2004; The University of Leeds, 2007d) (project code MA 2/4/003). End users decide what materials will be incorporated into their manufacturing process primarily upon economic criteria. If a secondary material offers essential elements to the end product or manufacturing route and at the same time provides a prot to the end user by reducing the cost of the feedstock or contributing other benets, for instance environmental (reduced emissions) or technical (desirable performance), then this material will be considered as a valuable substitute for primary materials. Quarry nes are found in competition at the same time with primary and alternative materials. Certain advantages can be seen however in quarry nes compared to other secondary materials. Quarry nes are considered more consistent materials in relation to their composition and particle size, also over time (temporal variability), they are commonly inert or non-hazardous which means that their impact to the environment and human health is very low, and they could provide some degree of security to the end user in terms of stable material supply. Often quarry nes require some degree of processing before they can be used, which may increase their cost and at the same time requires suitable infrastructure and equipment to become readily available. Quarry nes from aggregate and sand and gravel production are not exempt from the Aggregates Levy and therefore the use of such materials in construction products does not count towards recycled content. Current legislation such as the Waste Framework Directive and sustainability strategies (for example Strategy for Sustainable Construction (BERR, 2007)) aim to promote resource efciency and the use of recycled/reclaimed materials (for example, set minimum requirements for recycled content in construction), which drive construction product manufacturers to utilise secondary materials in their products. This driver
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to supply on products containing increased recycled content supports the use of recycled and secondary aggregates, and investment and technical inventions to enable these uses. This driver does not apply to quarry nes. Another important obstacle to utilisation is the limited knowledge of exact quantities of quarry nes. Currently only estimated quantities are available, which are calculated using a waste to mineral ratio. According to DEFRA, during 2003 approximately 34 million tonnes of quarry waste were generated, based on a waste to product ratio equal to 1 to 9. DEFRA does not provide an accurate denition of quarry waste hence it is not clear what proportion of the reported gures corresponds to quarry nes, or whether it includes other materials such as overburden. Past research estimated the percentages of nes generated from different rock types and following this methodology the total production of nes from quarrying using the 2005 Aggregates Mineral Survey was 28.4 million tonnes (Table 7). The estimation of quarry nes production given in Table 7 is considered more relevant in this report, as it is an estimate of overall nes production, but it is not possible to quantify the fraction of these quarry nes that may be excess to market demand. Taking as example the utilisation of alternative materials used as aggregates, it can be seen that they have progressed considerably, in part due to the availability of information on sources, tonnages, temporal variability and consistency. It is recommended that gures on quantities of nes produced, marketed and stockpiled should be calculated in order to properly evaluate the quantities of quarry nes currently available, and information that present the geographical distribution of quarry nes, should be compiled to enable the identication of potential end markets. Information on the characteristics of quarry nes (such as, particle size, mineralogy) from different quarry operations is not available and this is seen to affect the marketability of these materials. A past European project (REFILL) carried out research which identied the characteristics of quarry nes. However, this information is difcult to locate, which prevents this project from the assessing the quality and consistency of those data, and makes it impossible to decide if they should become publicly available. Very often barriers to the use of quarry nes are due to the absence of t-for-purpose specications. Although technical standards, such as the European Standards on aggregates have broadened their scope to include secondary and recycled materials, they are not always considered as t-for-use by the industry. For instance, the use of grading specications to determine aggregates for concrete will exclude very ne material (below 63 m), because it is not common practice in the UK to use ller aggregate in concrete and more importantly it is not required to determine the composition of ne and ller aggregate. Compositional characterisation and suitable classication tests can easily identify adverse constituents such as clay or shale into quarry nes and thus determine whether their incorporation into the nal product is feasible. Grading specications cannot provide this kind of knowledge and currently in the UK only compliance with the nes content limit is required. Another example is the use of quarry nes and dust in soil remineralisation and composting. Uncertainty over the acceptability of compost containing rock dust in respect with the BSI PAS 100 has become apparent as the deliberate addition of non-biodegradable feedstock (for example, sand and gravel) is not allowed unless sufcient evidence to demonstrate an enhancement of the process is presented (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).
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Case study: Promoting the use of china clay waste China clay waste is produced from the extraction of kaolin from decomposed granite. The waste to product ratio is 9:1 in china clay quarries Locations of china clay quarries: Cornwall (St Austell), Devon (Lee Moor, South Devon) Composition of china clay waste (in relation to 9:1 waste to product ratio): n sand (4 tonnes) n stent (2.5 tonnes) n overburden (1.5 tonnes) n nes (1 tonne) Arisings n Overall arisings: 19.6 Mt n Potentially available (estimated aggregate resources from live feed operations): 7 Mt/year n Potentially available (estimated aggregate resources from existing stockpiles): 156 Mt/year n Aggregate resources in use: 2.6 Mt/year Current use Predominantly in the South-West, which has a nite requirement for such aggregates. Several other end uses have been investigated and found suitable (such as, aggregates for concrete, bulk ll uses etc) Drivers to utilisation n Legislation and government initiatives support the use of secondary aggregates: for example, exemption of china clay waste from Aggregates Levy; landll tax; sustainability issues (such as, sustainable construction strategy and the promotion of use of materials with recycled content, sustainable use of natural resources); EU Mining Waste directive; EU Communication on waste and by-products n Existing standards and specications are in place: for example Specications for Highway Works Series 800, 900 and 1000 permit the use of china clay sand; BS13242 on aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound materials, BS EN 12620 on aggregates for concrete and so on n There is a signicant supply of china clay waste and a high potential for aggregate use n There is a signicant market for sand and gravel, which china clay aggregate could meet n Shipping or pumping seems as economically viable solution for transporting china clay waste n Landscape, habitat and environmental benets to be seen from removing this waste Barriers to utilisation n Transport of china clay waste remains a signicant obstacle to utilisation n If pumping of china clay becomes the preferred route for transport, then additional installations and infrastructure requirements will have to be developed with additional economical cost. Future work requirements n Resolve the problem associated with the transport of china clay waste. Pumping and shipping both look as potential solutions n Further research is required in establishing the suitability of china clay waste for certain end uses (for example, in concrete) n Developing a Quality Protocol for china clay waste is expected to promote utilisation n Developing a marketing plan for china clay waste n Conducting detailed feasibility studies on the true capital and operational costs associated with aggregate pumping
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6 CONCLUSIONS
This report focused on quarry nes produced from aggregates and sand and gravel production. Quarry nes and dust are generated from various activities such as extraction (for example drilling and blasting) and rock preparation / beneciation. Quarry nes below 6 mm may be included in an end product (for example, Type 1 aggregate), be a product in their own right (for example, ne aggregate) or be surplus to market demand, namely excess nes which remain unused. The nes may include a high proportion of ultra ne (dust) particles (below 75 m), which may also be part of an aggregate product, or be produced in excess, or be produced as a by-product. Denitions that properly describe all these different fractions do not currently exist; it is considered essential that the industry establish robust denitions in order to provide a clear language with which to discuss and communicate the issues relevant to quarry nes. The current European standards on aggregates provide some t-for-purpose criteria for aggregate materials, which are primarily based on grading but are applied to all aggregates, wither recycled, secondary or primary. Therefore, as ne aggregate is determined the fraction of material below 4 mm for use in concrete, mortar, unbound and hydraulic bound applications and below 2 mm for inclusion in asphalt products. There is still a need to develop better t-for-purpose specications that take into account the nature of different materials, market trends and economics in conjunction with criteria currently used by end user and available technical standards. Figures on available resources and quantities of quarry nes are based on estimates rather than real data and this is considered as a substantial barrier towards utilisation. This report investigated the potential use of quarry nes in both unbound and bound applications. The primary utilisation route for quarry nes is in restoration work. However, not all of quarry nes are used for restoration, and in certain cases they may exhibit suitable properties for a variety of other end uses with an associated prot for the aggregate producer. Literature ndings have shown that quarry nes are suitable materials for use in bulk ll applications (for example, backlling, inlling, general ll), in road pavement construction, in remediation and for the production of articial soils and compost. All the above end uses are partially in use, depending on availability of resources in geographical proximity. Other end uses such as llers in paper and paint or the use of quarry nes in Portland cement have been trialled or have been used on single occasions. Also, the inclusion of quarry nes in innovative products (such as, green roofs, cob building) has not been implemented as yet. Bound applications reviewed in this report include various construction products (such as, concrete, heavy ceramics, manufactured aggregates), in owable lls, in hydraulic mixtures and asphalt. Trials have been undertaken for all these different applications and some of them are in use in individual cases.
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The location of quarry nes, the limited awareness of aggregate producers for potential markets, the competition with primary and alternative materials, the limited knowledge about quarry nes arisings and the characteristics of these materials, and the absence of properly developed tforuse specications are some of the barriers to utilisation identied through this project. Future research work should address and try to nd solutions to constraints identied. Further information for future research work is presented in Section 7.
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7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

This project has addressed the sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products in a variety of applications. The review process has identied certain gaps of knowledge that should be covered by future research work. These are highlighted in the bullet points following: n Mapping quarry nes: It is considered essential to determine the quantities of quarry nes, in order to promote sustainable utilisation. The classication of quarry nes arisings into produced, stockpiled and marketed would enhance current knowledge regarding the percentage of such materials which remains unused. Also it would be useful to develop a live system, such as a GIS database, which will display the geographical distribution of quarry nes across the UK. n Feasibility studies for quarry nes. The development of detailed feasibility studies for specic material streams will provide an insight to the technical and economic viability of different utilisation routes. Although feasibility studies tend to be case specic, they assist to increase awareness for issues specically relevant to different rock types (such as, sand and gravel, hard rock). n Characterisation of quarry nes. Critical characteristics of quarry nes such as mineralogy, particle size, compositional consistency, temporal variability and storage and handling properties should be addressed for a variety of different products. The availability of such information is expected to assist the match making process between quarry nes and utilisation routes and to assist the initiation of synergies between aggregate producers and end users. n Development of good practice guides for the utilisation of quarry nes into different applications. These should include examples from current utilisation practices and refer to critical requirements that should be met for the incorporation of quarry nes and dust into different end products.
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Naik, T.R., Kraus, R.N. and Siddique, R. (2003). Controlled low-strength materials containing mixtures of coal ash and new pozzolanic material. ACI Materials Journal, 100(3), 208-215. Naik, T.R., Kraus, R.N., Chun,Y. Canpolat, F. and Ramme, B.W. (2005). Use of limestone quarry by-products for dveloping economical self-compacting concrete. Napier-Munn, T. J., Morrell, S., Morrison, R. D., and Kojovic, T. (1996). Mineral Comminution Circuits. Their operation and Optimisation. Brisbane: Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre. Nataraja, M. C. and Nalanda,Y. (2007). Performance of industrial by-products in controlled low-strength materials (CLSM). Waste Management, In Press, Corrected,-791. National Statistics Online (2007). Mineral Exploration in Great Britain-2006. URL< http://www.statistics.gov. uk/STATBASE/Product.asp?vlnk=606>. Access date:[05.12.2007] Oldeld, B. (1998). Another vclue from Austria. Remineralize the Earth, 12-13, 22-24. Padeld, A.M., Carey, P.J., Hills, C.D. and Poole, A.B. (2004). Reuse of quarry nes in production of secondary aggregates. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineering - Engineering Sustainability, IS7(ES3), 149-154. Palin Granit Oy (2002). Palin Granit Oy ECR I-3533 (2002). Case C-9/00. PAS 100 (2005). BSI specication for composted materials. BSI PAS 100. Petavratzi E. (2006). An assessment of dust generation from ores.: PhD Thesis. University of Nottingham. Nottingham. Petavratzi, E. and Barton, J. (2006). Mineral Wastes, Resources and Processing Technologies - Integrated waste management for the production of construction materials - Case studies on the utilisation of alternative materials in the manufacture of ceramic products.: School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds. Petavratzi, E. and Barton, J. (2007). Mineral wastes, Resources and Processing Technologies - Integrated waste management for the production of construction materials - Case study on the utilisation of alternative materials in the manufacture of common cements. School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds. Petavratzi, E., Kingman, S. and Lowndes, I. (2005). Particulates from mining operations. A review of sources, effects and regulations. Minerals Engineering, 18(12), 1183-1199. Petavratzi, E., Kingman, S. W. and Lowndes, I. S. (2007) Assessment of the dustiness and the dust liberation mechanisms of limestone quarry operations. Chemical Engineering and Processing, In Press, Corrected,46(12), 1412-1413. Petavratzi, E., Kingman, S. W. and Lowndes, I. S. (2007). Assessment of the dustiness and the dust liberation mechanisms of limestone quarry operations. Chemical Engineering and Processing, 46(12), 1412-1423. Price, W.F. (2002). Mix design specication for low strength concretes containing recycled and secondary aggregates. British Cement Association. URL<http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/MixDesignSpecication.687
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX I: PAST RESEARCH MIST PROJECTS
Project title China Clay Secondary Aggregates Feasibility and Demonstration Programme Combination of basaltic quarry nes with organic process residues for the development of novel growing media Development of an interactive database to enhance the exploitation of quarry nes. A Generic Model for the Formulation of Growing Media from Composts and Quarry Fines Project holder Project programme MIST MIST MIST MIST Project code
Imerys Minerals Mineral Solutions Ltd Mineral Solutions Ltd Mineral Solutions Ltd
MA/4/5/009 MA/1/3/003 MA/2/4/003 MA/3/1/003
Table 19: Past research projects undertaken within the Mineral Industry Sustainable Technology Programme
APPENDIX II: THE INTERPRETATIVE COMMUNICATION ON WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS (COM (2007) 59 FINAL)
Is the intended use of the material lawful?

Yes
Material is a waste
No
Then material is a product, not a production residue
Yes
Was the material deliberately produced? (Was the production process modified in order to produce the material?)
No Material is a production residue - tests below apply
Criteria 1
Is use of the material certain? No Yes

Criteria 2
Material is a waste
Is the material ready for use without further processing (other than normal processing as an integral part of the production process?
Yes
Material is a waste
No
Criteria 3
Then the material is a non-waste by-product
Yes
Is the material produced as an integral part of the production process?
No
Material is a waste
Figure 9: A decision tree for waste versus by product decision (Commission of the European Communities, 2007)
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Criteria 1
Is the material not useable? OR Does it not meet technical specifications? OR Is there no market present for this material?
Yes
Only a proportion of the material has a guaranteed use

Yes Waste (*) No
Material is going to be stored for indefinite time prior to potential (not certain) reuse
Yes Waste
No
Go to Criteria 2
No
Waste
*until further changes are identified (i.e long term contracts) additional parameters to be taken under consideration
Figure 10: Decision tree for criteria 1 (in accordance with the Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 nal (Commission of the European Communities, 2007))
Criteria 2&3
An additional recovery process is required
Can the material be used without any further processing?
No
Yes
Go to Criteria 3
Are tasks performed as integral part of the continuing process of production? Yes Yes
Material is a waste until this process is complete
Material is a by-product after investigating the following: n Degree of readiness of material for further use n The investigation of processing/ recovery tasks into the main production process n Whether tasks are carried out by someone other than the manufacturer
Figure 11: Decision tree for Criteria 2 and 3 (in accordance with the Interpretative Communication on waste and byproducts (COM (2007) 59 nal (Commission of the European Communities, 2007))
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Case Study Leftover rocks from mining and quarrying The AvestaPolaris case (I) Facts on the operation n The activities of AvestaPolarit Chrome Oy consist in extracting chromium-rich ore and producing chromium concentrate. n Within one year of extraction 8 million tonnes of leftover rock is generated. n About 100 million tonnes of leftover rock are already stored around the mine Potential end uses of leftover rock n Backlling parts of the mine stacks will be landscaped prior to use n A small proportion, about 20% will be processed into aggregates n Stacks already stored may be used as lling material in constructing breakwaters and embankments Diary of actions n AvestaPolarit applied for an environmental licence to enable the continuity of mining and processing activities on site (gradual changes took place from open-cast activities to underground mining) n Environment centre granted licence, but classied leftover rock and ore-dressing sand as waste, because production residues are not immediately reused or consumed. n AvestaPolarit appealed against that decision Questions set to the Court Are production residues (leftover rock and ore-dressing sand) from mining operations to be regarded as waste in accordance with Directive 75/442/EEC on waste (The European Parliament and the Council, 1975) and having recard to points: n Place production residues are stored (i.e mining site, ancillary site, other) n Composition of production residues (i.e leftover rock is of similar composition to primary ore) n Health and safety impacts (i.e leftover rock is harmless to human health and the environment) n Potential reuse and no intention to discard such materials Courts reply Answers to question 1: n Leftover rock stored for an indenite length of time to await possible use/discard is classied as waste (Palin Granit Oy, 2002) n The place of storage, composition or proof that residues do not pose a threat to human health or the environment, are not relevant criteria for determining whether leftover stone is to be regarded as waste (Palin Granit Oy, 2002) n Foreseeable reuses, such as in the construction of harbours, in embankment work or for inclusion in construction products do not represent a certainty and leftover rock should be regarded as waste n Leftover rock processed into aggregates, even if such use is probable, it requires an operation for recovery of the desirable fraction, which does not comprise part of the production process and residues therefore should be classied as waste n Stacks of materials that remain on site will also constitute a waste, as no certain use without requiring processing exists. Landscaping of such materials represents an environmental friendly manner of dealing with them, not a stage in the production process n Where leftover rock is intended to be used for lling in the galleries of the mine and sufcient evidence is in place as to the identication and actual use of the substances, then they would not be waste. n The term by-product should be conned to situations in which the reuse of the goods, materials is not a mere possibility, but a certainty, without further processing prior to reuse and as an integral part of the production process
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APPENDIX III: FIT- FOR- PURPOSE REQUIREMENTS

Product sector Role of alternative material (source/ ingredient) Clay substitute Body fuel Filler Particle size sand Colourant Fluxing agent For use in kiln meal Ca-rich source Si-rich source Al-rich source Fe-rich source Si+Al+Fe source Ca+Si+Al+Fe source For the production of blended cements Pozzolanas Hydraulic materials Reactive phase Coarse aggregate Filler aggregate Cement pigments Fuel Formstone Flux Primary rock Base ller Binder Fuel Bloating agent Fluxing agent Coating Critical properties on alternative materials Examples of materials
Ceramic products
Particle size, plasticity, ring temperature, colour after ring Caloric content
Common clay, reclay Colliery spoil, coal nes
Aesthetic properties (colour, texture), scumming, eforescence Reactivity temperature, particle size Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition
Water-ochre colliery waste Fine silica sand Limestone nes Sand Residues from bauxite mining Water colliery waste Quarry nes (various) Quarry nes
Cement
Chemistry, specic surface area Chemistry, particle size Chemistry Particle size Particle size
Concrete
Insulation
Chemistry, particle size Chemistry, particle size Chemistry, particle size Chemistry, particle size Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%) Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)
Manufactured aggregates
Natural pozzolanas, silica four Ground granulated blast furnace blast Limestone, gypsum aggregates Quarry nes Portland cement, blended cement Iron oxides coke Waste material from mineral wool production Blast furnace slag Basalt, gabbro Quarry washings Cement Colliery spoil Municipal solid waste y ash Fine glass, ne silica sand
Table 20: Characterisation framework and t-for-purpose requirements for the use of alternative materials in ceramics, cement, concrete, insulation and manufactured aggregates products (MIRO, 2007)
78
APPENDIX IV: TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR MANUFACTURED CONCRETE PRODUCTS

Concrete application Precast concrete drainage units Product Channel Manholes and inspection chambers Pipes Precast concrete oor elements Ribbed oor; ribbed oor elements Precast concrete landscaping and Block paving Edging hard surfacing units Flags Street furniture Precast masonry units Autoclaved aerated concrete Block Brick Cast stone and reconstructed stone masonry Capping Edging Lintel Manufactured stone masonry unit sills Precast concrete linear units Beam Column Frame unit Staircase unit Beam and block Composite lattice girder Composite solid slabs Floor plates for ooring systems Hollow core Hollowcore Staircase unit Block paving Channel Kerbs Quadrant Floor plates for ooring systems Roof tiles and ttings Beam Beam and block Column Composite solid slab Foundation unit Frame unit Hollow core Precast concrete pile unit Staircase unit Table 21: Manufactured concrete products and relevant technical specications Technical specication BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 1917:2002 BS EN 1916:2002 BS EN 13224:2004 BS EN 1338:2003 BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 1339:2003 BS EN 1340: 2003 BS EN 771-4:2003 BS EN 771-3:2003 BS EN 771-3:2003 BS 1217:1997 BS 5642-2:1983 BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 845-2:2003 BS EN 771-5:2003 BS 5642-1:1978 BS EN 13225:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 13225:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 13225:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 13747:2005 BS EN 1168:2005 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 1338:2003 BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 1340:2003 BS EN 13747:2005 BS EN 490:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 13225:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 13225:2004 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000 BS EN 206-1:2000
Precast ooring units
Precast concrete road and hard surfacing unit
Precast concrete roong system units Precast structural units
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Sustainable Utilization of Quarry By-Products

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THEME 2 - SUSTAINABLE PROVISION OF AGGREGATES

SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF QUARRY BY-PRODUCTS

Research funded through Defras Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2 QUARRY FINES - DEFINITION & GENERAL DESCRIPTION

2.2 QUARRY SCALPINGS

<75 m <6 mm Quarry dusts

Grading of aggregate product

Primary crushing & screening

Secondary crushing & screening

Tertiary/Quaternary crushing & screening

Excess quarry fines, including quarry dusts

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.3 QUARRY FINES

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.4 THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AFFECTING QUARRY PRODUCT

2.4.1 MINERALS PLANNING

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.4.2 THE AGGREGATES LEVY

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.4.3 MINING WASTE DIRECTIVE

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.4.4 INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION ON WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.5 A FIT-FOR-PURPOSE CRITERIA FOR QUARRY FINES (AND DUST)

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.5.1 GENERATION OF QUARRY FINES AND DUST PARAMETERS OF INFLUENCE

2.5.2 EUROPEAN STANDARDS

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

National Guidance Documents

Table 3: European Standards for aggregates and associated documents

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

2.5.3 HIGHWAYS AGENCY SPECIFICATIONS

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

End use Manufactured aggregates

Pilot scale trials Filler or base material

Dense and Used in lightweight production concrete walling/ masonry blocks

Of manufacturing process According to BS EN 13055

Quarry nes and dust (a wide variety of compositions)

Portland Trials cement (CEM I)

Source of silica, aluminium and iron

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

3 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES & MITIGATION PRACTICES

Table 5: Summary of active aggregate quarries in the UK (BGS, 2003)

3.1 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES IN THE U.K.

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products

12,543 10,444 8,094 8,095

8,196 7,818 6,799 6,300

4 China Clay 5 Clay5) 6 Slate

42,413 40,403 38,525 39,464 42,115 40,769

35,434 36,530 36,223 36,897 34,190 33,849

Table 6: Minerals waste arisings 1990-2003 (DEFRA, 2007e)

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable Utilisation of Quarry By-Products