C

H A P T E R

4
Energy Value of Food

Chapter Objectives
Describe the method for directly determining the energy content of the macronutrients Discuss various factors that inuence the difference between a foods gross energy value and its net physiologic energy value Dene the following: (1) heat of combustion, (2) digestive efciency, and (3) Atwater factors Compute the energy content of a meal from its macronutrient composition

108

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MEASUREMENT OF FOOD ENERGY

The Calorie As a Measurement Unit
In terms of food energy, one calorie expresses the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg (1 L) of water 1C (specifically, from 14.5 to 15.5C). Thus, kilogram calorie or kilocalorie (kcal) more accurately defines calorie. For example, if a particular food contains 300 kcal, then releasing the potential energy trapped within this foods chemical structure increases the temperature of 300 L of water 1C. Different foods contain different amounts of potential energy. One-half cup of peanut butter with a caloric value of 759 kcal contains the equivalent heat energy to increase the temperature of 759 L of water 1C. A corresponding unit of heat using Fahrenheit degrees is the British thermal unit, or BTU. One BTU represents the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 lb (weight) of water 1F from 63 to 64F. A clear distinction exists between temperature and heat. Temperature reects a quantitative measure of an objects hotness or coldness. Heat describes energy transfer or exchange from one body or system to another. (The following conversions apply: 1 cal 4.184 J; 1 kcal 1,000 cal 4,184 J or 4.184 kJ; 1 BTU 778 ft-lb 252 cal 1,055 J.) The joule, or kilojoule (kJ), reects the standard international unit for expressing food energy. To convert kilocalories to kilojoules, multiply the kilocalorie value by 4.184. The kilojoule value for one-half cup of peanut butter, for example, would equal 759 kcal 4.184 or 3,176 kJ. The megajoule (MJ) equals 1,000 kJ; its use avoids unmanageably large numbers. Appendix A presents a listing of metric system transpositions and conversion constants commonly used in exercise physiology.

Electrical ignition Thermometer Oxygen inlet

Oxygen tank

Air space Water bath mixer Water bath Food sample Bomb Electric fuse Pressurized oxygen

Insulating container

FIGURE 4.1 A bomb calorimeter directly measures the energy value of food.

Heat of Combustion: Lipid The heat of combustion for lipid varies with the structural composition of the triglyceride molecules fatty acids. For example, 1 g of either beef or pork fat yields 9.50 kcal, whereas oxidizing 1 g of butterfat liberates 9.27 kcal. The average caloric value for 1 g of lipid in meat, sh, and eggs equals 9.50 kcal. In dairy products, the caloric equivalent amounts to 9.25 kcal per gram and in vegetables and fruits, 9.30 kcal. The average heat of combustion for lipid equals 9.4 kcal per gram. Heat of Combustion: Carbohydrate The heat of combustion for carbohydrate also varies, depending upon the arrangement of atoms in the particular carbohydrate molecule. The heat of combustion for glucose equals 3.74 kcal per gram, whereas larger values result for glycogen (4.19 kcal) and starch (4.20 kcal). A value of 4.2 kcal generally represents the heat of combustion for a gram of carbohydrate. Heat of Combustion: Protein Two factors affect energy release during combustion of a foods protein component: (1) the type of protein in the food and (2) the relative nitrogen content of the protein. Common proteins in eggs, meat, corn (maize), and beans (jack, Lima,

Gross Energy Value of Foods

Laboratories use bomb calorimeters similar to the one illustrated in Figure 4.1 to measure the total or gross energy value of various food macronutrients. Bomb calorimeters operate on the principle of direct calorimetry, measuring the heat liberated as the food burns completely. Figure 4.1 shows food within a sealed chamber charged with oxygen at high pressure. An electrical current moving through the fuse at the tip ignites the foodoxygen mixture. As the food burns, a water jacket surrounding the bomb absorbs the heat (energy) liberated. Because the calorimeter remains fully insulated from the ambient environment, the increase in water temperature directly reects the heat released during a foods oxidation (burning). Heat of combustion refers to the heat liberated by oxidizing a specic food; it represents the foods total energy value. For example, a teaspoon of margarine releases 100 kcal of heat energy when burned completely in a bomb calorimeter. This equals the energy required to raise 1.0 kg (2.2 lb) of ice water to the boiling point. Although the oxidation pathways of the intact organism and the bomb calorimeter differ, the quantity of energy liberated in the complete breakdown of a food remains the same.

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navy, soy) contain approximately 16% nitrogen and have corresponding heats of combustion that average 5.75 kcal per gram. Proteins in other foods have a somewhat higher nitrogen content (e.g., most nuts and seeds [18.9%] and wholekernel wheat, rye, millets, and barley [17.2%]). Other foods contain a slightly lower nitrogen percentage, for example, whole milk (15.7%) and bran (15.8%). The heat of combustion for protein averages 5.65 kcal per gram. Comparing the Energy Value of Nutrients The average heats of combustion for the three macronutrients (carbohydrate, 4.2 kcal g1; lipid, 9.4 kcal g1; protein, 5.65 kcal g1) demonstrate that the complete oxidation of lipid in the bomb calorimeter liberates about 65% more energy per gram than protein oxidation and 120% more energy than the oxidation of carbohydrate. Recall from Chapter 1 that lipid molecules contains more hydrogen atoms than either carbohydrate or protein molecules. The common fatty acid palmitic acid, for example, has the structural formula C16H32O2. The ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms in fatty acids always greatly exceeds the 2:1 ratio in carbohydrates. Simply stated, lipid molecules have more hydrogen atoms available for cleavage and subsequent oxidation for energy than carbohydrates and proteins. INTEGRATIVE QUESTION Respond to a student who asks: How can the oxygen required to burn food indicate the number of calories in the meal Im going to eat tonight? One can conclude from the above discussion that lipidrich foods have a higher energy content than relatively fatfree foods. One cup of whole milk, for example, contains 160 kcal, whereas the same quantity of skim milk contains only 90 kcal. If a person who normally consumes one quart of whole milk each day switches to skim milk, the total calories ingested each year would decrease by the equivalent of the calories in 25 pounds of body fat. In 3 years, all other things remaining constant, the loss of body fat would approximate 75 pounds! Such a theoretical comparison merits serious consideration because of the almost identical nutrient composition between whole milk and skim milk except for lipid content. Drinking skim rather than whole milk also signicantly reduces saturated fatty acid intake (0.4 versus 5.1 g; 863%) and cholesterol (0.3 versus 33 mg; 910%).

urine. Elimination of hydrogen in this manner represents a loss of approximately 19% of the protein molecules potential energy. This hydrogen loss reduces proteins heat of combustion to approximately 4.6 kcal per gram instead of 5.65 kcal per gram released during oxidation in the bomb calorimeter. In contrast, the physiologic fuel values of carbohydrates and lipids (which contain no nitrogen) are identical to their heats of combustion in the bomb calorimeter.
COEFFICIENT
OF DIGESTIBILITY. The efciency of the digestive process inuences the ultimate energy yield from the food macronutrients. Numerically dened as the coefcient of digestibility, digestive efciency indicates the percentage of ingested food actually digested and absorbed to meet the bodys metabolic needs. The food remaining unabsorbed in the intestinal tract is voided in the feces. Dietary ber reduces the coefcient of digestibility; a high-ber meal has less total energy absorbed than does a ber-free meal of equivalent caloric content. This variance occurs because ber moves food through the intestine more rapidly, reducing time for absorption. Fiber also may cause mechanical erosion of the intestinal mucosa, which is then resynthesized through energyrequiring processes. Table 4.1 shows different digestibility coefcients, heats of combustion, and net energy values for nutrients in the various food groups. The relative percentage of the macronutrients digested and absorbed averages 97% for carbohydrate, 95% for lipid, and 92% for protein. Little difference exists in digestive efciency between obese and lean individuals. However, considerable variability exists in efciency percentages for any food within a particular category. Proteins in particular have digestive efciencies ranging from a low of about 78% for protein in legumes to a high of 97% for protein from animal sources. Some advocates promote the use of vegetables in weight-loss diets because of plant proteins relatively low coefcient of digestibility. Those who choose vegetarian-type diets should consume adequate, diverse protein food sources to obtain all the essential amino acids. From the data in Table 4.1, one can round the average net energy values to whole numbers referred to as Atwater general factors. These values, named for Wilbur Olin Atwater (18441907), the 19th-century chemist who pioneered human nutrition and energy balance studies at Wesleyan College, indicate the net metabolizable energy available to the body from ingested foods. If precise energy values for experimental or therapeutic diets are not required, the Atwater general factors provide a good estimate of the energy content of the daily diet (see In a Practical Sense). For alcohol, 7 kcal (29.4 kJ) represents each g (mL) of

Net Energy Value of Foods

Differences exist in the energy value of foods when the heat of combustion (gross energy value) determined by direct calorimetry is compared with the net energy actually available to the body. This pertains particularly to protein because the body cannot oxidize the nitrogen component of this nutrient. In the body, nitrogen atoms combine with hydrogen to form urea (NH2CONH2), which the kidneys excrete in the

ATWATER GENERAL FACTORS

4 kcal per gram for dietary carbohydrate 9 kcal per gram for dietary lipid 4 kcal per gram for dietary protein

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TABLE 4.1
FOOD GROUP

FACTORS FOR DIGESTIBILITY, HEATS OF COMBUSTION,

AND NET PHYSIOLOGIC ENERGY VALUESa OF PROTEIN, LIPID, AND CARBOHYDRATE

DIGESTIBILITY (%) HEAT OF COMBUSTION (KCAL
G
1

NET ENERGY (KCAL

Protein Animal food Meats, sh Eggs Dairy products Vegetable food Cereals Legumes Vegetables Fruits Average Protein Lipid Meat and eggs Dairy products Animal food Vegetable food Average Lipid Carbohydrate Animal food Cereals Legumes Vegetables Fruits Sugars Vegetable food Average Carbohydrate

97 97 97 97 85 85 78 83 85 92

5.65 5.65 5.75 5.65 5.65 5.80 5.70 5.00 5.20 5.65

4.27 4.27 4.37 4.27 3.74 3.87 3.47 3.11 3.36 4.05

95 95 95 90 95

9.50 9.25 9.40 9.30 9.40

9.03 8.79 8.93 8.37 8.93

98 98 97 95 90 98 97 97

3.90 4.20 4.20 4.20 4.00 3.95 4.15 4.15

3.82 4.11 4.07 3.99 3.60 3.87 4.03 4.03

a Net physiologic energy values are computed as the coefcient of digestibility heat of combustion adjusted for energy loss in urine. From Merrill AL, Watt BK. Energy values of foods: basis and derivation. Agricultural Handbook no. 74, Washington, DC: USDA, 1973.

pure (200-proof) alcohol ingested. In terms of potential energy available to the body, alcohols efciency of use equals that of other carbohydrates. Use of Tabled Values Computing the kilocalorie content of foods requires considerable time and labor. Various governmental agencies in the United States and elsewhere have evaluated and compiled nutritive values for thousands of foods. The most comprehensive data bank resources include the United States Nutrient Data Bank (USNDB), maintained by the U. S. Department of Agricultures Consumer Nutrition Center, and a computerized data bank maintained by the Bureau of Nutritional Sciences of Health and Welfare Canada. Appendix B presents the energy and nutritive values for common foods, including specialty and fast-food items.

A brief review of Appendix B indicates that large differences exist between the energy values of various foods. Consuming an equal number of calories from different foods often requires a tremendous intake of a particular food or relatively little of another. For example, to consume 100 kcal from each of six common foodscarrots, celery, green peppers, grapefruit, medium-sized eggs, and mayonnaise one must eat 5 carrots, 20 stalks of celery, 6.5 green peppers, 1 large grapefruit, 1 1/4 eggs, but only 1 tablespoon of mayonnaise. Consequently, a typical sedentary adult female who expends 2100 kcal each day must consume about 420 celery stalks, 105 carrots, 136 green peppers, 26 eggs, yet only 1 1/2 cup of mayonnaise or 8 ounces of salad oil to meet daily energy needs. These examples illustrate dramatically that foods high in lipid content contain considerably more calories than food low in lipid and correspondingly high in water content.

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IN A PRACTICAL SENSE
DETERMINING A FOODS

MACRONUTRIENT COMPOSITION AND ENERGY CONTRIBUTION

age weights for each macronutrient, but computing their absolute and percentage energy contributions completes the more important picture. In the example for French fries, lipid represents only 17% of the foods total weight. However, the percentage of total calories from lipid jumps to 48.3%, or about 195 kcal of this foods 402 kcal energy content. This information becomes crucial for those interested in maintaining a low-fat diet. Similar computations can estimate the caloric value of any food serving. Of course, increasing or decreasing portion sizes or adding lipid-rich sauces or creams, or using fruits or calorie-free substitutes, affects the caloric content accordingly. MACRONUTRIENT ENERGY CONTENT AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MCDONALDS FRENCH FRIES, LARGE (TOTAL WEIGHT, 122.3 G [4.3 OZ])
(1) NUTRIENT Protein Carbohydrate Lipid Ash Water Total (2) WEIGHT 6 45.9 21.6 3.2 45.6 122.3 (3) ATWATER (g) FACTOR 4 kcal g 4 kcal g 9 kcal g
1 1 1

Food labels must indicate a foods macronutrient content (g) and total calories (kcal). Knowing the energy value per gram for carbohydrate, lipid, and protein in a food allows one to readily compute the percentage kcal derived from each macronutrient. The net energy value, referred to as Atwater general factors, equals 4 kcal for carbohydrate, 9 kcal for lipid, and 4 kcal for protein.

Calculations
The table shows the macronutrient composition for one large serving of McDonalds French fries (weight, 122.3 g [4.3 oz]). [Note: McDonalds publishes the weight of each of the macronutrients for one serving along with the total kcal value.] 1. Calculate kcal value of each macronutrient (column 4). Multiply the weight of each nutrient (column 2) by the appropriate Atwater factor (column 3). 2. Calculate percentage weight of each nutrient (column 5). Divide weight of each macronutrient (column 2) by the foods total weight. 3. Calculate percentage kcal for each macronutrient (column 6). Divide kcal value of each macronutrient (column 4) by foods total kcal value.

(4)
KCAL

(5) % OF WEIGHT 4.9 37.5 17.7 2.6 37.3 100

(6) % OF KCAL 6.0 45.7 48.3 0 0 100

24 183.6 194.4 0 0 402

Learn to Read Food Labels

Computing the percentage weight and kcal of each macronutrient in a food fosters wise decisions in choosing foods. Manufacturers must state the absolute and percent-

INTEGRATIVE QUESTION What factors could account for a discrepancy between computations of the energy value of daily food intake using the Atwater general factors and those from direct measurement via the bomb calorimeter? Also note that a calorie reects the food energy regardless of the food source. Thus, from an energy standpoint, 100 calories from mayonnaise equals the same 100 calories in 20 celery stalks. The more a person eats of any food, the more calories that person consumes. However, a small amount of fatty food represents a considerable number of calories; thus, the term fattening often describes these foods. An individuals caloric intake equals the sum of all energy consumed from either small or large quantities of foods. Celery would become a fattening food if consumed in excess! Chapter 3 considered variations in daily energy intake among diverse groups of male and female athletes.

Summary
1. A calorie or kilocalorie (kcal) represents a measure of heat used to express the energy value of food. 2. Burning food in the bomb calorimeter permits direct quantication of the foods energy content. 3. The heat of combustion quanties the amount of heat liberated in the complete oxidation of a food. Average gross energy values equal 4.2 kcal per gram for carbohydrate, 9.4 kcal per gram for lipid, and 5.65 kcal per gram for protein. 4. The coefcient of digestibility represents the proportion of food consumed that is actually digested and absorbed. 5. Coefcients of digestibility average approximately 97% for carbohydrates, 95% for lipids, and 92% for proteins. Thus, the net energy values equal 4 kcal per gram of carbohydrate, 9 kcal per gram of lipid, and 4 kcal per gram of protein. These values, known as Atwater general factors, provide an accu-

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Focus on Research

Obesity-Related Thermogenic Response

The gure indicates that consumption of the 910-kcal meal increased exercise VO2 more for the lean than for the obese women. Stated somewhat differently, a greater difference emerged between the fed and fasting conditions for the lean group at both exercise intensities. The postprandial exercise VO2 for the lean group also remained elevated above the corresponding fasting value at the end of the 4 hours, while for the obese group, the postprandial value at 4 hours equaled their fasting exercise metabolism. Thus, using a 4-hour measurement underestimated the total amount that eating augmented energy expenditure during exercise for the lean women. These subjects exhibited a larger thermic effect of food during exercise than during rest. Obese subjects, on the other hand, showed similar thermic effects of food for exercise and rest conditions, with no added thermogenic bonus from exercise after eating. The researchers concluded that exercise signicantly potentiated the thermic effect of food for lean but not for obese women. The large differences in response to the combination of food and subsequent exercise emerged despite similar thermogenic responses of the lean and obese women to food alone and exercise alone. Therefore, the cumulative effect of a lower metabolic rate of the obese (compared with lean subjects) during exercise that follows eating favors energy conservation rather than energy dissipation.

Segal KR, Gutin B. Thermic effects of food and exercise in lean and obese women. Metabolism 1983;32:581.

Considerable research has linked obesity and impaired thermogenesisa diminished capacity to increase metabolism in response to different stimuli. These studies note a lower rise in metabolism for obese individuals than for lean individuals after ingestion of a meal, exposure to cold, infusion of noradrenaline, or the combination of eating and exercising. A diminished thermogenic response probably plays an accessory role in total energy conservation, contributing to the onset and persistence of human obesity. The research of Segal and Gutin evaluated thermogenic difference between obese and lean women in response to food intake, two levels of exercise, and the possible potentiation of the thermic effect of food with physical activity. Subjects included 10 obese (% fat, 37; body mass, 77.9 kg) and 10 lean (% fat, 18.8; body mass, 53.2 kg) women, measured under six different conditions: (a) resting metabolism (VO2) for 4 hours; (b) VO2 for 4 hours following consumption of a 910-kcal meal (14% protein, 46% carbohydrate, 40% lipid); (c) VO2 during exercise at a constant submaximal intensity of 300 kg-m min1 (cycling for 5 min every 0.5 h for 4 h); (d) VO2 during exercise at an intensity equal to the subjects lactate threshold (cycling for 5 min every 0.5 h for 4 h); (e) and (f) same as protocols c and d, except the subjects consumed the test meal before exercising.
Lean

Obese

25

VO2 (mL kg LBM1 min1)

A 23

21

6 C 0 30 240 30 240 C

Time (min)

Time (min)

Effects of exercise and a 910-kcal meal on metabolic rates of lean and obese men and women. A, Exercise at lactate threshold; B, exercise at 300 kg-m min1; and C, rest. The red circles represent postprandial (after the meal) data; yellow circles represent postabsorptive (after fasting) data. The shaded areas indicate the thermic effect of food under each condition.

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Groff JL, Gropper SS. Advanced nutrition and human metabolism. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. Guyton AC. Textbook of medical physiology. 10th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2000. Health and Welfare Canada. Nutrient value of some common foods. Ottawa, Canada: Health Services and Promotion Branch, Health and Welfare, 1988. Katch FI. U.S. government raises serious questions about reliability of U.S. Department of Agricultures food composition tables. Int J Sports Nutr 1995;5:62. Mahan IK, Escott-Stump S. Krauses food, nutrition, & diet therapy. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 2000. McCance RA, Widdowson EM. The composition of foods. 5th ed. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 1991. Miles CW, et al. Effect of dietary ber on the metabolizable energy of human diets. J Nutr 1988;118:1075. Pennington JAT, Church HN. Bowes and Churchs food values of portions commonly used. 17th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1989. Rand WM, et al., eds. Food composition data: a users perspective. Tokyo: United Nations University, 1987. Rumpler WV, et al. Energy value of moderate alcohol consumption by humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:108. Shils ME, et al. Modern nutrition in health and disease. 9th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999. US Department of Agriculture. Composition of foodsraw, processed, and prepared. No. 8. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, 19631987.

rate estimate of the net energy value of typical foods a person consumes. 6. The Atwater caloric values allow one to compute the caloric content of any meal from the carbohydrate, lipid, and protein compositions of the food. 7. Calories represent heat energy regardless of the food source. From an energy standpoint, 500 kcal of peppermint ice cream topped with whipped cream and Brazil nuts is no more fattening than 500 kcal of watermelon, 500 kcal of cheese and pepperoni pizza, or 500 kcal of an egg bagel with salmon, onions, and sour cream. Suggested Reading
Atwater WO, Woods CD. The chemical composition of American food materials. USDA Bulletin no. 28. Washington, DC: USDA, 1896. Boyle M. Personal Nutrition. 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2001. Brody T. Nutritional biochemistry. New York: Academic Press, 1998. Brown J. Nutrition now. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. Brooks GA, et al. Exercise physiology: human bioenergetics and its applications. 3rd ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayeld, 2000. Gibson RS. Principles of nutritional assessment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

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