Overview of health and safety in tunnel construction.

D. R. Lamont
Health and Safety Executive, Bootle, UK. ABSTRACT: This paper is a personal overview of the hazards of tunnelling and of how some of the occupational health and safety risks arising from tunnelling can be controlled. The risks considered range from ground risk, which can lead to spectacular and expensive collapse of the tunnel possibly affecting hundreds of people to the risks associated with small hand dug tunnels. The contribution that the various parties to a tunnelling project can make to raising standards of health and safety is outlined. A number of references are made to EC directives, CEN standards and UK publications from which f u r t h e r g u i d a n c e c a n b e o b t a i n e d . 1. INTRODUCTION The Australian organising committee is to be congratulated for recognising that occupational health and safety in tunnelling is a sufficiently important topic to be worthy of discussion at this World Tunnel Congress. This is a personal view of many of the occupational health and safety risks associated with tunnelling. It reflects my experience over the past fifteen years as an inspector working for a regulatory authority, predominantly in the UK but also occasionally in Europe. Tunnelling is an activity wh ich dates back many centuries as we heard in Milan last year (Patron, 2001). In ancient times, the Egyptians and Romans carried out tunnelling and we can only imagine in horror, the conditions under which the miners building these tunnels may have worked. Mining for coal and metaliferous ores was common in many countries at that time also and would have been carried out under similar conditions. In the UK and Europe, the first major transportation tunnels were associated with the construction of canals in t h e 1 7th a n d 1 8th centuries. This was followed by the construction of the railways in the 19 th century. With both modes of transport, alignments followed the contours of the ground surface to avoid the need for locks or excessively steep gradients and this sometimes necessitated the construction of tunnels. Tunnelling for railways has continued through the 20th century and into the 21st century with the construction of a number urban metro schemes and high speed inter-city rail links. At conferences such as this, it tends to be the high profile tunnel projects which are discussed but we should not forget the many kilometres of small diameter water, sewage and other infrastructure-related tunnels which are built each year and which form the baseload for the tunnelling industry in many countries. Tunnelling and the use of underground space are becoming increasingly recognised, both for its environmentally friendly nature and for being an answer to the problems of urban transportation in an increasingly congested world. As ever more challenging tunnels are demanded by governments and their citizens and the tunnelling industry accepts these challenges, the need to better manage the occupational health and safety risk associated with tunnel construction must be addressed. Because of the comprehensive array of health and safety related directives, which have been enacted, the member countries of the EC should form the healthiest and safest construction market in the world.

Although the UK is not currently at t h e forefront of tunnel construction in terms of the number, size or length of tunnels being constructed, hopefully we can still influence the engineering aspects of tunnelling and occupational health and safety matters. 2. HAZARDS OF TUNNELLING I n m y e xp e r i e n c e t h e l i s t o f h a z a r d s i n tunnelling is at least as extensive as for surface construction and in most cases the risks arising from these hazards are more severe in tunnelling - significantly more severe in many cases. This increase in the severity of risk is due to a number of factors: the degree of uncertainty in the nature and variability of the ground through which the tunnel is being driven the confined space of the tunnel environment. an inadequate safety culture at all levels in the workforce, and in the engineers and managers within the industry. the lack of commitment of all parties to the contract in addressing occupational health and safety (Anderson, 2000). failure by the industry, to learn from experiences (mistakes) of others. work in compressed air.

The UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) published a report following construction of the Channel Tunnel that included data on the incidence of fatal and major injury accidents between 1988 and 1993 (1996). The document noted that comparis ons were not attempted between UK and French data because of differences in reporting criteria. Likewise comparisons were not made with UK construction data because of the known underreporting of accidents by the construction industry. Both factors make the comparison of any accident data between countries difficult if not meaningless to perform. Nine fatalities were recorded on the UK side of the Channel Tunnel works. The incidence of fatal and major injuries averaged around 500 accidents per 100,000 workers. The incidence peaked at around 800 accidents per 100,000 workers, some two years after construction started and following an eighteen month period o f a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e a l l-injuries incidence peaked in the third and fourth years of construction at 5000 accidents per 100,000 workers. Both trends may reflect how production demands adversely affected safety performance. It is not known whether these figures are representative of other major tunnelling projects, however it is worthwhile noting that no tunnelling-related fatalities occurred during the construction of the other major UK tunnelling project of recent years - Jubilee Line Extension. Currently the North Downs Tunnel for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Phase 1 is the largest tunnel being built in the UK. With around 1.5 million man-hours worked to date there have been three major injury accidents and four accidents of lesser severity but resulting in over three days off work. Otherwise, there have been very few fatalities on UK tunnelling projects in the past 15 years. No similar data for occupational ill health in tunnelling has been published. The only specifically tunnelling-related ill health, which tends to be recorded, is decompression illness (DCI). Information on DCI rates for UK

Some of these factors will be elaborated on later. 3. TUNNELLING ACCIDENTS AND ILL HEALTH STATISTICS Accident statistics are thought by some to be a useful means of measuring safety. In practice they are a poor measure as they are negative indicators indicators of failure in the safety system. It is difficult to obtain meaningful statistics on tunnelling accidents, as the regulatory authorities seldom publish figures in sufficient detail to differentiate tunnelling activity from general construction work.

tun nelling over the past 15 years was presented at the World Tunnelling Congress in Durban (Lamont, 2000). Compressed air working was not used on the Channel Tunnel project but was used extensively on Jubilee Line Extension. DCI data for other countries can sometimes be found in the tunnelling literature. 4. ROLE OF CLIENT, DESIGNERS ETC For some time it has been recognised that clients and designers have a contribution to make in ensuring good health and safety standards. The client sets the environment within which the project is procured (Anderson, 2000). Procurement includes design and construction. As the client controls the procurement strategy, this should be used to set the health and safety strategy for the project. As designers are influenced by their client, they should take on board the clients ethos over health and safety also. Since clients provide the resources for a tunnel project, they should ensure that those they directly or indirectly employ to design and construct the tunnel works, in tu rn make adequate resources, including finance and time, available to address health and safety issues. Designers can strongly influence health and safety. Unfortunately in the past they have often shown little inclination to do so. For example, designers can route a tunnel through or around contaminated land. In this respect they determine the levels of contamination to which those building the tunnel are potentially exposed. Where it is not reasonably practicable to go around the contamination, the designer should determine the nature, extent and concentration of contaminants through a targeted site investigation, pass the information to the contractor at the time of tender and specify risk control measures in the contract documentation. Designers usually set the tunnel diameter. In small utility tunnels, any lack of working space contributes directly to the health and safety

risk to the workforce. Designers should recognise that the primary factor in determining the minimum tunnel diameter may be the need to provide sufficient working space in which the tunnel can safely be built. Designers can make the alignment facilitate or otherwise the use of a tunnel boring machine instead of hand excavation techniques. They can specify against the use of techniqu es or materials that are hazardous. Openings and changes of cross section should always be designed with due regard to how they can safely be built. Designers should specify fire fighting, atmospheric monitoring, communications and ventilation systems to a much greater extent then they do. Fire fighting systems are a useful form of insurance for the client. They are relatively cheap to install but also provide an essential safety risk control measure. Many designers would argue that a number of the above decisions are the contractors responsibility being part of temporary works or otherwise related to tunnel construction method, however as the client eventually pays for them indirectly through the contractors overheads, they should be specified in the contract documentation. Partnering should bring health and safety benefits to a project, particularly when the contractor is taken on-board early in the project. Within joint ventures, care must be taken to utilise the expertise of all members and not comp a r t m e n t a l i s e t h e m i n t o d e s i g n e r , contractor etc. Where necessary a contractor could become part of the design team from an early stage in the project, but be paid for providing professional services such as advising on buildability. Good health and safet y practice is an integral part of good project management it is not a bolt on extra. Some countries regulate health and safety both through statutory control and through social insurance organisations, which link premiums

to performance and provide compensation and rehabilitation services for injured workers. There is also scope for the companies, which insure the tunnel construction works to influence the control of certain risks such as that from the ground, and from fire. For e x a m p l e , i n t h e U K t h e Fire Prevention Association, an organisation which includes representatives from the major insurers, introduced their own code of practice on fire safety in buildings following a number of incidents involving fire during such construction (Fire Protection Association, 2000). Risks during use and other whole life issues should also be considered. Because of the high asset value of long tunnels, should the lining thickness be increased above what is needed for structural integrity to provide greater resistance to fire damage? This decision has safety related consequences for those involved in subsequent recovery operations. 5. LEGISLATION, GUIDANCE etc The EC Framework Directive (1989) standardised the general requirements for health and safety within Europe. Many of the risks to be found in construction, including tunnelling, were subject to statutory control through the implementation of the Temporary or Mobile Construction Sites Directive and its Annex IV (1992) in member states. I n t h e U K , t h e r e l e v a n t r e gulations implementing the Directive are the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 (as amended) and the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996. The latter reinforced the regulatory control over construction hazards that already existed in the UK but in particular dealt with the hazards of fire and transport in more detail. A further requirement is that contractors put in place, adequate emergency procedures to deal with fire, flood, asphyxiation, explosion etc. Compressed air working is subject to the Work in Compressed Air Regulations 1996, which is

accompanied by an extensive guidance document. Guidance on most of the risks from tunnelling can be found in the ITA publication Guidelines for Tunnelling Safety (1991) which I T A Working Group 5 are currently revising. An even more comprehensive text on tunnelling safety is the 2001 revision of British Standard BS 6164 Code of Practice for Safety in Tunnelling in the Construction Industry. It is unique in being a safety-related standard dedicated to tunnelling. Although this document is primarily intended for use in the UK, much of its content is directly applicable around the world. It covers all aspects of tunnelling from conception of the project through to rehabilitation of tunnels in use. 6. GROUND RISK This perhaps has the potential to effect most people as in the event of a tunnel collapse. Those affected by a collapse, include the client who suffers financial loss, those building the tunnel whom are at risk of death or injury and the public who may also be at risk of death or injury. Fortunately, spectacular tunnel collapses such as on the scale of Heathrow (The collapse of NATM tunnels at Heathrow Airport, 2000) are low frequency events. Nevertheless they are high consequence events, the prevention of which must be planned for. Their severity will most likely be such that they will have political consequences when they occur. Engineers must not hesitate to think the unthinkable. F o r a l l t u n n e l p r o j e c t s , a d e q u a te s i t e investigation is essential. The designer must know the hazards in the ground in order adequately to address all the risks from it including those relating to health and safety. Design in tunnelling, covers not only the lining but the excavation as well. As comprehensive a site investigation as possible is required to identify ground parameters, discontinuities, water, gas and contamination. Designers should liase closely with contractors to ensure the stability of the tunnel under

construction. This liaison must go beyond just the stability of the permanent works to include the stability of the tunnel at all stages of construction. A primary sprayed concrete lining may be classed as temporary works and thus considered to be the contractors respons ibility but it is also the primary means by which the tunnel is supported during construction. This makes it of fundamental importance for the safety of those in the tunnel (and also for safeguarding the clients asset). The sequencing of the excavation process, particularly in complex tunnel layouts, may also be crucial in ensuring safety. Designers should always ensure that the construction sequence envisaged in their design is adhered to. Contractors should ensure that adherence to design and specification in terms of quality of materials and workmanship is not sacrificed to achieve productivity. They must also ensure that they have a proper appreciation of the engineering principles applicable to the operations in hand. Quality assurance schemes have a place in tunnelling, but are no substitute for good engineering supervision. Lessons should be learned from the mistakes of others. To this end, the work of the ITA under Professor Pelizza in establishing a database of collapses and incidents is to be supported. 7. EXCAVATION and LINING METHODS Excavation method is another factor, which can influence safety. In soft ground, most tunnels are now driven by shielded tunnel boring machine or a combination of NATM/SCL. In hard rock, unshielded TBMs or drill and blast techniques are normally used. Although in soft ground, speed of excavation and the limiting of settlement may be the main reasons behind the use of a TBM, their use has also led to a significant reduction in the risk from ground collapse both to the tunnel workforce and to those on the surface.

NATM/SCL is often classed as an observational method and as such considered by many to require less engineering input. The contrary is the case if proper management of the ground risk is to be achieved (Construction Industry Research and Information Association, 1999). Tunnels being constructed by such methods must be safe at all times (Safety of New Austrian Tunnelling, 1996). Designs must be worked up not only for the most probable and most unlikely conditions but also for a number of incremental steps between. Action or trigger limits in terms of relative values, absolute values and rates of change must be determined. Monitoring must be carried out and results compared against the alarm or trigger limits. Competent engineers must do this. Contingency plans, whose effect has been predicted, must be in place during construction, to be put into effect sufficiently quickly when alarm/trigger limits are exceeded to allow recovery of the situation to be effective. Emergency plans are another essential part of the safe system of work for all tunnel construction. They must be in place to be activated when the worst happens and recovery through implementation of the contingency plans cannot be achieved. 8. TUNNELLING MACHINERY With tunnelling machines becoming ever more sophisticated, there is a need to address machine safety issues. One of the most hazardous areas of a machine is the segment build area within which the erector operates. In large machines, the segments being handled are heavy, visibility over the build area for the erector operator is often limited, but miners are expected to place packing between segments as well as bolts to secure the lining in position. In this area, the risk of serious person al injury from impact is high and is in addition to the risk of trapping injury. Other important aspects of machine safety, which have to be addressed, include fire precautions and electrical safety.

The power consumption of large TBMs can now be between 5 and 10 MW and supply voltages of 11kV are common place. High standards of electrical safety are necessary if electrical accidents are to be prevented. The added problems of working in potentially explosive atmospheres, possible oxygen enrichment and compressed air, all add to the complexity of the electrical engineering problems in tunnelling. To meet the requirements of the Machinery Directive (European Community Directive, 1 9 9 8 ) , C E N ( C o m i t E u r o pe n d e Normalisation), the European standards body, mandated Working Group 4 of CEN Technical Committee 151 (CEN/TC151/WG4) to develop a number of harmonised standards for tunnel machinery safety. The main participants in CEN/TC151/WG4 have been UK, Germany, France and Switzerland with some input, early in the p roject, from Denmark. The harmonised standards developed by CEN/TC151/WG4 are: EN 815 Safety of unshielded tunnel boring machines and rodless shaft boring machines, prEN 12336 Tunnelling machines Road headers, Continuous miners and Impact rippers Safety requirements , prEN 12110 Tunnelling Machines Air locks Safety requirements, prEN 12111 Tunnelling machines Shield machines, auger boring machines, lining erection equipment safety requirements.

standards have acquired near mandatory status. EN 815 and prENs 12111 and 12336 address a w i d e r a n g e o f m a c h i n e r y -related hazards specifically within the context of tunnelling including: access to cutterhead handling of heavy components rotation/stability walkways and access openings visibility control points and systems hydraulic and electrical systems fire protection operator protection occurrence of potentially explosive gas

Because the standards apply to all sizes of machines falling within their scope, their requirements have to be general in nature. Nevertheless manufacturers supplying into the EC have incorporated the safety requirements in their machinery designs, which has resulted in improvements in TBM safety over the past decade. prEN 12110 addresses hazards specific to airlocks including: design/manufacture/test for safe working pressure controls/instrumentation minimum dimensions fire protection oxygen breathing

EN 815 was ratified in 1997 and the other three draft standards should be ratified in 2002. Any manufacturer supplying machinery into the European Community must show that these machines conform to the essential safety requirements of the (Machinery) directive. The most common way of doing this is for the machine manufacturers to self certify conformity with the relevant harmonised CEN standard(s). Accordingly many of these

A further draft standard prEN 1710 Machines for underground mines Additional requirements for machines not primarily designed for areas susceptible to firedamp Safety, was prepared by CEN/TC196 - a mining machinery committee, but has not to date been progressed beyond the draft. Tunnelling machinery for use in potentially explosive atmospheres must conform to the essential safety requirements of the so-called

ATEX Directive (1994) which covers both mechanical and electrical equipment. Under the agreement between CEN and ISO for reciprocal recognition of standards, preliminary discussions have already taken place, with a view to these standards being adopted by ISO once they have been ratified. A further health and safety benefit from mechanisation has been the reduction in hand tunnelling and its associated hazards of manual handling, noise, vibration and heat strain. 9. TRANSPORT Tunnelling requires the transport of large numbers of men and considerable quantities of materials often over long distances. Typically in bored tunnels, a railway system has been used for transport of men and materials, whilst in other tunnels, conventional wheeled or tracked construction plant has been used. In the confined space of the tunnel, which is often poorly lit, visibility is poor and the risk of collision between men and machines in close proximity, is high. In such collisions, it is inevitable that the only the machines will emerge unscathed. This is a foreseeable risk, which must be addressed by the contractor primarily through the provision of adequately separated vehicle and pedestrian routes but also through the installation of better lighting and the provision of reflective clothing. Other methods of removing excavated material from the tunnel include slurry systems and conveyors. Both give major safety benefits as they significantly reduce the number of transport movements required in the tunnel. 10. TUNNEL ATMOSPHERE AND VENTILATION The condition of the tunnel atmosphere affects those all working in it. A number of atmospheric hazards can be found in tunnelling, all of which give rise to significant health and safety risk (Lamont, 1998). They include oxygen deficiency or

oxygen enrichment, a r a n g e o f t o x i c , carcinogenic or asphyxiant gaseous contaminants, potentially explosive gaseous contaminants, hazardous dusts and radioactive particles. These contaminants can only be reliably detected by the use of monitoring equipment. Waste heat from plant and machinery also builds up in the atmosphere. All these risks should be controlled by ventilation. Frequently however, the tunnel ventilation system fails to do this effectively due to inadequate design or maintenance. Ducting may be wrongly positioned to supply fresh air to the miners or it may not pass the required quantity of air as the duct has been blocked or leaks have not been sealed. 11. EXPLOSIVES In hard rock tunnelling, extensive use is still made of drill and blast techniques. Apart from the dust, noise and vibration hazards inherent in such techniques, there are the additional hazards associated with using explosives. These extend beyond the obvious safety hazards of detonation to the toxic fume generated by the explosives on detonation. 12. FIRE, FLOOD, RESCUE AND ESCAPE One of the most significant tunnelling hazards for the workforce, is fire with the attendant release of smoke. Apart from the heat generated in the event of fire, smoke can spread rapidly through the tunnel system. In addition the tunnel lining can be severely damaged (Tait and Hoj). In most tunnels, the high level of mechanisation means that there are significant quantities of hydraulic fluid and possibly also diesel fuel underground. In addition, large quantities of grease may be around the TBM. Contractors should adopt a fire mitigation policy by using only low flammability hydraulic fluid, minimising the quantity stored in any single tank and ensuring the integrity of

hydraulic systems through good engineering practice. In addition all mechanical and electrical plant and equipment working underground should be fitted with fixed onboard fire suppression systems. Hand held extinguishers are likely to prove useless against oil jet fires. Furthermore, their use requires someone to remain in a position of danger to fight the fire. Good housekeeping is of paramount importance in ensuring that the build up of flammable rubbish including timber, plastic bottles, paper, discarded hoses and cables is not allowed to occur. Comp r e h e n s i v e f i r e d e t e c t i o n a n d a l a r m systems as well as communication systems should be installed underground. They should be linked into the main tunnel control systems. Contractors should issue oxygen self-rescuers to be worn by all person underground. Filter self-r e s c u e r s d o n o t g i v e a n y p r o t e c t i o n against oxygen deficiency or contaminants other than carbon monoxide (Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 2001). Adequate rescue arrangements should be made either from within the contractors own work force or by utilising the public emergency services. This may require the provision of additional equipment such as long duration breathing apparatus. To facilitate escape and rescue an unobstructed access walkway should run throughout the length of the TBM and from its outbye end to a means of access to a place of safety on the surface. On long tunnels, dedicated rescue and escape trains may be required. 13. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH No one should arrive home from work less healthy than when they left home to go to work. The role of occupational health is two-fold: To ensure fitness for work To address ill health due to work.

The former is in fact a safety issue e.g. checking the eyesight of plant operators or locomotive drivers to ensure their vision is adequate. Occupational health is even more often neglected in tunnelling than safety. One of the major revisions to the text in BS 6164:2001 was the insertion of an expanded section on occupational health in tunnelling. Most of the health hazards of construction (Gibb, Gyl and Thompson, 1999) are also present in tunnelling: cementitious materials which can cause dermatitis. epoxy materials that can cause skin and respiratory problems. noise is a common health problem which should be addressed by reducing noise emissions at source rather than by the provision of personal protective equipment (The Noise at Work Regulations, 2001). heat strain is a hazard where extensive manual tunnelling work is undertaken in free or compressed air (OBrien, Parsons and Lamont, 1997). vibration from hand held pneumatic or hydraulic tools lead to hand arm vibration syndrome. Low vibration tools and proper maintenance of the tools is an important way of controlling this risk (Health and Safety Executive, 1994). t u n n e l l i n g i s a n industry involving extensive manual handling. Loads are heavy the work is repetitive and the environment cramped and hot (Guidance on Regulations, 1992). Many miners suffer severe musculoskeletal injury over their time in the industry. dust, especially respirable silica, is a particular hazard in rock tunnelling and excessive exposure can lead to chronic illness and death (Crabbe, 1993). soil conditioners for use with tunnelling machines to facilitate spoil handling (Cartney and Barker, 2001).

People suffering from ill health are often no longer able to work and therefore many cases of occupational ill health go unrecorded (healthy worker effect). In an industry where peripatetic workers make up a significant proportion of the workforce, even more cases of ill health than for general construction may be going unreported. The UK is currently considering the introduction of an occupational health service for the construction industry funded by a levy on employers. On the second phase of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link project, which will involve extensive tunnelling under London, the client has appointed a project occupational health adviser. Senior staff in a number of disciplines are currently undergoing intensive awareness training in health issues. This is an innovative approach to occupational health. As tunnelling workers often have no access to regular health care when living away from home, the provision of occupational health facilities becomes even more important. 14. WELFARE Almost no provision is made for basic welfare on many tunnelling schemes. Space for basic toilet and washing facilities is limited in small tunnels. In larger tunnels, there is enough space for toilet and washing facilities on the TBM or in the tunnel. A system for cleaning an d maintaining the toilets is essential. Unpublished studies by HSE have shown that providing basic facilities can make significant reductions in the number of cases of minor ill health. Messing facilities, with a supply of cold potable water is also required. Along with welfare, first aid provisions must be available to match the requirements of the project. 15. WORK IN COMPRESSED AIR The era when large soft ground tunnels below the water table were hand dug by miners

working in compressed air has passed. Notable examples of such tunnels in the UK were the Dartford tunnel and the Clyde tunnels. The end of such working practices has brought with it a reduction in the number of cases of decompression illness and bone necrosis. Nevertheless, modern TBMs such as slurry machines and earth pressure balance machines, often require the application of compressed air within the cutterhead to facilitate face inspection and cutter head maintenance. Whilst the number of exposures has probably been cut by over 95% compared to hand digging the tunnel, some hyperbaric working is still required. The trend is for tunnels to be dug ever deeper thus increasing the working pressures. With air-only decompression, the incidence of DCI can exceed 2% for some pressure/time combinations. This is unacceptable for the 21st century. Many countries have now adopted routine oxygen decompression to reduce the risk of decompression illness. Overall, however the compressed air tunnelling industry lags far behind the diving industry in its hyperbaric engineering practices. The first tunnel in which saturation techniques were used is under construction at Westerschelde in Holland where working pressures have peaked at around 6 bar. It should always be remembered that not only does hyperbaric working present a health hazard it also presents a safety hazard as fire risk increases directly with increasing pressure (Lamont, Buckland, Bettis, Jagger and Hambleton, 1998). Work at increased pressure also results in increased risk from heat strain and may also exacerbate exposure to contaminants and noise. Much useful background information on current compressed air working practice was presented in Oxford at the 1992 Engineering and health in compressed air work conference (Jardine and McCallum, 1 9 9 2 ) . A s e c o n d international event is planned for Oxford in 2002 by the British Tunnelling Society.

16. EDUCATION, TRAINING & COMPETENCE It is vital if health and safety standards are to be improved, for more resource to be put into raising the competence o f all those in the industry in general as well as in health and safety matters. The traditional image of tunnel workers, and one, which they seem to like to project at least in the UK, is one of a hard working, hard living, macho nature. Concern for ones safety and health appears to be limited. Comprehensive induction training for all new employees to the industry is essential. Sitespecific training for experienced employees but who are new to a site is also necessary. A r e c e n t s t u d y f o r H S E s h o w e d h o w little resource was put into addressing health and safety issues in undergraduate education (Contract Research Report, 2001). Engineers and managers should undertake training in health and safety matters as part of their p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u ing professional development. This extend beyond what is required for personal safety to what is required to ensure the safety of those affected by their professional activities. Specific training in understanding the risks from hazards such as work in compressed air is mandatory in many countries. HSE recently produced a video training package specifically aimed at the fire hazards of compressed air working (The Heat Within, 2001). Again the ITA has recognised the importance of these matters in publishing their illustrated safety handbook Safety in Tunnelling (International Tunnelling Association, 1989). Which is currently being revised under leadership of Walter Chromy vice-animateur of Working Group 5 and in the establishment of a working group on training and education under Professor Peila. Coupled with competence is the need to ensure that proper supervision is exercised over the work. Front line supervisors play a key role in

fostering greater awareness of health and safety issues amongst the workforce. 17. CONCLUDING REMARKS There is considerable scope for improvement in standards of health and safety in tunnel construction worldwide. Some countries have more developed regimes than others. All can improve further. We should all share knowledge, guidance and good practice in these matters. Good standards of health and safety require the commitment of resources in terms of time and money but a productive workforce can only be sustained if working conditions are healthy and safe. Respect for people mus t be our goal in the 21st century. 18. REFERENCES Progress in Tunnelling after 2000; Volume 1, Proceedings of the AITES ITA 2001 World Tunnel Congress, Milan; Patron Editore, Bologna 2001. Safety in tunnelling is too important to be left only to safety officers, Anderson, J.M, Tunnels and Underground Structures, Zhao, Shirlaw and Krishnan, (Eds) Balkema, Rotterdam, 2000. The Channel Tunnel - Aspects of Health and Safety during Construction; HSE Books, Sudbury, 1996. Tunnels under pressure - mitigating the human response; Lamont, D.R.; AITESITA 2000 World Tunnel Congress, Durban, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2000. Safety in tunnelling is too important to be left only to safety officers, Anderson, J.M., Tunnels and Underground Structures, Zhao, Shirlaw and Krishnan, (Eds) Balkema, Rotterdam, 2000. Fire prevention on construction sites The joint code of practice on the protection from fire of construction sites and buildings undergoing renovation, 2000 (5th Ed.). London: Fire Protection Association.

Framework Directive, European Community Directive 89/391/EC of 12 th June 1989, Temporary or Mobile Construction Sites Directive and Annex IV, European Community Directive 92/57/EEC of 24th June 1992. Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994, SI 1994/3140, HMSO, London, 1994. Construction (Health Safety and Welfare) Regulations; SI 1996/1592. HMSO London 1996 Work in Compressed Air Regulations 1996; SI 1996/1656. HMSO, London, 1996 Guidelines for Tunnelling Safety, International Tunnelling Association, Bron, France, 1991. BS 6164:2001 Code of Practice for safety in tunnelling in the construction industry, British Standards Institution, London, 2001 The collapse of NATM tunnels at Heathrow Airport; HSE Books, Sudbury, 2000 The Observational Method in Ground Engineering Principles and Application, Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Report R185, London, 1999. Safety of New Austrian Tunnelling Method with particular reference to London Clay, HSE Books, Sudbury, 1996. Approximation of the Laws of the Member States Relating to Machinery, European Community Directive 98/37/EC of 22nd June 1998 Approximation of the laws of Member States concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres, European Directive 94/9/EC of 23 March 1994. Health, Safety and Ventilation, Lamont, D.R.; World Tunnelling, November 1998, 11(9), 448 454. Storebaelt Eastern Railway Tunnel TBM fire, analysis and recovery, Tait,

J.C., Hoj, N.P.; Proc Institution of Civil Engineers, 114 (Special Edition) 40 48, London. Factors in the provision of respiratory protective equipment for escape and rescue in tunnelling; Lamont, D.R., Underground Construction 2001, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 2001. The ECI guide to managing health in construction, Gibb, A., Gyl, D.F., Thompson, T., (Eds); Thomas Telford 1999, London. The Noise at Work Regulations : A brief guide to the requirements for controlling noise at work; HSE Books, Sudbury, 2001 Assessment of heat strain on workers in tunnels using compressed air compared to those in free air conditions, OBrien, N. Parsons, K.C. and Lamont, D.R., Tunnelling 97 Institute of Mining and Metallurgy London 1997 Handarm vibration. HS(G) 88: Health and Safety Executive 1994. Sudbury: HSE Books. Manual Handling: Manual Handling Regulations 1992; Guidance on Regulations; HSE Books; Sudbury 1992. Silica Dust in the Quarries Industry, Crabbe, J., Toxic Substances Bulletin, HSE, Aug.1993, no.22, 4. Health and Safety Effects associated with soil conditioners in the tunnelling and pipejacking industry, Cartney,S.A. and Barker, P., Proc Underground Construction 2001, Inst. of Mining and Metallurgy, London. Fire tests in a compressed air tunnel at u p t o 3 b a r pressure, Lamont, D.R., Buckland, I., Bettis, R.J., Jagger, S.F. and Hambleton, R.T., Tunnels and Metropolises, Negro and Ferreira Ed., Vol 1 Balkema Rotterdam 1998 Engineering and Health in Compressed Air Work, Proceedings of International Conference, Oxford 1992, Jardine, F.M. and McCallum, R.I., eds, Construction

Industry Research and Information Association, London. Identification and management of risk in undergraduate construction courses; Contract Research Report 392/2001, HSE Books, Sudbury, 2001.

The Heat Within the effect of fire in pressurised tunnels, HSE Books, Sudbury, 2001. Safe Working in Tunnelling, International Tunnelling Association, Bron, France, 1989.