Nature of Construction Accidents & Accident Causations

Dr. BHW Hadikusumo

Construction, Engineering and Infrastructure Management Asian Institute of Technology Email: kusumo@ait.ac.th

Accidents in All Industrial Undertakings

T a b le 2 .7 O c c u p a tio n a l In ju rie s C la s s ifie d b y D e g re e o f L o s s a n d T y p e o f B u s in e s s in 1 9 9 9 in T h a ila n d I n d u s tr ia l C la s s ific a t io n S u rv ey an d M in in g M a n u fa c tu r e o f fo o d a n d b ev erag e M a n u fa c tu r e r o f te x tile s a n d a c c e s s o rie s F o r e s try a n d w o o d p ro d u c ts P a p e r p ro d u c ts , p rin tin g C h e m ic a l p ro d u c ts , p e tro le u m P ro d u c ts fr o m n o n - m e ta llic m in e ra l M a n u fa c tu r e r o f b a s ic m e ta l M e ta l p ro d u c ts M a n u fa c tu r e a n d a s s e m b ly o f v e h ic le s O th e r m a n u fa c tu r in g in d u s trie s P u b lic u tilitie s C o n s tr u c tio n s * T ra n s p o rt a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n D e a th P erm anent T o ta l D is a b ility 1 P erm anent P a r tia l D is a b ility 27 T em porary D is a b ility > 3 days 564 T em porary D is a b ility < 3 days 500 T o ta l

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Accident Types (in Hong Kong)

Fall from height Injured by hand tool Injured while lifting or carrying Machinery Slip, trip or fall on the same level Striking against fixed or stationary object Striking against or strike by a moving object Struck by a falling object

See Statistics

Main Types of Accident

People falling from heights Objects falling from height Accident involving machinery or vehicles

Assignment #1
Compare accident statistics of two developing countries, if possible use your country.

Why Accidents Happen?

Several Theories of Accident Causation

The Domino Theory of Accident Causation The Human Factors Theory of Accident Causation The Accident/Incident Theory The Epidemiological Theory of Accident Causation The System Theory of Accident Causation The Combination Theory of Accident Causation

The Domino Theory

In 1920, Heinrich studied 75,000 accidents
88% of accidents were caused by unsafe acts 10% by unsafe conditions 2% are unavoidable

Heinrich proposed his Axioms of Industrial Safety, known as the Domino Theory

The Axioms of Domino Theory

Injuries result from a completed series of factors, one of which is the accident itself An accident can occur only as the result of an unsafe act by a person and/or a physical or mechanical hazard. Most accidents are the result of unsafe behavior by people An unsafe act by a person or an unsafe condition does not always immediately result in an accident/injury The reasons why people commit unsafe acts can serve as helpful guides in selecting corrective actions

The Axioms
The severity of an accident is largely fortuitous and the accident that caused it is largely preventable. The best accident techniques are analogous with the best quality and productivity techniques. Management should assume responsibility for safety since it is in the best position to get results The supervisor is the key person in the prevention of industrial accidents. In addition to the direct cost of an accident (I.e., compensation, liability claims, medical costs, and hospital expenses) there are also hidden or indirect costs.

The domino Theory

1. Ancestry and Social Environment 2. Fault of person 3. Unsafe acts and Unsafe Conditions

4. Accident 5. Injury

Major Unsafe Acts

Indulging in horseplay Leaving nail or other objects protruding from timber Throwing or accidentally dropping object from height Under influence of alcohol and other drugs Improper position for task

Major Unsafe Acts

Incorrect use of tools and equipment, hand tools, power tools Incorrect use of machinery Failure to wear protective equipment Using defective equipment and tools Removing safety guards Making safety devices inoperable Servicing equipment in operation

Major Unsafe Conditions

Inadequate guards Congested work site Inadequate warning devices Fire and explosion hazard Poor housekeeping Hazardous atmospheric conditions Excessive noise Radiation exposure Inadequate illumination or ventilation

The Domino Theory

Two Central Points of this theory:
Injuries are caused by the action of preceding factors Removal of the central factor (unsafe act/unsafe condition) negates the action of preceding factor and, in so doing, prevents accidents and injuries.

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Class Discussion
Case Study (15 Minutes) What are the accident causation? What is your suggestion?

Group Assignment: Identify Unsafe Acts and Conditions; and Possible Types of Accident

Human Factors Theory of Accident Causation

This theory attributes accidents to a chain of events ultimately caused by human error:
Overload Inappropriate response Inappropriate activity

Human Error: Overload

An imbalance between a persons capacity at any given time and the load that person is carrying in a given state. Person capacity is the product of natural ability, training, state of mind, fatigue, stress and physical condition. Factors magnifying the work load
Environmental factors: noise, distraction, etc Internal factors: personal problems, emotional stress, worry Situational factors: level of risk, unclear instructions

Human Error: Inappropriate Response/Incompatibility

Appropriate response to an unsafe condition If an unsafe condition is identified
Appropriate response by worker accident can be avoided No response accident may happen

If a person is incompatible with standard procedure, accident may happen.

Human Error: Inappropriate Activities

Undertaking a task in which he or she does not know how to do it.

Human Factors

Overload
Environmental Factors (Noise, Distractions) Internal Factors (Personal Problems, Emotional Stress) Situational Factors (Unclear instructions, risk level)

Inappropriate Response
Detecting a hazard, but not correcting it Removing safeguards from machines and equipment Ignoring safety

Inappropriate Activities
Performing tasks without the requisite training Misjudging the degree of risk involved in a given task

Class Discussion
Case Study (15 Minutes) What are the accident causation? What is your suggestion?

Accident/Incident Theory
It is an extension of Human Error Theory by adding ergonomic traps and decision to err This theory also include system failure as a cause of accident.

Accident/Incident Theory
(by Dan Petersen)

Overload
Pressure Fatigue Motivation Drugs Alcohol Worry

Ergonomic Traps
Incompatible workstation (I.e., size, force, reach, feel) Incompatible expectations

Decision to Err
Misjudgment of the risk Unconscious desire to err Logical decision based on the situation

Human Error Systems Failure

Policy Responsibility Training Inspection Correction Standards

Accident Injury/Damage

Class Discussion
Case Study (15 Minutes) What are the accident causation? What is your suggestion?

Epidemiological Theory
Traditionally, safety theories and programs focused on accidents and injuries. However, a broader perspective that includes industrial hygiene must also be considered. Industrial hygiene concerns environmental factors that can lead to sickness, disease, or other forms of impaired health. Epidemiological theory studies the relationship between environmental factors and accidents or diseases.

Epidemiological Theory

Predisposition Characteristics
Susceptibility of people Perceptions Environmental factors

Situational Characteristics
Risk Assessment by Individuals Peer Pressure Priorities of the Supervisor Attitude

Can Cause or Prevent Accident Conditions The two characteristics, taken together, can result in or prevent conditions that might result in accident or illness. For example, a worker who is susceptible to peer pressure is more likely to have an occupational accident or illness.

Class Discussion
Case Study (15 Minutes) What are the accident causation? What is your suggestion?

System Theory of Accident Causation

A system is a group of regularly interacting and interrelated components that together form a unified whole. System theory views a situation in which an accident might occur as a system comprised of three components:
Person (host) Machine (agency) Environment

The likelihood of an accident is determined by how the three components interact.

System Theory Model

Feedback loop

Environment

Interactions
Machine Person

Collect Information
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Weigh Risks

Make Decision

Task to be Performed

Five factors to be considered: Job requirements The workers abilities and limitations The gain if the task is successfully accomplished The loss if the task is attempted but fails The loss if the task is not attempted

Class Discussion
Case Study (15 Minutes) What are the accident causation? What is your suggestion?

The Combination Theory

For some accidents, a given model can explain why accident happened. For others, the model cannot explain. According to the combination theory, the actual cause may combine parts of several different models. This theory is suitable for accident prevention and investigation.

Class Discussion
Mr. A: All accidents, one way or another, are the result of human error. Mr. B: No, accidents are the result of a combination of things. I like the combination theory. Mr. C: You are both wrong. Accidents are best explained by the Domino Theory. What is your opinion?

Assignment #2
Explain the MRTA accident based on combination theory of accident causation Source of data must be clearly stated

Other Accident Causation Theories

Pure Chance
No discernible pattern in the events leading up to an accident An accident is an Act of God All people are exposed to the same risk

Accident Prone Theory

Some people are more liable to accidents than others due to innate personal characteristics All people are exposed to the same risk, the differences in liability are entirely due to personal characteristics.

Other Accident Causation Theories

Adjusted/Stress Theory (By Kerr)
People, who are not adjusted to their situation or integrated with it, will be liable to have more accidents than others, and that this adjustment is affected by the tensions and stresses (i.e., physical and psychological) to which people are subject.

Goals/Freedom/Alertness Theory (By Kerr)

This is the complementary theory to the adjusted/stress theory People had accidents because they were not alert to their true situation The lack of alertness was the result of a lack of involvement in their work, brought about by being told exactly what to do and what not to do and not being given any say in setting their own goals.

Other Accident Causation Theories

Unconscious motivation
Accidents are self-punitive acts brought about by a number of subconscious processes involving guilt, aggression, anxiety, ambition and conflict, generated largely by events in childhood. Counseling, guidance and psychotherapy can be used as preventative measures

Other Accident Causation Theories

Situational Theories
Faverge analysed the situations leading to unrealibility and accidents, stressing particularly the concepts of breakdown and degradation of the normal working situation. Winsemius produced a theory of task structures, an accident is a disturbance in the task activity leading to some concrete result, usually but not necessarily an injury.