GRAPHICAL AND MECHANICAL COMPUTATION

GRAPHICAL AND MECHANICAL

COMPUTATION

BY

JOSEPH LJPKA,

Ph.D.

Late Associate Professor of Mathematics in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY &

London:

SONS,

Inc.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

Limited

74
is-

L 7

Copyright, [T918,
BY

JOSEPH LIPKA

Printed in U.

S.

A.

7-59

PREFACE
This book embodies a course given by the writer for a number of years in the Mathematical Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute It is designed as an aid in the solution of a large numof Technology. problems which the engineer, as well as the student of engineering, ber of meets in his work. In the opening chapter, the construction of scales naturally leads to a discussion of the principles upon which the construction of various The second chapter develops the principles of a slide rules is based. network of scales, showing their application to the use of various kinds of coordinate paper and to the charting of equations in three variables. Engineers have recognized for a long time the value of graphical charts in lessening the labor of computation. Among the charts devised none are so rapidly constructed nor so easily read as the charts of the alignment or nomographic type a type which has been most fully developed by Professor M. d'Ocagne of Paris. Chapters III, IV, and V aim to give a systematic development of the construction of alignment

of

methods are fully illustrated by charts for a large number well-known engineering formulas. It is the writer's hope that the simple mathematical treatment employed in these chapters will serve to make the engineering profession more widely acquainted with this time
charts; the

and labor saving

device.

Many
value of

formulas in the engineering sciences are empirical, and the

scientific

and technical investigations is enhanced by the Chapter VI is concerned with the fitting of equations to empirical data. Chapter VII considers the case where the data are periodic, as in alternating currents and voltages, sound waves, etc., and gives numerical, graphical, and mechanical methods for determining the constants in the equation. When empirical formulas cannot be fitted to the experimental data,
discovery of the laws connecting the results.
these data may still be efficiently handled for purposes of further computation, interpolation, differentiation, and integration, by the

many

numerical, graphical, and mechanical methods developed in the last two chapters.

Numerous
each chapter.

illustrative

and a large number

examples are worked throughout the text, is given at the end of The additional charts at the back of the book will serve
of exercises for the student

/03737

IV
as

PREFACE
Bibliographical

an aid In the construction of alignment charts. references will be found in the footnotes.

engineering departments of the Massachusetts Technology, and to various mathematical and engineering Institute of publications. He owes the idea of a Mathematical Laboratory to Professor E. T. Whittaker of the University of Edinburgh. He is especially indebted to Capt. H. M. Brayton, U. S. A., a former student, for his valuable suggestions and for his untiring efforts in designing a Above all he is most grateful to large number of the alignment charts. his wife for her assistance in the revision of the manuscript and the reading of the proof, and for her constant encouragement which has greatly lightened the labor of writing the book.

The writer wishes the members of the

to express his indebtedness for valuable data to

JOSEPH LIPKA.
Cambridge, Mass.,
Oct. 13, 1918.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Art.
i
.

I.

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE.

Page
Definition of a scale
i I

2. 3.

Representation of a function by a scale Variation of the scale modulus

Stationary scales
Sliding scales

2 5
7

4.
5. 6. 7. 8.

The The The

logarithmic slide rule

solution of algebraic equations on the logarithmic slide rule
log-log slide rule

9
II

13

9.

Various other straight slide rules

15

10.

Curved

slide rules

16
18

Exercises

CHAPTER

II.

NETWORK OF
11.

SCALES.

CHARTS FOR EQUATIONS IN TWO AND THREE VARIABLES.

20
21

Representation of a relation between two variables by means of perpendicular scales

12.

Some

illustrations of perpendicular scales

13. 14.
15.

Logarithmic coordinate paper Semilogarithmic coordinate paper Rectangular coordinate paper the solution of algebraic equations of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th degrees

22

24 26
28

16.

Representation of a relation between three variables by means of perpendicular scales

Charts for multiplication and division Representing curves are straight lines 18. Three-variable charts. 19. Rectangular chart for the solution of cubic equations Representing curves are not straight lines 20. Three-variable charts.
17.

30
32

35
37

21.

Use

of three indices.

Hexagonal charts

40
4.2

Exercises

CHAPTER
22.

III.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS.

Fundamental
(I)

principle
/i(w)

44

Equation of form
parallel scales

+ f {v)
2

=f

(w)

or /i()

f2 (v) =

f%(w)

Three
45~54
45

Chart 24. Chart

23.

for equation (I) for multiplication

and division v

47

VI
Art.
25. 26. 27.

CONTENTS
Page

Combination chart
Tension
(II)

for various formulas

Grasshoff 's formula for the weight of dry saturated steam

in belts

48 50
52

and horsepower
form
3

of belting

Equation

of

/i()

Four or more

+/2W +f (w) +

=Mt)

or

() ./,(r) ./3 (w)

=Mt)
55 _63
55 56

parallel scales

28. 29. 30. 31.

Chart

for equation (II) for the velocity of flow of

Chezy formula

open channels Hazen-Williams formula for the velocity of flow of water in pipes Indicated horsepower of a steam engine
water
in

57
61

Exercises

64

CHAPTER

IV.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(HI) Equation of form/i()
32.
33-

(Continued).

= f2 (v)

-/3 (w) or/i(tt)

/i()A<">

Z chart.

65-67
65 66

Chart for equation (III) Tension on bolts with U.

(IV)

S.

standard threads
intersecting index lines

Equation

of

form

7^ = ttt Two

68-75
68 69

34.
35. 36. 37.

Chart

for equation (IV)

electric

Prony brake or

38.

dynamometer formula Deflection of beam fixed at ends and loaded at center Deflection of beams under various methods of loading and supporting Specific speed of turbine and water wheel
(V)

70
71

73
inter-

Equation

of

form

fi(u)

=/

2 (?')

'

Mw)

ft(t)

Two or more

secting index lines

39. 40.

76-87
76
77
in pipes

Chart for equation (V) Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft 41. D'Arcy's formula for the flow of steam 42. Distributed load on a wooden beam
43.

79 80

Combination chart

for six

beam

deflection formulas

44. General considerations

84 87
lines

(VI)

Equation of form

~~ = -T^; Parallel or perpendicular index

87-91

45. 46.

Chart

for equation (VI)

47.
48.

Weight of gas flowing through an orifice Armature or field winding from tests

87 89 9
91
:

Lame

formula for thick hollow cylinders subjected to internal pressure

of

(VH) Equation
:

= /s(ttO Mq)
49.
50.

form fi(u) t fs (w) f2 (v) Parallel or perpendicular index lines

- f (q)

or

fi(u)

f->(v)

9 I_95 91

Chart

for equation (VII)

Friction loss in flow of water

94

Exercises

95

CONTENTS

VU

CHAPTER
^rt
(VIII) Equation of form

V.
(Continued). Page
or perpendicular

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

u)

+M

v)

4-rr

Parallel

index lines
51. 52. 53. 54.

97-104
97

Chart

for

equation (VIII)
of inertia of cylinder

Moment

99
101

Bazin formula for velocity of flow in open channels

Resistance of riveted steel plate
(IX) Equation of

101

form

/i()

+/ W
2

/()

/1 ()

+ /2W + / W t
3

'

Mi)
104-106
104 106

Three or more concurrent scales

55.
56.

Chart

for equation (IX)

Focal length of a lens

(X) Equation of form /i()
scales

+/2W

'^(w) =/(')

Straight

and curved
106-113
106
107

57.
58. 59.

Chart for equation (X) Storm water run-off formula Francis formula for a contracted weir

60.

The

solution of cubic

and quadratic equations

no no
114-117
114
t

(XI) Additional forms of equations. 61

Combined methods

Chart

for equation of for equation of for equation of for

form

M)

+ ttt fi(v)
+ Mv

=
'

'

62.
63. 64. +

Chart Chart
Chart

form/i(w)

M
=

f3 (w)
rJ )

=f
-

(q)
1

114 114
115
II 5

form fi(u)
/i()

fi(q)

+Mv)
,
.

f3 (w) =
.

equation of form j-tr

j-r-r + Mv) = Mw)

6=5.

Chart Chart Chart

for equation of

form 4-r\

/i()

M"")

66. 67.

for equation of form/i(w)

for

/2 (g)

equation of form

/1 (u)

Ml)

+M +M

V)

'M w = M)
)
'

116

V)

M) = Ml)

+MW

ll 7

Exercises

Miscellaneous exercises for Chapters

III, IV,

117 118

CHAPTER
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
68.

VI.

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES.
120

Experimental data
(I)

The

straight line

122-127
bx a 122 bx

69.
70.

The The

straight line, y
straight line, y

= =

125

Vlll

CONTENTS
(II)

Art.

Formulas involving two constants

Page 128-139

71.

72.
73. 74.

Simple parabolic and hyperbolic curves, y Simple exponential curves, y = ae hx

Parabolic or Hyperbolic curve, y

ax5

128
131

Hyperbolic curve, y
(III)

x a +
,

= , or

ox

x y

+ bx n (wnere = a + bx

is

Known)

135

117

Formulas involving three constants

4- c

140-152
140 142
145
140

75.

76.
77.

The parabolic or hyperbolic curve, y = ax b The exponential curve, y = ae hx -\- c The parabola, y = a + bx + ex2 The hyperbola, y =

78.

a bx 79. The logarithmic or exponential curve, log y

(IV) Equations involving four or
80.
81.

+
x
:

\-

bx

ex2 or y

ae

bl

+ cx

~
.

151

more constants

152-164
152
153

82.
83.

The additional terms ce dx and ex* The equation y = a + bx + ce dx The equation y = ae bx + ce dx The polynomial y = a + bx + ex2

156

+ dx +
3

84.

Two

or

more equations

159 161

Exercises

164

CHAPTER
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
85.

VII.

PERIODIC

CURVES.
170 170
173

86. 87. 88.

89.

The fundamental and

Representation of periodic phenomena the harmonics of a trigonometric series

90.
91.

92.

93.
94.

Determination of the constants when the function is known Determination of the constants when the function is unknown Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Even and odd harmonics Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Odd harmonics only Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Averaging selected ordinates. .. Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Averaging selected ordinates. Odd harmonics only Graphical evaluation of the coefficients Mechanical evaluation of the coefficients. Harmonic analyzers
.

174
179 186
192 198

200
203 207

Exercises

CHAPTER

VIII.

INTERPOLATION.
95.
96.
97.

Graphical interpolation
Successive differences and the construction of tables

209 210
214 218 210
23 i

98.
99.

Newton's interpolation formula Lagrange's formula of interpolation

Inverse interpolation
Exercises

CONTENTS

IX

CHAPTER
Art.
ioo. 101.

IX.

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

Page

102.
103. 104.

methods Rectangular, trapezoidal, Simpson's, and Durand's Applications of approximate rules

necessity for approximate

The

rules

224 224 227

231

General formula for approximate integration

Numerical differentiation
Graphical integration

105.
106.

234 237

Graphical differentiation

107. 108.

Mechanical integration.
Integrators

The planimeter

109.
110.

The integraph
Mechanical differentiation.
Exercises

244 246 250 252

255 256

The

differentiator

Graphical and Mechanical Computation.

CHAPTER I. SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE.
A graphical scale is a curve or axis on Definition of a scale. i. which are marked a series of points or strokes corresponding in order to a set of numbers arranged in order of magnitude. If the distances between successive strokes are equal, the scale is If the distances between successive said to be uniform (Figs. la, lb). strokes are unequal, the scale is said to be non-uniform (Fig. ic). The strokes are drawn as fine as possible, perpendicular to the axis which
carries the scale.
1

''

i |

i |

^<\\

5 e

7eJ~>y^

m
i
i

i 1
1

Fig.
2.

a.

Fig. lb.

Fig.

ic.

Representation of a function by a scale.

Consider the function

8

u2

of a variable u.

Form
i
1

the table

u
u and on an
2

=
=
;

o
o

3 9

4
16

6 36

9
81

10

25

49

64

100

axis

OX lay off from

mark

the origin O, lengths equal to x

0.04 w 2

inches (Fig. 2a)

2

at the strokes indicating the end of each segment

Thus, a stroke marked u is at a distance Fig. 2a is said to represent the function of 0.04 u inches from the origin. 2 u by a scale. The length 0.04 inches is chosen arbitrarily in this case to represent the unit segment used in laying off the values of u 2 on the axis. This unit segment is called the scale modulus.
the corresponding value of u.
n
or 2

1
\ \ 1 1

1 9

2, JO

(u)
Fig. 2a.

In general, any function f(u) of a variable u such that each value of the variable determines a single value of the function, may be represented

by a

scale.

Form
u = f(u) =

the table
U\

Ut

Uz

/(mi)

/(0

/( 8 )

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

and on an axis OX lay off from the origin lengths equal to x = mf(u) inches, and mark with the corresponding values of u the strokes indicating the end of each segment. Fig. 26 is said to represent the function f(u) by a scale. The length m inches is chosen arbitrarily to represent the unit segment used in laying off the values of f(u), and it is called the scale
modulus.

The equation x = mf{u)

is

called the equation of the scale.

(u)
Fig. 2b.

The uniform
f(u)

scale

is

a special case of this representation

when

=
' ' ' ' 1

u.

In Fig. 2c, x
2
1
' ' ' ' '

=
'
' '

mu, where
4
5
1
1
1 1 1 1 1

m =
6
1
1

0.5 inches.*

o
1
' '

t
' '
'

' ' 1

"

"

3
' ' I '

"

11

"1

7
' 1 1 1
1

8
1

9
1 1 1 1

10
1

1 1

Fig. 2c.

/()

The logarithmic scale is a = log u. In Fig. 2d, x =

special case of this representation

when

m log u,
3
11
1

where

m =
1

12.5

cm.*
7

11

11

as
1 1 1

e
[ 1

8
1

9
[

10
j

in mii|

Fig. 2d.

The uniform and logarithmic scales are the most important scales for our work. After we have constructed a scale for f(u) from a table of values of u
and f{u) we may wish to estimate the value of u corresponding to a stroke intermediate between two strokes of the scale, or to estimate on the scale
,

the position of a stroke corresponding to a value of u intermediate between two values of u in the table. This process of interpolating on the scale is of course very much easier for uniform scales than for non-uniform scales. The accuracy of such interpolation evidently depends upon the interval between two successive strokes. Experience has shown that this interval should not be less than 1 mm. or about in. (very rarely need it be as small as this) this may always be done by the choice of a proper scale modulus. 3. Variation of the scale modulus. By varying the modulus m with which a scale for f(u) is constructed, we get a series of scales Xi = Wi/(w), x2 = m-if{u), x z = m 3f(u), all representing the same

* The values of given in the text are those which were employed originally in the construction of the scales; these values do not however refer to the cuts which, in most cases, are reductions of the original drawings.

Art. 3

VARIATION OF THE SCaLE MODULUS

function with moduli mi,

scales

m%,

respectively.

Only one

of these

need be constructed by means of a table of values of f{u), and the others may be derived graphically from this. In Fig. 3a, let O1X1 carry the scale X\ = mif(u) we wish to construct Let be any conthe scale x 2 = m 2 f(u). x, x* venient point; join 0G\ and on this line
;

choose

2
2

such

that
2

00

/00i
,

= m

/mi\
If

through

draw

parallel

to O1X1.

a point on O1X1 marked u' then OiA 2 in a point mif(a'), and OA will cut 2
is

B
B

such that O.&IO1A

Wi/(m')

= 00 /00i
2

or

O2B =

mi

> and thus 5 will also be with all the points Fig. 3a. A of the scale O1X1 we shall thus get the points B of the scale 2 2 so that corresponding points on the same

nhf(u'),
.

marked

u'

By

joining

0.5

0.8

0-7

0.6

o.s

0.4

0.3

0.2

o.f

1.0

0.9

OB

0.7

O.S

OA

0.3

0.2

01

Fig. 3&.

SCALE!'.

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

be marked with the same value of u, and its equation x 2 = ra 2 /(w). need not be drawn, but simply their The transversals through points of intersection with O1X1 indicated. If the transversals through are drawn, then we may get a scale of any required modulus by merely drawing a parallel to O1X1 dividing the segment 00\ in the required ratio; and X will carry a scale with modulus thus a line midway between
transversal through
will

the scale on O2X2 will have for

Fig. 3c.

W1/2, a line f of the

2 /W1/5, etc.

way from

to

will

carry a scale with modulus

for

This principle

is

illustrated in Figs. 36
If

and 3c

uniform and loga.1, .2, .3,

.
.

rithmic scales respectively.

we mark

a uniform scale

.9, on the base line beginning at 0, then the lines through these points parallel to the left-hand scale with modulus will cut the transversal

m
,

in scales

whose moduli are

the charts in

best to

make

.gm, respectively. m, these figures almost square, and to take w

.1

m,

.2

It

is

10

Art. 4

STATIONARY SCALES

= 25 cm. for the logarithmic scale. The in. for the uniform scale and chart of uniform scales will then be an amplification of the engineer's
or architect's hexagonal scale,

and the chart

of logarithmic scales,

an

amplification of the logarithmic slide rule.

be extended. Note, howsegment representing the interval from u = 1 to u = 10 is of the same length as the segment representing the interval from u = 10 to u = 100, or, in general, the segment representing the interval from u = io n to u = io n+1 It is convenient to draw Figs. 36 and 3c on durable paper. Only the primary scale with modulus m, the base line and the transversals need be drawn. The paper may then be creased along any parallel to the primary scale to give a scale of the required modulus. Charts of this nature have been used to assist in constructing a large number of the
If

necessary the scales in either chart

may

ever, that in the case of the logarithmic scales, the

and much time and energy have been in the back of this book.) A relation between two variables u and v 4. Stationary scales. of the form v = f{u) may be represented graphically by constructing the two scales x = mv and x = mf(u) on opposite sides of the same axis or on adjacent or parallel axes with the same modulus and from the same
scales

and charts that

follow,

saved thereby.

(Such charts will be found

origin or with origins in a line perpendicular to the axes.

If

represents degrees Centigrade

1

and

represents degrees Fahren-

heit,

then

and x
origin,

F 32 = .8 = m (1.8 C) on
i.e.,

C.

We construct the uniform scales x = m (F 32)

coincide.
160
1

opposite sides of the same axis, and from the same

the points
30
' . ' ' '

marked C = o and F = 32
60
'

In Fig. 4a,
180
1 I

F
,'

O
.f, '
'

IO
.'!'!
.

20
' j l

40
l '

SO
,

70
'

8O 90
'

100
'!'
S
1 )

110
l

120
T
1

130
'
! !

140 150
f
! , l ,

170
1 ! ! 1 ! 1
.

190 200 210

'!'
' ! '

h[?
-10

'.

1 J

'

.'

.
|

t'

^l't

1 |

I'

^t'

-20

10

20

M 30
]

'

.'
l

1
!

1 !
!

f l

'l' ,
t

1
J

!^

\
1

'l

|'
l

'l' l

t
|

t J

^
|

'|
J

'[

'l

40
Fig.
4<z.

SO

60

70

80

90

JOO

m =

0.02

in.,

so that the equations of our scales are x

C.

0.02 (F

32)

and x = 0.036
If

By means

of such a figure,

we may immediately
in.,

con-

vert degrees Centigrade and Fahrenheit into each other.

pressure

is

expressed as pounds per sq.

P, and feet of water,

W, then

012
I \

P =

0.434 W.
3
1 1 1

Draw
f
, '

the uniform scales x

= mP and
/O
*
*
'

6
'
, 1

//

'1

.' 1

, 1

'

'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

111

11 11

111

'

*i

i
Fig. \b.

10

m (434 W)
so that

from the same

origin.

In Fig. 46, the scale modulus

is 1 in.,

we have

the scales x

= P and x =

0.434 W.

We may
M;

add
thus

another scale for pressure expressed in inches of mercury,

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

0.492

Chap.

P =

M, and

the

scale

has for equation x

0.492

M.

By

means of such a

(drawn with the aid of chart 36 or a pair of dividers) pressure may be read immediately in pounds per sq. in., feet of water, or inches of mercury. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v = log u, we If we take construct the adjacent scales x = mv and x = m log u. m = 25 cm., the logarithmic scale will be the same length as that of the logarithmic slide rule, and if the uniform scale is divided into 500 parts, we can use such a figure to read easily the values of the mantissas of the logarithms of all numbers to three decimals, and conversely to read the
figure

numbers corresponding
01
v
[

to given mantissas (Fig. 4c).

0.4
i 1 i

The
0.9
1 '

slide rule

0.2
t,i
. , .
1 .
1

0.3
1 ! 1

OS
j

0.6
f

0.7
H
^

0.8
' '

1.0

i t

.,

I .,

,l

,t
,.

1
{

p |M

.1
,

3
Fig. 4c.

M^M 4

W Ul|
i

'

'

'^

'

'i'

'

'

'

^
'

10

contains two such adjacent scales.

for the

The

chart, Fig. 3c, could be used

same purpose

if

we

construct a uniform scale adjacent to the

primary logarithmic scale. If the relation between the two variables is of the form v = u^, we may write this as log v = f log u. Here we construct the adjacent scales x = m log v and x = m (f log u), i.e., two logarithmic scales with moduli m and 3 ra/5 respectively. We use chart 3c and get Fig. <\d, from
/

56789
3

10

20

30

40

SO 60 708090100

56789
I

10

20

Fig. \i.

which we can read

when
I

z*

lies

within the limits

to ioo, or read

u when
p
,

v lies within the limits

to 20.

We may similarly construct two adjacent scales for the relatione =

where p is any positive number. The chart Fig. 3c may conveniently be used for this purpose. We may write the relation as log v = p log u, and we pick out on the chart the scales x = m log v and x = (pm) log u, Since the axes carrying these scales are i.e., with moduli m and pm. parallel with origins in the same perpendicular, any perpendicular to the If p < 1 we may use axes will cut out corresponding values of u and v. primary logarithmic scale for the v scale. If p > 1 we write the relathe tion in the form u = v l/p and proceed similarly. If in the relation v = up p is a negative number, say, q, then = u~ q If we write v = 10 u~ q we merely shift the position of the deciv mal point in the value of v; then logy = log 10 q log u. Construct
, ,

Art. s

SLIDING SCALES

= m log v and x = m (log 10 q log u) = (qm) log u from the same origin; the latter scale is merely the scale x = {qm) log u constructed from the point x = as starting point and
the adjacent scales x

!<<<

Jo 10
'

a s
l
l

~-ot-.*0
,
1

vr>

'V

iVi

i
||

|l| ||lllll| |llll|l|

'(

V
=
u~\ con-

Fig. 4e.

proceeding to the

left.

Fig. \e represents the relation v

structed with the help of chart 3c.

5.

Sliding scales.

Consider two functions f(u)

mf(u) and x = mF(v).
If

and

F(v)

and con-

struct their scales x

these scales are placed

adjacent with their origins coinciding or in the same perpendicular to

the axes (we shall call this the stationary position), then for any pair of

values u and v opposite each other,

hence, mf{u)

we have OA = O'B
F(v).

(Fig. 5a),

and

mF (v),

or
f(u)

(in the stationary position)

(I)

This relation was illustrated in the examples of Art. 4. If now one of the scales is slid along the other scale through any distance d, then for any pair of values of u and v opposite each other, we

have

OA - O'B =

(Fig. 56), or mf(u)

mF(v)

d,

or f(u)

F(v)

0'

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

scales x

Chap.

As an example, consider the

logu or u
log

log u

these are placed adjacent, then, in the stationary position,

and x = by
log v

m log v.
(I),

If

log

v,

and

after sliding,

by

(II),

log

constant, or
v

constant, or v

constant for

any pair

of values of

u and

opposite

each other, and

each other.

=
if

for

any two

pairs of values of u

and

v opposite

Thus

any three

of the last four quantities are given, the

U'3.7
I

u2

=5.C2
\6

2
I i

3
I i

\^_
/

U
! I

4
i

5
I

7
I

J
j

Z
v,2.5

\4
I

r-n
I I I i i

10

10

v =4.0 2
5<f.

Fig.

fourth quantity
the scales until
in Fig. & %d,

may

be found at once; thus

Ui,

Vi is

opposite

and read

v2

if u u v h u 2 are given, slide This is illustrated opposite w2

.

where we read
2.5

-in

; ,02

4.00

We may perform the same operation by means of a single logarithmic scale x = m log u sliding along an unmarked axis (Fig. 50).

9/0
I i

M
it
I

r
I

1
2
v =2.5 t
v.=

1 1

5
4.0

Fig. 56.

1st position:

place the scale x

= m
=

log u adjacent to the

unmarked

axis

and mark on the

slide

latter the values U\

2d position:
the

the scale x
axis;

and log u

u%.

until

V\

of this scale falls

opposite U\ of the

unmarked

then

read v2 of the scale opposite

w 2 of

unmarked
It is

axis.

evident that simple multiplication and division are special cases of the above, for if U\ = 1 or 10, then v2 = u 2 Vi or 10 u 2 v x and if

V2

or 10, then u 2

U\h\ or 10

Ui/vl.

Art. 6 6.

THE LOGARITHMIC SLIDE RULE

The
logarithmic slide rule.*

This instrument consists of several

and one uniform scale, some on the stock of the rule and others on the slide. Any two of these scales may be placed adjacent by means of a glass runner which has a fine hair line scratched on its under side and which is adjusted so that the hair line is always perparallel logarithmic scales

pendicular to the axes (Fig.

6).

All logarithmic slide rules

The

following

is

a description of the scales

do not carry the same number of scales. and their equations on the

4 5 6 789
I.I
I I

4 5
I

6 7
I I

89?
1,1
1,,

I.I

3
i

4 5 67 39/
ill
4_

mH

rrr

4 5 6
7

7897
H

&,/

Fig.

6.

modern Mannheim standard

rule (polyphase or duplex),

commonly

called

"the io-inch rule." The length of the graduated part of the rule is 25 cm. and we shall designate this length by m. The scales are distinguished We shall use the corresponding small by the letters A, B, C, to represent numbers on these scales. letters a, b, c,
. . . .

L
A A

x
x

ml.
1

x x

= m
2

log
1

c.

D
CI
s).

= m

log d. log

m = log a.
2

B
T>

m = log b.
J,

x x

= m

ct
(10 tan
t).

m log k.
3

m S x =
:

log (100 sin

= m log

graduated so that we can easily read three Rules for the position of the decimal point may be given, but in computing it is best to disregard all decimal points and to estimate the position of the decimal point in the final result. The following are some of the relations which arise through the application of the principles of stationary and sliding scales to this type of rule. (Other illustrations will be found in the manuals issued by the manuscales are
figures in

The C and

any part

of these scales.

facturers.)

We
it

shall designate the stationary or initial position

by

(I)

calculate with

Gunter invented the logarithmic scale and used compasses to Oughtred invented the straight logarithmic slide rule, consisting of two rulers each bearing a logarithmic scale, which were slid along each other by hand (1630). Rules in which the slide worked between parts of a fixed stock were known in England in 1654. Robertson constructed the first runner in 1775. Mannheim designed the modern standard slide rule (1850). Roget invented the log-log scale
(1620).
in 1815.

* Historical Note.

See F. Cajori's History of the Logarithmic Slide Rule.

IO

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

and the position after sliding by (II) designated by the same subscript.
(i)

Numbers

opposite each other are

LandD:
/

(I)

log d

and d = antilog

/.

(/ is

only the mantissa.)

(2)

C and
log c

D
=

(or

and B)
.'.

(I)

log d,
log

d.

(II)

log c

const.,

=
d
or
1

cows/

Multiplication:

p X
or

=y
- =
<Z

p Division: 2
.

_.

=y

/>

Art.

SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ON THE SLIDE RULE

II

.456', .ooc/456' are said to

in 45'. 6, .045'6, .ooo'o45'6 are said to

contain three figures, the left-hand groups contain two figures, while the
are said to contain one figure.
last third of the

left-hand groups in

4'. 56,

004^6

read k in the

first,

middle or

We K scale according as the

left-hand group contains one, two or three figures.

(7)

Candid:

12

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

y

Chap.

illustrated in the

accompanying diagram:

CI

(Fig-

7)-

We

~D

may

use

ci

10 instead of ci

if

necessary, but care

must be taken

in reading the position of the

decimal point.

yi 2
alv

3
I

4I

5
I

6 7 8 9
I

1
I

3
_l

41

S
I

6 7 8 9
I I

I
I

A "

19 8
I

7
1

6
I

5
I

4
l_
-i

i
I

r _

Fig.

7.

(1)

If

we

slide the

runner until the readings on the

- or

and CI

scales

are the same, then y

and y

=fc

Vg.

Thus,

if

y-

5,

or y

we have

CI

Art. 8

THE LOG-LOG SLIDE RULE

13

The nature of
2

the roots of this cubic equation are determined as follows:

1

3 P >

only
3 real

real root;

if

is

root

is

+ +

if

is

root

is

or
1

3 real roots of which 2 are equal.

27

root

and unequal roots; 1 root is and 2 roots are +.

is

and

2 roots are

To

find the negative roots,

we

replace y

by yi, and the

positive

roots of the resulting equation are the negative roots of the original

equation.

We
=
q
first

also note that the

sum

of the three roots of the equation

3

is zero.

The complete

cubic equation z

az

bz

y + py = o must
3

be reduced to the form y3

py = q by the substitution

To
the

facilitate the

the slide so that the

comparison of the A and CI scales, it is well to invert C scale is transformed into a CI scale and slides along

scale.
if
3 y 4- 3 y s

Thus,
since
q
2

=
1

2 5 or y

-, there

is

only one positive root

is

p + =

2^
h

>o and q

is

positive.

This positive root

found

A
by the
setting

1-33

CI

D
Again,
a2
if

4-33 I-I53

1-153.

64

4y

2 or y 2

-, there are three real roots, since

y
positive

p + =

<

o.

The

root

is

found by the setting

A
y

2.21.

To

find a negative root, replace

y by

Vi,

and get

V1

4-

4 y\

2,

14
the required scales
of

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap.

we must
expressed
l

the
rc 2

principle

write this equation in the form (II) or (III) Taking logarithms, we get in Art. 5.
2
,

log

= -log

n u or
Ci

and taking logarithms again, we get

,

log log i

log

log log n 2

log c2

or log log n

log c

const.

The

n and x = m log c. scale would be marked n = 10 (since x = The initial point of the m log log 10 = m log 1=0), and the end point would be marked n = io 10 (since x = m log log io 10 = m log 10 = m) if our scale is to be m cm. long. The range from n = 10 to n = io 10 is not a convenient range for n, so that it has been found best to modify the equation of this scale somewhat. An instrument called the log-log rule (Fig. 8) has been constructed
equations of our scales are therefore x
log log

= m

107

101

109

1.10

LLi
17 IJ

19

LL*

LLj

1111

^
1

r^

r
6

Fig.

8.

ln/Z

which the equation of the n scale is x = m log (100 In //) (where = log e // and e = 2.71828 the base of Napierian or natural logarithms). The scale is broken into three parallel scales of length
in
. .

m=

25 cm.:
first,

the

marked LL\ with a range from

//

001

(=

1.01 approx.)

to

//

01
,

the second, the

third,

marked LL* with a range from 11 = e 01 to marked LL 3 with a range from II =

approx.).

11

=
to

e,
//

e 10

(= 22,000

By
1
1

sliding the adjacent scales x

/
1

= m log (100
100
In
//

In

//)

and x =

m logc, we
=
Ik
const.,

have log (100

or
-y/lfi

In//)

77\

logc

=
Ci

const.,

or

<y

const., or

Vll

y/lU,

or Ik

lh Cl

hence
ll

we have
we have

the setting

LL C
=

Ik

Of and c2 /io have the same position, but on the LL scales the decimal point must be left in its original position. It is easy to see on which of the three LL scales the result is to be read;
Ci
1

If

we

set

or 10 opposite

Ik

ll\*

or IU

//,

10

course on the scale x

= m

log

c,

c2

LU
thus

y = 2 4 6 gives the setting

-

LL
C

22.6
4-5
1

.'.

22.6

LJU and
y

1.366 2
'
,

2 045 gives the setting

LL

y~

1.366.

0.45

Art. 9

VARIOUS OTHER STRAIGHT SLIDE RULES

note above that the smallest value of
at once be replaced
1
//

15

We
0.99

is

1.01.

Values of

//

may

by

their reciprocals,
/
1

and the

reciprocals of

the final result taken, since jr =(77-)

The LL and

the

C
Q

scales in their initial position

may

also be used to

find directly the natural logarithm of a

number,

for

we have

log (100 In

//)

log c or In &
It
is

//

100

evident that compound interest problems are very easily solved with the log-log rule. Thus, the amount, A, of the sum of $1.00 placed at
r

per cent interest for n years and

compounded

(r
1

q times a year,

is

given by

\
1

nq
;

the required setting

is

then

LL
nq

(+ V
I

IOO q)

or 10

Many
9.

other illustrations

may

be found

in the

manuals published by
another illustration of

the manufacturers.

Various other straight slide rules.

As
\uj

the use of sliding scales, let us construct a slide rule for the expression

u
or

\--. v

If

we choose

for

our scales x

= ml) and
have
If

x (10

= ml
\
j

10

),

v)

then for any position of our scales

we
1

shall

const.

= U
I

const.,

or
U\

=
V\

U%

Vi
,

we choose

the modulus, m,

to be

in.,

and the

total length of

our scales to be 10

in.,

then the range

u
"

111
I

,1111,1,
l

1,1,
' '

I , ,

1 ,

?
I

3
, ,

,
;

J>

'

'

'

I ' ' I

'

I'l'llll

'I

II

Fig. 9

u is from u = 00 (x = o) to u = from v = 0.1 (x = o) to v 00 (x

of
v2

0.1 (x

10),

and the range

9.)

of v

is

10).
1

(Fig.

Now

if

we
read

set
off

00

opposite U2

u,

we

shall

have
U\
V\,

=
V\

-, and

we may

any one
rule

of the three quantities U\,

if

the other two are known.

This

may be used

to solve the equation

-=-

K\

+ -5- = -5* where R K2 K

is

the com-

bined electrical resistance of two parallel resistances R^ and R2, or to solve

the equation
y-

+h =
7-

-7,

where /

is

the principal focal distance of a lens

and/i and/2 are conjugate

focal distances.

16

SCALES

AND THE SLIDE RULE

Chap. I

A large number of slide rules have been constructed for solving various
special equations in engineering practice.

Among

these

may

be men-

tioned: stadia slide rules for measuring the horizontal distance

tical

and ver-

height

when

the rod reading and the elevation of telescope are

rule for solving Kutter's formula for circular

known; Nordell's sewer

sewers; Hudson's horse power computing scale for obtaining the indi-

cated H.P. of an engine (this rule has two slides); Hazen-Williams hydraulic rule for finding the velocity of the flow of water through pipes
(see chart

on

p. 61).
9

CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE

Fig. io.

io.

Curved
tv

slide

rules.

Divide
log i)
;

point, viz., 2

radians, into iooo equal parts

the angular magnitude about a by straight rays drawn

through the point. with the number I

Choose one
(for

of these rays as initial ray

and mark

it

mark

the ray at the end of 301 parts

Art

io

CURVED SLIDE RULES

= log 2), and the ray at the end of 477 with the number 3 (for 0.477= log 3), etc. Then the angle will be parts divided logarithmically (Fig. 10). The circumference of any circle drawn with the point as center will likewise be divided logarithmically, the points on the circumference carrying the same numbers as the rays
with the number 2 (for 0.301

through them. Designating such a circumference by A, the numbers on its radius by r a inches, the equation of the scale on A is x =
i.e.,

it

by

a,

and
ini-

(2 irra ) log a,

the point marked a x

point, a

is

at a distance of (2
of radius rb

irr a )

log a inches
x

from the

tial

1,

measured along the circumference.

13,
,

We

now draw a con-

centric circumference,

carrying a scale x

{2 irrb ) log b

and so constructed that the plane

about the center.
If in

of the J3-circumference can rotate

the

initial

position of the scales,

i.e.,

numbers 0=1 and 6=1 are on the same bers a and 61, then we have
x

ray, a ray cuts out the

when the num-

7If,

(2 irra )

(2 irrb ) log fa

logai
7-

f = -

tt
,

log a x

log

fa

and a =
,

fa.

rb

after rotation of the J3-scale through

any

angle,

two rays cut the

scales

in

ax

by

and a 2

fa,

then

(2 irra ) log a x 7t (2 Trrb ) log &i

(2 irr a ) log a 2 77r-= (2 7rr6 ) log 2

a,\

= ra
rb

,
,

. .

log a x

, log a 2

log

fa

log

fa.

Ch
fa
is

fa

Hence the

ratio of

two numbers on the same ray

is

constant.

This prin-

ciple of rotating circular scales

therefore similar to the principle of sliding

straight scales.

Thus

for
,

Multiplication: y Division:

,,.,_,.

,.

= a>b
= T

a
or

-=y ^,we 6' T = -,we

set

A B

one factor
1

product
other factor

001
or
off

set

dividend
divisor

quotient

One advantage
difficulty of

of such a circular rule lies in the fact that

we avoid

the

running

the rule, as often happens in setting with the

straight slide rule.

In the instrument called "Sexton's Omnimetre," which Fig. 10 repro-

and 5-circles have the same radius, about 3 inches, approximately equivalent to a straight rule of 18 inches. A ray drawn on a strip of celluloid capable of revolving about the center aids
duces
in part, the^lit is

so that

in the setting of the scales.

The

plane of the 5-circle also contains the

c,

scale x

(4

7rr c)

logc; and for two numbers, b and

initial position.

on the same

ray,

we

have, in the

(4 irr b ) log c 7 (2 irr b ) log b

X11

=
rb

rc
,

or

2logc
-.

log b

^- =

1,

..

c2

and

/r = Vb.

l8
It is

SCALES AND THE SLIDE RULE

evident that
if

Chap,

vary from I to 10, the C scale must consist of two concentric circumferences, on one of which c varies from c = i (or x = o) to c = Vio (or x = 2 irr c ) and on the other from c = Vio to The C and B scales thus serve for finding squares c = 10 (or x = 4 irr e ). and square roots. We may also combine the C and A scales, and after rotation we have a\/c^ = a%/c^. The instrument also contains three concentric circumferences for the scale x = (6irr k ) log k; and a combination with the 5-scale, in the initial position, gives b = k z or k = V7>. The instrument further contains scales for sines, tangents, and versines, and a scale of equal parts. There are other forms of curved rules. "Lilly's Improved Spiral
c.is

to

Rule," a disk 13 inches in diameter, consists of a spiral logarithmic scale

and a circular scale of equal parts, and is equivalent to a straight rule of about 30 feet long; it gives results correct to 4 figures. "Thacher's Rule" consists of two logarithmic scales one on a cylinder and the other on a set of 20 parallel bars external to the cylinder. This is really an amplification of the straight slide rule, involving the same principle in its use; the rule gives four figures correctly and a fifth may be estimated.*

EXERCISES.
(Note.

For the constructions

in Exs.

4-10 use charts of uniform and logarithmic

(u

scales, Art. 3.)

1.

Construct scales for the function

respectively.

Vu

o to u

100)

if

m is

1 in.,

0.5

in.,

0.2

in.,

2.
-Jj1

Construct scales for the function log u (u

respectively.

to u

=
in.

10)

if

m=

in.,

10

in.,

in.,

3.

Construct a scale for the function log

if

m =

10

4.

Construct adjacent scales for converting inches

/.

(/) to

centimeters (C);

we have

C =

2.54

5. Construct adjacent scales for converting cu. ft. per sec. (C) to million gallons per hour (G); we have G = 0.0269 C. 6. Construct three adjacent scales for converting foot-lbs. per sec. (F) into horsepower = 1.356 X io" 3 F. (H.P.) and kilowatts (K); we have H.P. = 1.8 18 X io" 3 F, and 7. Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for the following:

(c) v

(b)

u2

(c)

= v; =
w*.

(d) v

(e)

= w - *;

(/) v

8.

Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for

A =

X
4

irD*
,

where

D=

diameter

144

in inches
*

and A =

area of circle in sq.

ft.

For descriptions and

illustrations of this rule

Calculation, a

Handbook
Bell

of the Exhibition at the

and other rules, see "Methods of Napier Tercentenary Celebration,"

published

by G.

&

Sons, London.

EXERCISES
9.

19

Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for h

= -^
=

where h

pressure head

in

ft.

and

P =

pressure in

lbs.

per sq.

in. for

the flow of water.

10.

Construct adjacent logarithmic scales for h

ft.

=
z.

'

where h

velocity

2 g

64.4

head

in

and

velocity in

ft.

per sec. for the flow of water.

11.

Show how
(a)
(c)
3

to construct a slide rule for the relation

V
2

1?

k (cos

cos

t).

12.

Solve by means of the logarithmic slide rule the following equations:

+ 3J
y
2

o;
1

(b)

y*

6y +

o;

(d)

+ y + 5 = o; + y + y = o;
2

CHAPTER

II.

NETWORK OF SCALES. CHARTS FOR EQUATIONS IN TWO AND THREE VARIABLES.

ii. Representation of a relation between two variables by means of A relation (u, v) = o between two variables perpendicular scales. u and v may be represented by means of two perpendicular scales instead Construct the scales x = mif(u) and y = m 2 F(v) of two adjacent scales.

<t>

axes

where /() and F(y) are any functions of u and v, on two perpendicular OX and OY, and through the points marked on these scales draw Any pair of values of u and v perpendiculars to the axes (Fig. na). (u, v) = o will determine a point, viz., the that satisfy the equation
</>

intersection of the corresponding perpendiculars to the axes; thus the

pair of values u u

vi

will

perpendicular to
o

OX through u =
all

correspond to the point of intersection of the Y through U\ and the perpendicular to

such points is a curve which is said to represent The rectangular or Cartesian equation of this o. the relation 4> (u, v) curve referred to the axes OX and OY may be found by solving the equations of the scales, x = ii/(m) and y = m 2 F(v), for u and v in terms of
V\.

The

locus of

x and

y,

and substituting these values

in

4>

(u, v)

o.

Py

"

U2

"3

"*X

Fig.

no.

Fig.

ub.

Fig. iic.

It
<

is

(w, v)

evident that the nature of the locus by which the relation If o is represented, varies with the equations of the scales.
is well to

possible,

it

the first degree in

line.

x and

choose the scales so that the Cartesian equation is of will be a straight y, for then the representing curve
of u, say

Having drawn the representing curve, and given a value

uk

we can

say v k in one of three ways: network of perpendiculars to the axes is already Fig. 11a. Here a drawn. Follow the perpendicular through u k on OX until it cuts the
find the corresponding value of
v,
,

Art.

SOME ILLUSTRATIONS OF PERPENDICULAR SCALES

P, and read v k at the foot of the perpendicular from

21

curve
to

ia the point

OF.
Fig.
1

b.
,

/ and Iv moves along the curve, keeping the index when / cuts OX in u h I v will cut OY in
,

a transparent sheet, draw two perpendicular index lines, Slide the sheet so that the point P intersecting in a point P.
lines parallel to the axes; then,
vk
.

On

(It is

a simple mechanical

matter to keep Draw the scaler Fig. nc.

strip.

the index lines parallel to the axes.)

m\J(u) with axis O'X' on a transparent until the point uk falls on the Slide the strip perpendicular to

OY

curve; then at 0' read vk

In any case, the interpolation done by sight.

12.
(i)

of

u k and

vk

on the u and

v scales is easily

Some
and y

illustrations of perpendicular scales.

2
.

Consider the relation

mit

If we construct two uniform scales v = u mv on OX and OY respectively, and draw perpendiculars

marked on the scales, we shall have the an ordinary piece of rectangular coordinate paper. (Fig. 12a.) Here, v = u 2 will be represented by the locus whose Cartesian equation 2 2 2 = my, a parabola. We plot this curve from a table is y/m = x /m or x 2 Note that we could of values of u and v satisfying the equation v = u have constructed the scales x = m\U and y = m 2 v with different moduli Wi and w 2 but the corresponding Cartesian equation mix 2 = m?y still represents a parabola.
to the axes through the points

rulings of

22

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

one such set and the slope, 2, of the line. Note that the points on the scale x = m\U 2 are marked with -f- and values of u. It is evident that the representation in Fig. 12b is much simpler than
In the former, the straight line is much more easily and every point on it is definitely determined, while, in the constructed Of course, latter, the curve between plotted points is only approximated. on the uniform w-scale in Fig. 12a than on the it is easier to interpolate
that in Fig. 12a.

non-uniform M-scale in Fig. 12b. Furthermore, in Fig. 12b, we can project the point in which the representing line cuts v 10 vertically on v = o and thus draw a second section of the line parallel to the first sec'

tion, for

which

ranges from 10 to 20; this process

may
is

again be used to

get further sections of the line.

A
(3)

third representation of the equation v

2

= u2

given in the next

article.

Consider the relation v = ae -62 " We can write this In v = b 2 u 2 In a (In v = \og e v). If we construct the perpendicular scales x = mill 2 and y = ra 2 In v, our relation will be represented by the straight b 2x y = \- In a. This line is easily con line whose equation is
.

mi

structed
Fig. 12c,

by means

of the points

u
-

o,

a and u
0.2
in.,

t, v
b

-.
e

In

we have taken

6, b

Wi

mo

2 in.

A
p

table

of natural logarithms was used to construct the scale on OY. Consider the relation u p v q 13. Logarithmic coordinate paper.

=
log

a,

where
q log v

p, q,

and a are any numbers.

We

can write

this

log u

+
u

= log a. If we construct the perpendicular scales x = m and y = m log v and draw the perpendiculars to the axes, we

shall

Art. 13

LOGARITHMIC COORDINATE PAPER

23

have the rulings of a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig. 13, m = 25 cm. and u and v vary from 1 to 10. (Logarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges of the variables and with various Our relation will be represented by the straight line whose moduli.)
Cartesian equation M
of
is

mm
x+

log a,

which

may be

plotted

by means
one pair

two pairs
10

of corresponding values of

u and

v or

by means

of

24

NETWORK OF SCALES
,

Chap.

II

then represent the relation v = u 2 where u varies from I to 10 and v from I to ioo, and hence for all values of u and v since the scale p+1 p (p = integer) x = m log u, for example, where u varies from io to io = m log u, where u varies from can be made to coincide with the scale x

M'A

will

position of the decimal point must be determined indeeach case. In finding u when v is given, divide v into groups of two figures each beginning at the decimal point, as in arithmetic (see Art. 6 (4)) if the left-hand group contains only one significant figure, use
i

to 10.

The
in

pendently

the section

thus

when

OM, if it contains two significant figures, use the section M'A = 0.64, read u = 0.8, but when v = 0.064, rea d u = 0.253.
v

(2)

For the relation

tuz the volume

,

of a sphere in

terms of

its

diameter, the representing straight line passes through the point u = 2, in Fig. 13. v % T and has a slope equal to 3; this gives the section

BC

We

on OX and drawing CD OX and drawing D'E parallel to CD, and complete this last section by projecting E into E' on OF and drawing E'F parallel to D'E; F will project into the initial point B on
continue this line by projecting C into parallel to B'C, then projecting D into D' on

Our relation In values u and v.

OX.

is

finding u

completely represented by these sections for all when v is given, divide v into groups of three

figures each beginning at the decimal point as in arithmetic (see Art. 6 (6))

according as the left-hand group contains one, two, or three significant figures, use the first, second, or third section, respectively. 4l = 10, where u is the pressure and v is the (3) For the relation u v

volume

of a perfect gas, our first representing section,

HK,

passes through
is

the point u

10, v

with slope

1/1.41;

the second section, K'L,

easily constructed

and these two sections

will serve for

the variation of v

from

to 10.

If

the sections are continued, later sections will overlap

the preceding ones.

14.

Semilogarithmic
.
t

coordinate
are

paper.

Consider
We
to

the

relation

= p q" where p and q log. If we logv = wlogg and y = m log v, and draw
-f2

can write this construct the perpendicular scales x = m^u

any numbers.

the perpendiculars

the axes,

we

shall

a sheet of semilogarithmic coordinate paper. In Fig. 14, i = w 2 = 25 cm. and u varies from o to 1 while v varies from (Semilogarithmic paper can be constructed for larger ranges 0.1 to 1. Our relation will be repreof the variables and with various moduli.) x y log q -f= sented by the straight line whose Cartesian equation is

have the rulings

of

x
.

log p,

which can be plotted by means of two pairs of corresponding values The folof m and v, or by means of one pair and the slope w 2 log q/m illustrate the use of semilogarithmic paper. lowing examples will serve to 21u can be written logy = (2.1 log e) u + (1) The relation v = 0.1 e logo. 1, where e is the base of natural logarithms, and is represented

Abt.

14

SEMILOGARITHMIC COORDINATE PAPER

straight line (section

25

by the

To extend the range of merely project A horizonour variables we need not extend the chart but tally into A' on OY, draw A'F' parallel to OA, project F' vertically into F" on OX, and draw F"E" parallel to OA then for OA, u varies from o to 1 and v from 0.1 to 0.817, while for A'F' and F"E", u varies from 1 to 2
points u
o, v

O.I

OA in Fig. 14), and u = 1, v = 0.817.

which passes through the

and
1.0

from 0.817 to 6.668.

F
1

1.0

OS
0.8

0.9

0.8

or
C.6

0.7

0.6

OS

0.4

(V)
C.3

c
0.3

0.2

'C

A*
O.l

02

0.3

0.4

OS

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

I.O

Fig. 14.

(2)

Suppose we wish to

taneously the equations v

find the values of u and v satisfying simulmu represent o.l e 2Au and v = 0.6 e~.

We

each of these equations by a straight line (Fig. 14). The line representing the second equation passes through the points u = o, v = 0.6 and u = 1, v = 0.332. At the point of intersection of these lines we read the
required values u
(3)

0.663, v

0.404.

To

solve the equation v

v,

= p

the

unknown quantity

we draw

v log p for q or log v = v log q the straight line representing the equa

20
tion v

NETWORK OF SCALES
= p

Chap. II

u
,

and run our eyes along

are equal
;

this line until

we
v.

find the point

where u and

this

is

the required value of

Thus

to find the solution of v

resenting the equation v

0.6 e~ 0b91u

(watching the u and

(Fig. 14).

v scales) to

", we draw the line BC repand run our eyes along this line the point D where we read u = v = 0.46

0.6 e~

591

draw the
equation

Again, to find the solution of the equation logy = 0.912 v line OA representing the equation logy = 0.912 u 1
is

I,

we

[this

equivalent to the equation considered in

(1), since 2.1 log e

0.912 and log 0.1 = 1] and run our eyes along this line until we read u = v = 0.132. We can find another value of v satisfying the equation by running our eyes along the section F"E" until we read u = v = 1.17.

Rectangular coordinate paper the solution of algebraic equa3d, and 4th degrees. We may use the rulings of a sheet tions of the 2d, of rectangular coordinate paper to solve graphically algebraic equations Let the scales be x = u and y = v where of the 4th, 3d, and 2d degrees.
15.

the modulus
(1)
If
2

is 1.

we draw

the parabola

2 x

and the

circle

(x

h) 2

-f-

with center at (h, k) and radius r, the ordinates of their points of intersection are found algebraically by eliminating x between From the these two equations and solving the resulting equation for y. 2 first equation we have x = y /2, and substituting this in the second equa(y
k)
r
2

tion

we

get (-

h)
(1

+
h)

{y
2

k)

2
,

or
2

y
If

8 ky

+ 4 (h +
4
,

k2
is

o.

we
get

divide this last equation

by

where

an arbitrary number,

we

or

s4

az 2
b

bz

=
,

o,

where

= -,

=^

^
,

= - -y

Conversely, the real roots of the equation z4 -f- az 2 -f- bz -f c = o are found by measuring the ordinates of the points of intersection of the

parabola y 2
h

48
,

x and the
k

circle

with center at

and radius

= y v

h2

k2

where

The

an arbitrary number, and dividing these ordinates by /. to throw the center of the circle to a / allows us always to the right of OY, or as near to or as far convenient point
/

is

introduction of

Akt.

15

THE SOLUTION OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

27

from the vertex of the parabola as is convenient- such that the circle will not cut the parabola at an angle too acute for accurate reading of Note that the one parabola, y2 2 x, will serve for findthe ordinates.
ing the real roots of
all

solve the complete equation v 4

equations of the fourth degree (Fig. 15). To pv3 gv 2 -f- rv 5 = o, we first substi-

-4

-s

28

NETWORK OF SCALES
and the other points
-+-

Chap.

II

origin or vertex of the parabola,

of intersection will

Hence, the real roots az + b = o are found by measuring the ordinates of the equation z3 2 of the points of intersection of the parabola y = 2 x and the circle with
az
b
o.

give the real roots of the cubic z3

center at h

at 2
,

bt
3

(where

is

an arbitrary number) and

passing through the vertex of the parabola, and dividing these ordinates by /. Note that the one parabola y 2 = 2 x will serve for finding the real
roots of
all

fourth and third degree equations (Fig. 15).

v
3

To

solve the

complete equation

pv

av

-f-

o,

we

first

substitute v

P a?

and

this

equation takes the form

z3

+
=

az

+
3

o,

and then proceed

z3
t

above.

Example 2.
Here the center

Let us find the

of the circle
1.88,
is

real roots of the

equation

3 z

=0.

at h

+
4

-, k

==
8

if t

=
v

1.

We
4

read

=
z

y
3.

1.53,

0.35 (Fig. 15).

-f-

Example

0.

Let
2.

Let us find the real roots of the equation v 3 3 v 2 v + 1 then the equation becomes z3 2 z 5 = o.
;

5,

Here

the center of the circle (Fig. 15)

if /

is

at h

== 3,

f P

read y = 4.18; hence z = y/t = 2.09, and v = z 1 = 1.09. 2 If we draw the parabola y = 2 x and the straight line y = mx k (3) of slope m and ^-intercept k, the ordinates of their points of intersection

We

are found from the equation y 2

t 2

mm
2

2 k

=0.
{'-)

If

we

divide this by
,

(where

is

an arbitrary number), we get

o,

l-j H

2k

mr

o or
the

z2

az

where

=
z2

=7. /

a
az

mt

smt
2

2 k

Conversely,

o are found by measuring the ordinates of the points of intersection of the parabola y 2 = 2 x and the
real roots of the

equation

straight line of slope

m =

and y-intercept k =

bt

(where

is

an arbitrary number), and dividing these ordinates by t. Note that the one parabola y 2 = 2 x will serve for finding the real roots of all fourth, third, and second degree equations (Fig. 15).

Example
5.6

4.

Let us find the

real roots of the

o.

Here the slope of the

k

line

is

m=
1.

22
=
read z

equation
,

1
.

.45 z

and

its ;y-in-

1.45/
tercept
is

1.45

1.45/

=
5

3.86,

if /

We

= y

1.75

and

320.
Representation of a relation between three variables by means An equation in three variables of the form of perpendicular scales.
16.

Art. 16
4>(u, v,

RELATION BETWEEN THREE VARIABLES

w)

2Q

o can be represented graphically by generalizing the method employed in Art. 11 for the representation of an equation in two variables. Thus, if we assign to w a. vaiue, say w u we shall have 4>{u,v,Wy) = o, an
equation in two variables u and v, which can be represented by the method of perpendicular scales, x = Wi/(), y = m 2 F(v), as a curve; By assigning to w a succession this curve is marked with the number w\. we get a series of representing curves, each of values, w u w2 w3
,

marked with
ables
is

its

corresponding value of w.

The equation

in three vari-

network of curves. It is evident that the same equation 4>(u, v,w) =0 can similarly be represented by a network of curves found by assigning a succession of values to u (or v) and marking each curve with its corresponding value of u (or v).
said to be represented
this

by

(v)

3
until

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap.

II

OX
4,

passes through v

5,

and

at its intersection with the curve

w =

we

read u

3.7.

The

task of

drawing

the w-curves is often very great,

and

it

is therefore

best, tvhenever convenient, to choose the scales for u and v so that the repreThis will not only lessen the labor of senting w-curves are straight lines. construction but will evidently increase the accuracy of our charts.

17.

Charts

for

multiplication

and

division.

This

example

will

illustrate

how

the choice of scales determines the nature of the represent-

ing curves.
(1)

The equation
for

nv

= w

= mv

our two perpendicular

can be represented by taking x = mu and scales, and drawing the corresponding

to

II

Art.

17

CHARTS FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION

31

where the horizontals cut the line v = 10 and the rulings above this Of course, the position of the decimal point diagonal need not be drawn. in the value of a variable may be changed with a corresponding change
in the result.

The

great disadvantage of this chart

is

that the

z/-lines

Fig. i7d.

converge to a point and also cut the horizontals at very small angles, thus making the reading quite inaccurate in parts of the chart. This may be remedied somewhat by rotating the verticals of the scale x = mil through an angle of 45 without changing the nature of the chart. This is illusIn Figs. 17& and 17c, the scale for u can be taken trated in Fig. 17c.
,

32

NETWORK OF SCALES
,

Chap.

II

h over a range from o to ioo or, in general, from o to io similarly for the corresponding change in the range for w. range of v, with (3) The equation uv = w can be represented by writing it in the log v for log v = log w and choosing x = m log u, y = form log u

our two perpendicular

arithmic paper.

scales,

i.e.,

we have

the rulings of a sheet of log-

The equations

of

our representing w-curves are of the

form x

log w, a set of parallel straight lines (Fig. iyd).

These

parallel lines are

very easily drawn, for the

line

w =

k, for

example, cuts

u = 1 (or the y-axis) at v = k, and cuts v = 1 (or the x-axis) at u = k\ hence the line w = k is a line joining the point on OX marked u = k with Y marked v = k. The ranges for u and v may be read from the point on lo p to io p+1 with corresponding readings in the range for w.

The methods
tion of

illustrated in (2)

and

(3)

may be

extended to any equa-

x = mj(u) and If we choose the form /() F(v) = (j>(w). m 3 4>(w) for our perpendicular scales, then the equations of our repre-

senting y-curves have the form y

fn-x

But

if

we choose x =

mi Wi log f(u) and y =

F(y)

x,

a set of radiating

lines.

log F(v) for our perpen-

dicular scales, then the equations of our representing w-curves

have the

form

1-

mi

= M2

log

<f>(w),

a set of parallel lines.

The following examples

tions in three variables,

18.

Three- variable charts.

Representing curves are straight

lines.

illustrate the construction of charts for

equa-

where the perpendicular

scales are so chosen

that the representing curves are straight lines. 4 4 log /3, (1) The equation w = ^a/3 can be written 5 log w = log a log /3 for our perpendicular scales and if we choose x = m y log a, y = and 2

let

Wi = Wo = 10, the equations of our representing w-curves are of the form x + 4 y = 50 log w, a set of parallel straight lines. These lines have the slope |. They are most easily constructed by noting that when a = /3 = k, we have w = k also. We, therefore, draw a system of parallel lines through the points a = k, /3 = k with slope \ and mark

w = k (Fig. 18a). = c, for adiabatic expansion of certain gases (2) The equation pv where p = pressure and v = volume, can be written log p + 141 log v = If we choose x = 10 logy, y = 10 log p for our perpendicular log c.
these with the corresponding value
1A1

scales, the

equations of the representing c-curves have the form y

lines.

-f-

.41

a set of parallel straight structed by noting that the slope is

10 log
c,

1.4 1,
=

These lines are easily conand that through the point

1,

p =

k there passes the line c

k (Fig. 18a).
for the elastic limit of rivet steel,

(3)

Consider the equation/

= ^5,

where

is

the actual load in pounds at the elastic limit,

is

the diameter

Art.

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE STRAIGHT LINES and/ is

y
the fiber stress in pounds per square inch.
If

33

of the bar,

we choose

niiP,

= m 2f for our

perpendicular scales, the equations of the repre-

senting D-curves have the form y

lines.

x,

a set of radiating straight

For Fig.

18b,

mi

2,

and the

lines

were constructed by means

34

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

36W

IO.OOO-

8.000

9,000

10.000

11.000

Actual Load (P) in

lbs.

ELASTIC LIMIT OF RIVET STEEL

Fig.
i

-^^

4 P

8b.

Art.

19

CHART FCR THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC EQUATIONS

Consider the equation

(a)

f-

= where
,

it

and

v are. the dis-

the lens, or where

in parallel.
If

tances of an object and its image from a lens and w is the focal length of w is the combined resistance of two resistances u and v

we choose x = m/u, y = m/v

;

for

our perpendicular

scales,

3&
z

NETWORK OF SCALES
0.4

Chap. It

According as the point (p, q) falls outside of, on or within the triangular shaped region on the left, we can read one, two, or three values of z, and the corresponding cubic
z 0.5.

and

the boundary

of,

equation has one real root only, 3 real roots two of which are equal, or 3

^rt.

20

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE NOT STRAIGHT LINES

37

original equation are then z

kz'

Thus

to solve the equation z 3

z'
3

+z
o;
if

o,

let z

=
2,

kz',

and the equation becomes

get
z'
3

-\-

-^

z'

^ =

we

choose k
If

=
z

we

0.25

z'

0.5

o, for

which we read z'=

0.69,

and hence

1.38.

the complete cubic equation uz

first

am 2

+
z3

bu

+c=
pz
-\-

is

given, this

be transformed into the equation a stitution u z

must

o by the sub-

In a similar

way we may

build a rectangular chart for the solution

of the quadratic equation z 2 zm pz" g = o.

pz

o,

or for

any trinomial equation

Representing curves not straight lines. Extensive researches have been carried (1) Chart for chimney draft. out by the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to determine an equation expressing the draft of a chimney in terms of its height and the temperature of the flue gases.
20.

Three-variable charts.

No

simple relation between these quantities has been found. From the experiments performed, it was found that if T\ is the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the flue gases measured 3 feet above the center of the flue (the lowest temperature point recorded), 2 is the

height of the chimney in feet, and

is

the absolute temperature in de-

grees Fahrenheit of the flue gases at the top of the chimney, then

0.32

(H2 -

3) LV 3 /

Now

if

is

the draft in inches of water, with the outside air at a temF.,

perature of 70

then

D=

0.192 (0.075

^J (H

3).

If the value of T2 from the first of these equations is substituted in the second equation, we shall have an equation in three variables, D, Tit

and

2.

= rri\T\ and y = m 2 D, = 50, where mi = 200 m 2 and the representing iJ-curves are drawn for 300 ft. Thus, for a chimney 150 ft. high and for an absolute 75, ...
In Fig. 20a, our two perpendicular scales are x
,

temperature of 1139.5 we read that the draft is 0.955 m OI water. (2) Experimental data involving three variables are often plotted by means of a network of curves, and such a chart takes the place of a table of double entry. Fig. 20b gives a chart useful in heat flow problems
,
-

where the temperature difference is an important factor. The chart between the temperature of pure water under various gage pressures and the temperature under various vacuums. (Corrections must be applied for solutions.) Let P denote the gage pressure in
gives the difference

38
lbs.

NETWORK OF SCALES
per sq.
in.,

Chap. II

T, the temperature difference in degrees Fahrenheit,

in inches.

and

construct the perpendicular scales x = m P and y = 2 T (in Fig. 20b, ra, = 2 ra 2 ); then the F-curves are constructed by means of a table, part of which is as follows:
first
x

V, the

vacuum

We

Art. 20

REPRESENTING CURVES ARE NOT STRAIGHT LINES

is

39

constructed with the aid of Peabody's Steam Tables. pressure of 4.92 in. Thus, a vacuum of 25 in. is equivalent to a barometric gives a temperature of or 4.92 X 0.4912 = 2.42 lbs. per sq. in., and this total pressure of 19.7 lbs. I33.2; a gage pressure of 5 lbs. is equivalent to this gives a tempera(adding the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lbs.), and

Such a table

Vacuum
, 28 /2

a'

27'/2

PRESSURE

POUNDS

GAGE.

Fig. 20b.

ture of 227.i

thus have a temperature difference of 227.i - i33-2 = 93.9- In this way, we subtract the temperature for a 25-in. vacuum lbs., and these from the temperatures at gage pressures of o, 5, 10, corresponding values of P and T are plotted giving the curve marked
;

we

V=
26^,

25

in.

The

...

in.

completed for various values and the corresponding curves are drawn.
table
is

of

V =

26,

The

curve

40

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap.

II

marked "atmospheric"
oration.
21.

gives the temperature difference for open evap-

OX

Use of three indices. Hexagonal charts. In Fig. 210 let and OF be perpendicular axes and let OZ be the bisector of tbeir

Fig. 21a.

Fig. 21b.

in

1
1

103876 S

3
(u)

\I,

Fig. 21c.

angle.

From any

point

draw PIi, Ph,

Ph

perpendicular to

OX,

OY

and
cut

OZ respectively, cutting OX in A, OY in B, OZ in C. OZ in D, and draw AE perpendicular to OD, cutting OZ

-f-

Let Ph also Then in E.

.

OC = OE

ED +DC - OA COS45 + AD cos 45 + DP cos 45 = 9A+^.

V2

Art. 21

HEXAGONAL CHARTS
if

4*

Thus,
z

the axes

OX, OY, OZ carry

the scales x

mf(u), y

mF(v),

=<f>(w) respectively, then the three perpendiculars from any point

V2

to these axes will cut

them

so that

m
V2
thus,

nm+mm
V2

any equation
I\,

of this type

indices

h,

h may

may be represented by three scales. The be drawn on a transparent sheet and this sheet is

Fig. 2 d.

moved over

the paper keeping the indices perpendicular to the axes.

Fig. 2ic charts the equation

U- = by U
V
IV

this

method.

and and
let

We can choose the modulus on OZ the same as the moduli for OX OY by following the construction illustrated in Fig. 216. Here OX OY cut at an angle of 120 and OZ bisects this angle. Join OP and
COP =
a.

angle

Then

42

NETWORK OF SCALES

Chap. II

OA = OP cos (6o + a) = OP (cos 6o cos a sin 6o sin a). OB = OP cos (6o - a) = OP (cos 6o cos a + sin 6o sin a). OA +0B = 2 OP cos 6o cos a = OP cos a = OC. Thus our three scales are x = mf(u), y = mF(y), z = m4>{w). Fig. 2\d charts the equation nv = w or log u + log v = log w by this method.
.'.

EXERCISES.
Represent the equation v = u 3 by a straight line, using natural scales. 2 2 2 2 2 Represent the equations (a) 2 u 2 2 3 v = 6, (b) u 3 w = I, (c) w -f- ^ = 4 by straight lines, using natural scales, and find graphically the simultaneous solutions of the three equations taken in pairs. _ u2 16 and 3. Find graphically the simultaneous solutions of the equations v = 6 e _u 2
i.

ioe

9
.

_tf
.

l3 4. Solve graphically the equation u = 6 e Construct a sheet of logarithmic coordinate paper and draw on 5. lines representing the relations:

it

the straight

(a) v

(b) v

uh

(c)

(d)
(f)

C =
pvlM
h

ttD (circumference of circle);

(e)

A =
v

(area of circle);

=
v2

2 (adiabatic expansion of a gas);

v2

^
(%.)

= 64.4 2g
7

(h

velocity head in

ft.,

velocity in

ft.

per sec. for flow

of water).
6.

Construct a sheet of semilogarithmic coordinate paper and draw on

it

the straight

lines representing the relations v

7.

0.2 e1

"

and

v
-

=
".

0.85 (1.5)

-3 ".

Solve graphically the equation u

0.2 e 1

8.

Show how
known

to solve for

p the equation In (pv k )

-\

aK

pv

c,

where

a, b, c, k,

and

constants, when various values are assigned to v. Construct charts for the relations V = irr2 h and 5 = 2 -n-rh (volume and lateral surface of a cylinder) using parallel straight lines only. n 10. Plot the equation y = 2 x for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as

are

9.

a set of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines. nx n. Plot the equation y = e for various values of n, positive and negative, (a) as a of curves, (b) as a set of straight lines. set 12. Plot the following experimental data for the relative humidity obtained by a dew-point apparatus, using the wet bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit, as ordinates.

WET BULB TEMPERATURE

Dry Bulb
Temperature

(DEG.

F.).

EXERCISES
13.

43

Construct a chart similar to that of Ex. 12, using the difference between wet and Which dry bulb temperatures as abscissas and the dry bulb temperature as ordinates. of Ex. 12 or that of Ex. 13? is the better representation, that From the chart of Ex. 13, with the aid of graphical interpolation, form a table

no and dif50 45 and draw the wet and dry bulb temperatures of 0, 5 io, ference between bulb temperature as ordiset of curves for the difference of temperatures using the dry relative humidity as abscissas. nates and the for various values of a and b. 15. Plot the curves y = a sin bx cylinders of d in. diameter, 16. The Brake Horsepower of an engine (B.H.P.) with n is given by according to the rating of the Association of Automobile Manufacturers,
giving the relative humidity for dry bulb temperatures of 40
,
, , . .

14.

B.H.P.

2 5 from if in. to 5
'

Plot the representative curves for n

in., (a)

2, 4, 6, 8,

12, letting

d range

A' using rectangular coordinate paper, (b) using logarithmic coordi-

nate paper.
17.
lbs.

The volume,
in.

per sq.

V, of one pound of superheated steam which has a pressure and a temperature of T degrees, is given by (Tumlirz's formula)

of

V=
18.

0.596

T -

0.256 cu.

ft.

Plot representative lines (a) radiating, (b) parallel.

Solve the following equations by means of parabola and

(a)
(c)
(e)

circle.

(Art. 15.)

2>z
2

7
1

z3
z*

-3Z + +z - =

= o; = o;
o;

(b)

z3

(d)

z4

(/)

z4

+ +5 12 z + 7 = o; -3 z + 3 = o.
z

o;

19.

Solve the following equation by means of the rectangular chart of Art. 19.
(a)
(c)

z3

+
-

3z
2

- 7 = o; - 6z + =
1

(b)

z3 z3

o;

(d)

+ z + 5 = o; +z +z- =
2
1

o.

CHAPTER

III.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS.

22.

Fundamental

principle.

The

methods employed

in

the pre-

ceding chapter for charting equations are very useful in a large number of problems in computation, but they have certain disadvantages: (i) the labor involved in their construction is great, especially when the representing curves are not straight lines; (2) the interpolation must largely be made between curves rather than along a scale, and thus accuracy is

the final charts appear very complex, especially if the extended to equations involving more than three variables. methods are The methods to be explained in this and the following chapters are applicable to a large number of equations or formulas and possess certain distinct advantages over the previous method: (1) the chart uses very few lines and is thus easily read; (2) interpolation is made along a scale rather than between curves, with a corresponding gain in accuracy;
sacrificed; (3)
(3)

the labor of construction

is

very small, thus saving time and energy; (4) the chart allows us to note instantly the change in one of the variables due
to changes in the other variables.

The fundamental
ment charts consists
of

principle involved in

the construction of nomographic or alignin the representation

an equation connecting three variables,

v,

f(u,

w)

o,

by means

of three scales
lines) in

along three curves (or straight

such a manner that a straight the three scales in values of u,

satisfying the equation.
Fig. 22.
is

line cuts
v,

and

The transversal

called

We shall

now make a study of some

of the equations

an isopleth or index line (Fig. 22). which can be rep-

resented in this way, and of the nature and relations of the scales representing the variables involved.*
*

The

principles underlying the construction of

fully

nomographic or alignment charts

have been most

developed by M. D'Ocagne in his "Traite de Nomographic." Further references may be given to "The Construction of Graphical Charts," by J. B. Peddle; "Nomographic Solutions for Formulas of Various Types," by R. C. Strachan
(Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol.

LXXVIII,

p.

1359),

and

to various smaller articles that have appeared from time to time in Engineering Journals.

44

Art. 23

CHART FOR EQUATION

(I)

45

(I)

EQUATION OF THE FORM /,(u) +f (v) =Mw) or /i(u)./ (tO =/ (tiO. THREE PARALLEL SCALES.
2

[The second form of equation (I) can Chart for equation (I). the first form by taking logarithms of both be brought immediately into members; thus, log/iO) + log/2 (fl) = log/3 (w).] Let AX, BY, CZ be three parallel axes with ABC any transversal or
23.

base
x

line.

(Figs. 230, 236.)

Draw any

index line cutting the axes in

----'I
.?*>.

/tip-

"C

----""" c
A
Fig. 230.

Fig. 236.

the points u,

v,

respectively, so that

Au =

x,

Bv =

y,

Civ

z.

How

are x, y, z related?
If

AC CB
:

mi

w
or

2,

to

AB, then
:

the triangles
:

Ew

Dv =
:.

AC CB
2

if through v and w we draw lines parallel uEw and wDv are similar, and Eu Dw = x z z y = mi w 2

and

m x + miy =
AX, BY, CZ

(mi

+w

x
2)

or

y
m<i

Wi

ni\mi

mi

+w
= w
2

Now
2

if

carry the scales x

last

mifi(u), y

/2 (y),
2

mi fz{w), and any index sponding values u, v, Wi

fs(

w )<

respectively, the
line will

equation becomes fi(u)

+/ (f) =

cut the axes in three points whose corre-

satisfy this equation.

We
X

also note that for the equation fi(u)

f (v) =
2

fz(w), the scales

m\ji(u)

and y

= w 2/

(^)

are constructed in opposite directions, as

in Fig. 236.

Hence
(1)

to

chart equation

(I)

fi(u)

+/ (y) = fs(iv),
2

proceed as follows:

Draw two

parallel lines (x-

on these construct the

scales x

and y-axes) any distance apart, and mifi(u) and y = w 2 /2 (z;), where mi and

46

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

are arbitrary moduli.

Chap. Ill
^-scales

The graduations
axes.

of the u-

and

may

start at
(2)

any points on the

Draw

a third line (z-axis) parallel to the x- and y-axes, such that

:

(distance from x-axis to z-axis)

(3)

(distance from z-axis to y-axis)

= m\ m
:

2.

Determine a starting point

for the graduations of the w-scale.

may be the point C (z = o) cut out by the line from A {x = o) to B (y = o). If the range of the variables u and v is such that the points A and B do not appear on the scales, a starting point for the w-graduations may nevertheless be found by noting that three values of u, v, w
This
satisfying equation (I) must be on a straight line; thus, assign values to u and v, say wo and v and compute the corresponding value of w, say w from equation (I) mark the point in which the line joining u = u and v = v cuts the z-axis with the value w = wq and use this last point as a
,

starting point for the ^-graduations.

(4)

From

the starting point for the w-graduations, construct the scale

z

= msf

(w)

= mi
-f-

m Mw).
2

General remarks. In practice the index

scratched on
i.e.,

lines

need not be drawn; a

straight edge or a transparent sheet of celluloid with a straight line

under side or a thread can serve for reading the chart, one of the variables when two of them are given. The distance between the outside scales and the moduli for these scales should, in general, be so chosen that the complete chart is almost Then any index line will cut the scales at an angle not less than square. and its points of intersection with the axes is more easily noted and 45 It is the corresponding interpolation on the scales is more accurate. rarely necessary to choose the moduli so that the length of the longest
its

for finding the value of

scale greatly exceeds 10 inches.

Charts of logarithmic and uniform scales similar to those described have been used in laying off the scales needed in the construction Much time and energy have been of most of the charts which follow. saved thereby. For greater convenience, the modulus of the primary or left-hand scale was taken to be 10 in. instead of 25 cm. In laying off the w-scale with the help of these charts, the following procedure will increase the accuracy of the construction. Assign two or three sets of values to u and v, and compute the corresponding values Draw the of w, let these be (w ^o, w ), (uu Vu Wi), and (u 2 v2 w2 ). index lines (w v ), (ui, Vi), and {u 2 v2 ), and mark the points in which these lines cut the z-axis with the corresponding values of w. Fold the chart along the scale with modulus m 3 and slide this scale along the z-axis until the points of the scale numbered w w\, w 2 practically coincide with the like-numbered points on the axis. This procedure is especially important when the modulus, m 3 is quite small. The cuts in the text are reductions of the original drawings.
in Art. 3
, , , ,
,

Art. 24

CHART FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVIS.ON

Chart for multiplication and division.

47

24.
If

we

write this equation as log u

log v

log w,

The equation u v = w. we have an equation

Let u and v range then w ranges from 1 from 1 to 10; Construct (Fig. 24a), 10 in. to 100. apart, the parallel scales x = wi\ log u
of the

form

(I).

10 log u and y

=
:

m-i log v

10 log v.
is

Since Wi :W2

I,

the z-axis

mid-

way between
line joining

the x- and v-axes.

The

the s-axis in

w=
=
21.

and v = 1 must cut 1, and using this last

construct
5 lg

point as a starting point,

the scale z

W1W2
(mi

+ m%)

w =

Fig 24a.

The index
1/

line in the

completed chart (Fig. 246) gives the reading u

7,

3,

w =

Since the m- and y-scales are logarithmic scales,

100 q

we may
rlO

JO

9
8

906070

\9

60

7
6

50
40-

30,

5
20-.

4-.

t4

<U)

(WJ
JO

(V,

3i

98765-

2-

43-.

-2

2-

/J

7-1

CHART FOR MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION UV=W

Fig. 246.

48

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap.

Ill

read these scales as ranging from io p to io p+1 where p is any integer, with a corresponding change in the position of the decimal point in the value of w.

Combination chart for various formulas. As a further illustraproduct formulas of the type (I), fi(u) f2 (v) = fz{w), we shall now represent several such formulas in the same chart, with the same outer scales but varying inner scale. Our chart (Fig. 25) represents six formulas and undoubtedly others could be added. In all cases, if mi and m 2 are the moduli of the scales on the x- and y-axes, then the modulus of the scale on the s-axis is m 3 = WiW 2 /(wi + m 2 ), and the position of the z-axis is determined by the ratio i m2 (1) u v = w for multiplication and division. This has already
25.
tion of
:
.

been charted in Art. 24.

The equations
y

of the scales are

3

=
1
:

10 log u,
I.

10 log

v,

5 log w,

and

wii

m =
2

The index

line gives

the reading u

3, v

5,

w =

15.

= w occurs in the McMath "run-off" formula. equation can be written log u 4 log v = 5 log w and hence
(2)
4
i>

Vu
x

The

nil

log u,

y
7

m
4,

{\ log v)
3

2
2,

= w

(5 log
:

w)

r't = 10 and m 2 = 10 equations of our scales are

Let

then

w =

and m\

m%

1.

The

x - 10 log

u,

iology,

10 log w.

A
v

starting point for the w-scale

then

w =

1,

is found by noting that when u = 1 and rnd by aligning these three points. The index line

gives the reading u

(3)

3,

-;

5.

w =

4.5.

pv lAl

c gives the pressure-volume relation of certain gases

under adiabatic expansior. tog v = log c, hence

The equation can be

written log

1.41

If

= milogp, 2 = w logc. y = mi (1.41 logy), we choose m\ 10 and m = 10/1.41, then w = 4.15 and twi
x
3 2 3
:

m =
2

1. 41

1.

TI12 equations of our scales are

10 log/?,

10 logy,

4.15 log

c.

A
v

is found by noting that when p 1 and and by aligning these three points. The index line gives the reading u = 3, v = 5, w = 29. 2 The equation (4) V = 0.785 D H, the volume of a circular cylinder. = (log V log 0.785), hence can be written 2 log D + log

starting point for the c-scale

1

then

H
2

x
If

= Wi

(2 log Z))

we choose m\ =

= w and m =
y
2

log H",
10,

then

= w (log V log 0.785) w = 3.33 and Wi m = I

2
3

2,

\et.

25

COMBINATION CHART FOR VARIOUS FORMULAS

49

7-/1-/1-//

JO C3/11VA

r <7

trZ0=A\ -

3d3HdS JO 3 IN D 7 O A
$
^
0

XO

<o

<t

&><0
L

*o

*0

25L3 S 5

5"! < n
i
i

>*>
i i

ii

M
.

i i

'

0> <0
I ' I '

rs
I
'

vo
I

<o
'
I ' I
i

|l

I
I

0z=

ltr {

Ad
S

SVO JO

"I
T

3b IISS 3dd
*>
T
'

S S ^

<0
I

nrn

T"~

Al\= A * n.

jo

j.d

naon

1"

.'"Ai
sgz o
=

i
i

'

'

'

MrO

a- y 3QN ii ao\ uvinouio jo 3 mi mo A

PIMM

I I

ill

i I

I I

III

"|

^H z O t 9'0 03SM3d

-IJ/70AI/ AlilNVflb

a-d-n-a jo samvA

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

of our scales are

Chap.

Ill

The equations

x=jo\ogD,

y=io\ogH,

3.33 log V,

where we have discarded the expression 3.33 log 0.785 in the value of z: this may be done since this expression merely helps to determine a starting point for the F-scale; thus the point
z

V=

is

at a vertical distance

= -3-33

log 0.785

from the base

line

AB

of Fig.

23a or 236.

We

shall

however determine a starting point for the F-scale by noting that when D = 1 and = I, then V = 0.785, and by aligning these three points.

The index

line gives the

3
,

reading
or log
2

D =
of

3,

5,

V=

35.

(5) V = 0.524 D written V = 0.524 D

the

volume

a sphere.
2 log

The equation can be

D-

D+
5,

x
If

mi

log D,

= m

(2 log

D),

we choose i =
of

10 and ra 2

then

D = log V - log 0.524, hence z = m (log V - log 0.524) m = 3.33 and m\ m = 2 1.

3

The equations

our scales are

x=

10 log

y=iologD,

3-33 log 7,
in the

where we have discarded the expression 3.33 log 0.524

value of

z.

We find a starting point for the V scale by noting that when D = 1, V = 0.524 and we align the three points D = 1, D = 1, and V = 0.524. (6) Q = 6.3 D VH gives the quantity of water, Q, in cu. ft. per second which flows through a pipe having a diameter D ft. when under a head H feet. The equation can be written 2 log D + \ log H = (log <2 log 6.3). If we choose Wi = 5 and w = 20, then w = 4 and
2

'i

mi
Z5.0-,

mi =

4.

The equations
10 log D,

of

our scales are

r-300

= = y z =
x

10 log H,

4 log @.

'o

J 13

Again we discard the expression log 6.3 in the value of z, and

find

a starting point for the ()-scale by = I, noting that when D = 1 and then <2 = 6.3 and by aligning these three points. The index line gives

the reading
-4 04-

D =

3,

H=
2

5,

Q =

127.

for the weight, u?, of dry saturated steam in pounds per second flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds per sq.
aoo2-

a/o-1

26. Grashoff's formula

w = 0.0165

^0.97 = 0.01296

D Pi 097

FlG 26-

in. through a standard converging orifice of A diameter D in. to a pressure of P 2 pounds per

sq. in. or circular orifice of

sq. in.,
if

Pi

0.6

2.

icon
iso-^

to
.9

ISO-

.8 0-\ .7

r 300

.6

.4

.50 03 0-

i.oo-

.20

0.90-

0.80-

.10
E

40.70I

.0 .0

9 3

.0 7

.06 .0 5

.04 H
^0.50s.
Uj

.03

.0
<J

2 -

^0.40^

o k
0.30-

.0 .0

.01 09

08 07 .0 06 .005
.0

04

.003

<5

a zo-\

.0

02

0.1$

.001 .0009 .0008 .0007 .0 006

.0005

.0004,0003-

a/<H
.0002-*

52
If

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

we
write the equation as
2 log

Chap.

Ill

D + 0.97 log Pi =
of the

(log

log 0.01296)

we have an equation
x

form

(I).

The
z

scales are

ii (2

log

D)

= m2

(0.97 log Pi),

= m

(log

w
5,

log 0.01296).

Let

vary from

0.1 in. to 2.0 in.,

then log
if

varies from logo.i

= 1

to log 2

0.301, a range of 1.301;

we choose Wi =

the equation of

the Z)-scale will be x = 10 log D and the scale will be about 13 in. long. Let Pi vary from 20 pounds to 300 pounds, then log Pi varies from log 20 = 1. 301 to log 300 = 2.477, a range of 1.176; if we choose m 2 = 10/0.97, the equation of the P-scale will be y = 10 log P and the scale
will

be about 12

in.

long.

Then
y

m = WiW
3

/(mi -f

m =
2)

3.37.

The

equations of our scales are now

10 log D,

10 log P,

3.37 log w.

Construct (Fig. 26a) the x- and v-axes 6

divide this distance in the ratio mi
:

in.
:

apart; the s-axis will

We have therefore from the x-axis and 4.04 in. from the y-axis. A starting point for the w-scale is found by aligning D = 1, Pi = 100, and w = 1. 1 3. The completed chart is given in Fig. 266.
2

m =
in.

4.85

10.

drawn the saxis

at a distance of 1.96

27.

Tension
-

in

belts,

T ~ 1
1

~ 01Ubfa
-

and horsepower
is

of

belting,

H.P. =
working

~-

33,000
stress in

In the

first of

these formulas, Pi

the allowable

pounds per

in. of

width, or the tension in the tight side

of the belt;

the value of this

may

be obtained either from the manupiece in a tension machine; a suitable

facturer of the belt or

by breaking a

Pi may vary from about 50 to 75 for and from 100 to 150 for double belts, a is the arc of contact in degrees of belt and pulley and may vary from ioo to 300 / is the coefficient of friction and is assumed (in this chart) to have the value 0.30 T% is the tension in the loose side for leather belts on cast-iron pulleys. This formula may be written of the belt in pounds per in. of width.
factor of safety should be added.
single belts
.

log

P
2

log Pi

= 0.01745 fa log e
(I).

or

log Pi

0.002274 a

log

which

is

in the

form

The
y

scales are
2

nt\

log Pi,

= m

(0.002274 a),

= m

log T2.

from log 50 = 1.6990 to log 150 = 2.1 761, a range of 0.4771; if we choose mi = 10, the equation of the Pi-scale will be x = 10 log Pi and the scale will be about 5 in. long. Again, a has a range of

Now

log Pi varies

200;

if

we choose

m =
2

-,

the equation of the a-scale will be

40 (0.002274)

Art. 27

TENSION IN BELTS

53

= ^ a and the scale will be 5 in. long. The equations of our scales are 5.24. x = 10 log Tu y = ?V

Then
z
in.

m = mim
3

/(m\

+m

2)

5-24 lo S

TV
must
:

Construct (Fig. 27a) the x- and y-axes 3.75

divide this distance in the ratio Wi
:

apart; the z-axis

7

We
axis

have therefore drawn the and 1.96 in. from the

z-axis
y-axis.

40 (0.002274) at a distance of 1.79 in. from the

m =
2

10

10

11.
x-

starting point for the

T2

r-100
is

scale

and
is

found by aligning T\ = 80, a = 150, T2 = 36.5. The completed chart

given in Fig. 276, and indicates the

reading 7\

80 pounds, a = 150 T2 36.5 pounds. In the second of the formulas, 5

^-6/so

80{)~

is

the distance traveled

feet per

by the

belt

in

minute, and
J"i

may vary
2

from 300 to 6000;

is

the

difference in the tensions

1.79"vary from 10 to 200; horsepower which a belt of one inch width will transmit; then, knowing ~ l0 ~ the horsepower which we wish to J0 ^ IG 2 ? a transmit we merely divide to get the width of the belt desired. The equation can be written
'
' -

and may H.P. is the

log (7\

- T +
2)

log

S =

log

H.P.

+ log 33,000,
=w log 200 =
z
3

which has the form

x

(I).

The
2

scales are

mi log (TV

T ),
5,

=m

log 5,
1

log

H.P.

Now
of

log

(7*1
if

2)

varies from log 10

to

2.3010, a range

1. 3010;

we choose Wi =

the equation of the (7i

scale will

2)

-scale will

be about 6.5 in. long. Log 5 varies from log 300 = 2.4771 to log 6000 = 3.7781, a range of 1.3010: if we choose m 2 = 5, the equation of the 5-scale will be y = 5 log 5 and the scale will be about 6.5 in. long. Then m 3 = mim 2 /(mi -\- m 2 ) = 2.5. The equations of our scales are be x
5 log (7i
2)

and the

5 log

(7*1

- 7 ),
2
:

=
1.

5 log S,

2.5 log

H.P.

Construct the x- and v-axes 4

distance in the ratio Wi m% = is found by aligning T\ T2
I
:

in.

apart; the z-axis

starting point for the

10,

S =

must divide this H.P. scale 300, and H.P. = 0.091. The

completed chart
100,

is

given in Fig. 27c and indicates the reading

T T =
x

5 =

1000, H.P.

3.0.

54

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. Ill

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Art.

28

CHART FOR EQUATION

^(u)

(II)

55

(II)

EQUATION OF FORM
or

fi(u)'f2 (v)-f3 (w)

= /4 (t).

= /(t) + /() +/ (w) + FOUR OR MORE PAR3

ALLEL SCALES.
Chart for equation (II). [The second form of equation (II) can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of = log/4 (/).] log/2 (z>) -+- log/3 (w) both members; thus log/i() Equation (II) is merely an extension of equation (I) and the method of
28.

charting the former

the latter.

is

an extension

of the

method employed

in charting

For
tion
in

definiteness, let us consider the case of four variables

and the equa-

the form fx {u) f*(v) = q. f3 (w) = fi(t). Let fi(u) f2 (v) This equation is in the form (I) and can therefore be charted by means

(ty{>
f

JLV)
~~VV,

bw.

ujy^

(0

v)

Fig. 28a.

Fig. 286.

but the g-scale need not be graduated. (Fig. then have q fa(w) = .MO, which is also in the form (I) and can therefore be charted by means of three parallel scales one of
of three parallel scales,

28a.)

We

which is the g-scale already constructed. The graduations of the u-, vand w-scales may start anywhere along their axes, but a starting point for the graduations of the /-scale must be determined by a set of values u = u v = w = Wo, t = t satisfying equation (II) thus, join m and v by a straight line and mark its point of intersection with the g-axis; join this point with w cutting the /-scale in a point which must be marked
t ,

z>

to',

this last point is

scale.

To

read the completed chart

then used as a starting point for constructing the /we thus use two index lines, one

joining points on the u-

and

y-scales, the

other joining points on the w-

and

/-scales, intersecting

the g-axis in the

It is

same

point.

Fig. 28a illus-

trates the position of the scales.

thus easy to find the value of any

one of the four variables when the other three are known. The extension of this method to equations of the form (II) containing more than four variables is obvious.

56

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. Ill

Considering again the case of four variables, /i() +/2(V) -\- fs(w) = /4 (/), we can write this in the form/i(zO +/2O) = fi(t) fz(w) = q and chart each of the equations /i(w) j-i{v) = q and f4 (t) fs(w) = q by means of three parallel scales, with the g-scale (which is not graduated) in common. Again, to read the cl art, we use two index lines, one joining

points on the u- and y-scales and the other joining points on the w- and
/-scales, intersecting

the g-axis in the

same

point.

Fig. 28/3 illustrates

the position of the scales in this case.

29.

^hezy formula

c Vrs.

Here,
c is

for the velocity of flow of

ft.

water in open channels,

r is

v is the velocity of flow in

per sec,
s is

the hydraulic

radius in
surface,

ft.

(area divided

by wetted perimeter),

the slope of the water

a coefficient depending on the condition of the channel. (See Art. 53 for the construction of a chart computing c by the Bazin

and

formula.)

ft.

to

Let our variables range as follows: s from 0.00005 to 0.01, 20 ft., c from 10 to 250. Writing the equation
log 5

from

0.1

\ log r
(II).

+ log c

log v

we have an equation q, we can write

(1)

of the

form

Introducing an auxiliary quantity,

log 5

logr

and
first
2

(2)

-f-

log c

log

v.

We now construct
are

a chart for the

s),

of these equations.

The

scales

= mi

(\ log

Now log s varies from log a range of 2.3010; and if

z = m 3 q. y = m (5 log r), 0.00005 = 5-6990 10 to log 0.01 = 8.0 10, we choose m\ = io. the equation of the s-scale

Again, log r varies is x = 5 log s and the scale will be about 11.5 in. long. from logo. 1 = 1 to log 20 = 1. 3010, a range of 2.3010; and if we choose m% = 10, the equation of the r-scale is y = 5 log r and the scale will be about 1 1.5 in. long. Then m% = m\m<il{m\ + w 2 ) = 5. The equations of our scales are
x

5 log

s,

5 log

r,

q.

Construct (Fig. 29a) the x- and y-axes at any convenient distance,

say 8
I
:

in.

apart; the z-axis

I,

and hence the

z-axis

must divide this distance in the ratio nil is drawn midway between the x- and

m =
2

y-axes.

The

g-scale

need not be graduated.

We

continue the construction by charting the second equation.

z

The
from
4)

scales are

= m3 q
250 =

= m log c,

We

use the same g-scale as above so that

= m log v. Log m-z = 5.

b
5

c varies
4

log 10

to log

2.3979, a range of 1.3979; an d

if
i

choose
i

the length of the scale will be about 7 in. The equations of our scales are 2.5.
s

Then
b

ra 5

= mm
logy.

/{m2

w = 5, +w =

52

5logc,

2. 5

Art. 30

HAZEN-WILLTAMS FORMULA

57

Construct (Fig. 29a) the a-axis at any convenient distance, say 10 in. from the z-axis. The graduations of the c-scale may start anywhere along the a-axis for symmetry, we shall place the scale opposite the middle
;

of the scales already constructed.

The

6-axis
:

and a-axcs in the drawn midway between them. by making a single combetween the
z-

ratio ra 3

ra4

must divide the distance 1 I, and it is therefore

:

We

get a starting point for the z;-scale

-20

putation; thus,
0.001, r

when
c

=
ocl -S
*?

=
v

and

=
r

100,

we have
ioin s

1-250

3.16; hence,

0.001

and

=
in

1,

cutting
point,

the

g-axis

a
aoo/b-^s

CL

^-<>IOO

and then point and c =

join this
100,

cut-

ting the &-axis in a point

which must be marked

v

5"
\-0.02
*0.t

3.16.

Starting at this

last point

and proceeding
z/-scale 0.00005-1

along the axis, the

is

graduated from

0.02
Fig. 29a.

to v

= 100. The completed

chart

is

merely remember that the

the g-axis.
r

given in Fig. 296. To read the chart we need (s, r) and (c, v) index lines must intersect on

The index

lines

drawn

in Fig. 296

show that when

of flow of

0.001,

ft.

30.

and c 100, then v 3.16 ft. per sec. Hazen- Williams formula for the velocity
CR- 63 S- 5i (o.ooi)-

pipes,

V-

04
.

Q
tally

4ir/? 2 F.

The

The

water in

quantity of water discharged,

first

of these formulas has

been derived experimenft.

by Hazen and Williams, who have

also constructed a slide rule

for its solution.

V is
C

the velocity of discharge in

full;

per sec. from circular

ft.

pipes or channels flowing

cross-section divided
to length of pipe;

is

the hydraulic radius in

;

(area of

by wetted perimeter)
is

is

the slope or ratio of rise

a coefficient depending on the material and the

condition of the inner surface of the pipe.

following table of values for C:
Brass, block tin, lead, glass

Williams and Hazen give the

Cast

iron,

"

"

very smooth new, good condition.

old,

"

140-150 140-145 .. 125-135 ...100-125

Cast iron, old, bad condition

Steel pipe, riveted, new " " " old

60-100
105-1 15
1

Masonry conduits

90-105 10-135

Replacing (o.oi) -004 by its value 1.318 and expressing R in inches instead of in feet, the formula becomes V = 0.2755 CR- e3 S0M and this can be written as
,

0.63 log

R+

0.54 log

+ log C + log 0.2755

log

58

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap.

Ill

009-

008007
-

.006-

r-2S0

ods-200

-ISO

-10

-9 -6 t7 T6 -5 -4

100

-90 -80 -70

-60
.001

-SO
to

0003-

00080007-

0006-

9.8.7-.2

<0

.07 .06

.3-

.OS

oooi -

00009.00008.00007-

.00006-

0005'

\f

R S

Fig. 296.

Art. 30

HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
is

59

which
in.

of the
in.,

to 20

form (II). Let our variables range as follows: 5 from 0.0001 to 0.05, C from 25 to 200.
construct a chart for 0.63 log

R from
q.

o.l

We

first

R+

0.54 log

S =
z q.

The

scales are

Wi

(0.63 log R),

Now \ogR
2.3010;
if

varies from logo.i

= m = -1

(0.54 log S),

to log

= m

20 - 1.3010, a range

of

we choose Wi =

x = 5 log 2? and from log 0.0001

0.05

5/0.63, the equation of the i?-scale will be the scale will be about 11.5 in. long. Again, log 5 varies

10 to log

8.6990 10, a range of 2.6990; if we choose ra 2 = 5/0.54, the equation of the S-scale will

be y = 5 log 5 and the scale will be about 13.5 in. long. Then m 3

= WiW 2 /(wi w 2 ) = 4.27. equations of our scales are

x y
z

The

= = =

5 log

22,

5 log S,

4.273.

Construct (Fig. 30a) the x-

and y-axes 11.7 in. apart; the z-axis must divide this distance
in the ratio

\O.QOQ

m\

ra 2

=
in.

5.4

6.3.

We

0.54 have therefore

in.

5 0.63

5
*

Fig. 30a.

drawn the
from the

z-axis at a distance of 5.4

from the x-axis and 6.3

y-axis.

The

g-scale

need not

be graduated. We now continue the construction by charting

q

+ log C + log 0.2755 =

= w
4

log V.

The

scales are
z

= m

3 q,

We
4

use the same

b = m + log 0.2755), g-scale as above so that m = 4.27. Log

(log

log V.

log 25

w =

1.3979 to log 200 = 2.3010, a range of 0.9031; if 4.27, the equation of the C-scale will be a = 4.27 log

about 4 in. long. equations of our scales are

scale will be
z

Then m- = W3W 4 /(w 3 a

*w 4 )

C varies from we choose C and the = 2.14. The

4.27

q,

4.27 log C,

2.14 log V.

Construct from the z-axis. Although the graduations of the C-scale may start anywhere along the a-axis, the C-scale is only about 4 in. long and we shall get a more symmetrical chart by placing the scale opposite the middle of the 5-scale.
(Fig. 30a) the a-axis at a distance of 4.8 in.

6o

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

b-axis

Chap.

Ill

must divide the distance between the z-axis and a-axis in the = I I, and is therefore midway between them. We get a starting point for the F-scale by making a single computation, thus, when R 2, 6 = 0.001 and C = 100, we have V 1.02; hence, join R = 2 and iS = 0.001, cutting the g-axis in a point, and then join this point and C = 100, cutting the 6-axis in a point which must be marked V = 1.02.
ratio

The

m%

m^

05
r

04

1000020-,

10

9
8
7-\

n; 09

S 08 ^07-_
<k.

~~

06-

S *

a
04,

Art. 31

INDICATED HORSEPOWER OF A STEAM ENGINE

61

and our scales are

x

= mi

(2 log

R)

= m

log V,

= m

(log

As we want to use the and the equation of the

i?-scale already constructed,

Q - log 0.0873) we take Wi = 5/2,

2

scale

is

5 log R, as above.

use the F-scale already constructed and hence take Then ra 3 = Wiw 2 /(mi b = 2.14 log V, as above.

We also want to m = 2.14 and get + m = 1.15, and the

2)

equation of the Q-sca\e

are 7.8
in.

is c

apart.
2.5
:

The

c-axis
is

mi

m<l

2.14; this

In Fig. 30a, the x- and 6-axes must divide this distance in the ratio accomplished by drawing the c-axis at a dis1.15 log Q.

tance of 4.2

in.

from the
2,

x-axis.
1.02,

We

get a starting point for the <2-scale

0.36.

and Q = Fig. 30& gives the completed chart. that when R = 2 in., 6" = 0.001, and C and Q = 0.36 cu. ft. per sec.

by aligning

R =

V=

The index

lines

drawn
1.02
ft.

indicate

100, then

V=

per sec.

"*

*i.

Indicated

horsepower

of

steam engine, H.P. =

pounds per

PLAN
.

33ooo

Here,

is

the

mean

effective pressure in
ft.,

sq. in.,
,

is

the

length of the stroke in

is

the area of the piston in sq. in

and

is

the speed in revolutions per minute. This formula is used extensively in steam engine testing practice. The pressure, P, is obtained from the indicator card and is equal to its air comIn double-acting steam engines area divided by its length.
pressors, air engines,

or water pumps

sides of the piston alternately.

we have the fluid acting on both Here we must apply the formula to each
-

end and add the results in order to get the total power output. For purposes of illustration we shall here use the diameter, D, instead of the area, and write

H.P.
where

-.

(33,000) (4) (12)

vPLP^
(2)
2

0.000001983

PLD N
2

L
(1)

is

expressed in inches, as

is

more common.
equation into three parts:
(3)

We
(1)

shall divide the charting of this

PL = PL = q
x

q,

DN=

t,

H.P.

0.0000019833/.
q,

can be written log

scales are

P+
2

log

L =
z

log

which has the

form

(I),

and our

= mi log P,
10 to 200, log

= w

log L,
1

= m

log

q.

If

P varies from

P varies from

to 2.3010, a range of 1.3010;

If L varies if we choose mi = 10, the P-scale will be about 13 in. long. from 2 to 40, log L varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of 1.3010; if we choose m 2 = 10, the L scale will be about 13 in. long. Then m 3 = mim 2 /{m\ -\- m 2 ) = 5, and the equations of our scales are

10 log P,

10 log L,

5logg.

62

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Construct (Fig. 31a) the x- and y-axes 10
in.
:

Chap.

Ill

apart.

The

z-axis

divide this distance in the ratio

Wi mi =
:

and

is

therefore

must drawn

midway between them, but

(2)

the 5-scale need not be graduated.

DN=
2

form

(I),

can be written 2 log and our scales are

t

-f-

log

=
c

log

/,

which has the

a
If

= w4

(2 log

D),

ra 5 log

N,

ra 6 log

/.

from 2 to 40, log D varies from 0.3010 to 1.6020, a range of and if we choose ra 4 = 5, the equation of the Z)-scale will be a = If N varies from 50 to 10 log D and the scale will be about 13 in. long. 1000, log TV varies from 1.6990 to 3.0000, a range of 1.3010; and if we choose W5 = 10, the iV-scale will be about 13 in. long. Then ra 6 = w 4 w 6 /(w4 + m 6 ) = 3.33, and the equations of our scales are

D varies

1. 3010;

10 log D,

iologiV,

3.33 log/.

Construct (Fig. 31a) the a- and 6-axes 10

have the same range and

their scales

in. apart. Since D and L have the same modulus, for y = 10 log L and a = 10 log D, we find
it

convenient to

make

the a-axis

coincide with the v-axis, and to

use one scale for both

fl.W-

The

L and D. must divide the distance between the a- and 6-axes

c-axis

in the ratio

w =
5

2,

or

the c-axis
'

is

at a distance of

3.33

in.

FlG 3 Ia
-

/-scale

from the a-axis, but the need not be graduated.

log/ = (log H.P. 0.000001983 qi can be written log q Our scales are log 0.000001983), which has the form (I).
(3)

H.P.

= m

log q
3

=
6

5 log q,

c
6)

= m =
2,

log

3.33 log

/,

= m 7 log H.P.,
The
z-

where
ratio

m = mm
1
3
:

/(w3

+w
;

and hence d

2 log

H.P.

and

c-axes are 8.33

in.

m6

apart and the d-axis must divide this distance in the 3.33 thus the d-axis must be at a distance of 5 in. from

the z-axis and must coincide with the y- and a-axes.

this triple axis carries the scale for

L and

Thus, one side of D, and the other side, the scale

scale

for

H.P.

To

get a starting point for the

H.P.

we make a

single

com-

putation:
line

P = 50, L = 14, D = 8, TV = 300 give H.P. = 26.7; hence the joining P = 50 and L = 14 cuts the g-axis in a point, the line joining

8 and N = 300 cuts the /-axis in a point, and the line joining these two points cuts the d-axis in a point which must be marked H.P. = 26.7. Fig. 316 gives the completed chart, and the index lines indicate that = 300 when P = 50 pounds per sq. in., L = 14 in., D = 8 in., and revolutions per min., then H.P. = 26.7,

D=

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63

64

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

EXERCISES

Chap.

II)

Construct charts for the following formulas. The numbers in parenthesis suggest These limits may be extended if necessary. Addilimiting values for the variables. tional exercises will be found at the end of Chapter V.
1 P Rankine's formula, for the weight, w, in pounds per ^ 200 sec. of steam flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds (20 to 300) per sq. in. through an orifice of A sq. in. or of diameter D in. (0.1 to 2.0) to a pressure of P2 pounds

i.

AP
70

IT = -

per sq.
2.

in., if

Pi

0.6 Pi.

Q = L =

3.33 bti*.

Francis' formula
each

for the discharge, Q, in cu.

ft.

per sec. over a

rectangular weir b
3.

ft. (2

to 15) in width due to a head of

ft.

(0.5 to 1.5)

over the crest.

2 In

h 0.5.

3elf-inductance,
r

L, in abhenries per cm. length of one of

two

parallel straight cylindrical wires

cm.

(0.1 to 0.25) in radius, their

axes d cm.

(2.5 to 144) apart,

and conducting the same current

in opposite directions [distance d

small compared with length of wires].

4.

P=

50,210,000
sq. in. of

7)

-Stewart's
steel

formula for the collapsing pressure, P, in

t

pounds per
(1 5.

Bessemer

tubing

in.

(0.02 to 0.13) in thickness

and

in.

to 6) in external diametei.

sec.
(0.1

Q = y/ 2 gcbW. Hamilton Smith formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. ft. per ft. over a contracted or suppressed weir b ft. (2 to 20) in width due to a head of to 1.6) over the crest, if the coefficient of discharge is c (0.580 to 0.660). [g = 32.2.]

6.

P
d

=
is

0.196

Load,
/.

P, in

pounds supported by a

helical

compression

spring;

the diameter of the wire in inches (0.102 to 0.460 or No. 10 to No. 0000,
r is

the mean radius of the coil in inches (0.5 to 2.0), / is the fiber stress in pounds (30,000 to 80,000). Conveyor-belt calculations; p is the correct number 7. p = kgW (L -f- 10//). is the width of the belt in inches (10 to 60), g is the weight of of plies (1 to 15) material handled in pounds per cu. ft. (30 to 125), L is the length of the belt in ft. and 100 H is the difference in elevation between the head and tail pulleys in ft. {L + 10 to 1500), k is a constant depending on the type of drive (k = 1/250,000 for a simple
B. S. gage),

drive with bare pulley, k

= 1/300,000 for a simple drive with rubber-lagged pulleys, 1/375,000 for a tandem drive with bare pulleys, k = 1/455,000 for a tandem drive [Charted in Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, with rubber-lagged pulleys). =
XIV,
8.

Vol.

W=
V

Jan.

1,

1916.]

15 itd-VD.

Flow of
(1

passing in pounds per min.

(f to 36),
is

to 30,000), d
ft.

is the weight of steam steam through pipes; is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches

the velocity of flow in

per sec. (15 to 250),

is

the density of the

steam

at the

mean
1

pressure (use a steam table and plot

for values of the absolute

pressure from
9, 1916.] 9.
is

to 215

pounds per

sq. in.)

[Charted in Electrical World, Vol. 68, Dec.

p = VDK,

where

K
d,

= 2i ( z

4.

^V Flow
8.

of

steam through pipes; p

sq. in.

the pressure drop between the ends of the pipe in

pounds per

per 100

ft.

of

pipe (0.01 to 20), and V,

Vol. 68, Dec. 9, 1916.]
10.

and

D
2

are defined in Ex.

[Charted in Electrical World,

p-

ft.

14.7

0.0007 -ft H-

Blast-pressure
ft.

furnace;

furnace in
ft.

(50 to 100),

is

the bosh diameter in

(10 to 25),

H W

is
is

the height of the the

number

of cu.

of air at 70 F. per

25).

[Charted in

minute (5000 to 80,000), p is the blast-pressure in pounds gage (2 to Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Vol XIV, Mar. 15, 1916.]

CHAPTER IV. NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS (Continued). (Ill) EQUATION OF FORM / (u) =/ (^-/ (u?) or yw z CHART. /,() = f v
a

2(

[The second form of equation (III) 32. Chart for equation (III). can be brought immediately into the first form by taking logarithms of both members.] The first form of equation (III) is the same as the second

form of equation
scales, while here

(I),

but

in Art.

23

we used

three parallel logarithmic

we

shall use three natural scales,

two

parallel

and a
axis

third oblique to them.

In Fig. 32a,

let

AX

and

BY

be two parallel axes and

AZ

any

oblique to these and cutting these in

and

respectively.

Draw any

Fig. 320.

Fig. 326.

Aw =
y,

index line cutting the axes in the points u, v, w so that Au 2; note that Au and Bv are oppositely directed.

x,

Bv =

y,

How

are x,

and
Let

z related?

AB =
:

k.

Then
:

in the similar triangles

Auw
z,

and Bvw,

Au Bv = Aw wB,

or

= =

or

~ J-

Now

if

AX and B Y carry the scales x

=
,,"_
s

Wi/i(w)

and y
if

mzfi(v), the last

equation becomes /i()

fi(v),

and

AZ

carries a scale for

such that

mz
mi
{k

,, = jz(w)
v

or
6*

z)

mif3 (w) mifs (w) +

ra*'

66

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

the equation becomes /i(w) = U(v) 'f3 {w), and any index line will cut the axes in three points corresponding to values u, v, w satisfying this equation.

Hence,

to

chart equation (III) f\{u)

Draw

three axes

= f (w) ft(v) proceed as follows: AX, BY, and AZ, where AX and BY are parallel and
3

oppositely directed, and

as origins, construct

AB is any convenient length, on these axes the scales

k.

With

and

Note that

for the construction of the w-scale,

it is

necessary to com-

pute the value of z for every value of w which is to appear on the chart. To avoid this computation, proceed as follows: On B Y, choose a fixed point F at any convenient distance, /, from B
(Fig. 326),

and on

AX
Then

construct the scale

AC =
AZ.

x'

fc{w).

From
in w,

as center, project the points

let

C on

the axis

Let

FC

cut

AZ

and

Aw =
z
:

z.

in

the similar triangles or

2

ACw
k

and BFw,

,
:

1
I

kx'
-\-

mif3 (w) m\f3 {w) + nh

,

Hence
x'

to construct the scale z

jjj. f-i(Zii)
,

niif3 (w)

\ +
,

m%

construct

first

the scale

U(w) on^lX, and then project

this scale

from the fixed point

on

(where BF = I) to the axis AZ marking corresponding points with the same value of w. This type of chart is illustrated in the following example.

BY

33.

Tension on bolts with U.

S. standard threads,

D=

1.24

V/t
is

0.088.

Here
we

is

the outside d'ameter of the bolt in inches,

ft is

the

load on the bolt in pounds, and

sq. in.
If

the tension fiber stress in pounds per

write the equation as

L =

(D
f
t

,r

o.o8

^
we nav e an equation
0.088) 2

\[\ 2 (1.24)2
x
,

of the

form (HI).
x

The

scales are

miL,

y J

m-ifu

.Wi(P I

-,

(1.24)

^ 2

if we choose m\ = 0.0001, the equation L and its length will be 10 in. Let // vary up to 100,000 pounds; if we choose m 2 0.0001, the equation of the If we choose /rscale will be y = 0.0001 f and its length will be 10 in.

Let

L vary up

to 100,000 pounds:

of the L-scale will be x

0.0001

the fixed point or center of projection, F, on the y-axis so that

=
.

8.3 in.,

then the equations of our scales are

0.0001 L,

0.0001ft,

3C*

5.4

(D

o,o8) 2

Art. 33
If

TENSION ON BOLTS WITH

varies from \ in. to 4
off
in.,

U.

S.

STANDARD THREADS

67

we compute

of x'

and lay

the scale on the s-axis.

the

We

the corresponding values then project this scale from

the point

to

oblique axis, marki

ng

corresponding

points with the

same

value of D (Fig. 33a).

The
point

final

chart,

showing neither the

F nor

the prois

jecting lines,
in Fig. 336.

given
y
0.0001 ft

On one

100.000

Fig. 33a.

side of

the oblique

axis the threads per inch corresponding to the various diameters

have been
ft

given.

The index

line indicates that

when L = 20,000 pounds and

= I in. and there are 8 threads to the inch. 37,000 pounds per sq. in., then Similar charts can be built up for various other threads.

10.000-,

TENSION BOLTS WITH

Fig.

U.S. ST'D.

THREADS.

33k

08

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IY

(IV)

EQUATION OF FORM /i(u)

fi(w)

TWO
of
-

INTER-

SECTING INDEX LINES.

34.

Chart for equation (IV).

or

large

number

volving four variables can be written in the form (IV)

/i() /() />(w) =/*(/)

equations

in-

such equations as

fx (u) f2 (v)

= fs {w)

(IV)

is

included in the second form of equation

(II),

Equation -Mt), etc. but in Art. 28 we used

logarithmic scales whereas here

we

shall use natural scales.

BY and AZ, BTbe two pairs of parallel axes, where AZ may coincide with AX (Fig. 34a) or AZ may make any convenient angle with
Let

AX,

Fig. 34a.

AX
and and

(Fig. 34&),

point

P on AB
related?

q so
t

and where AB is a common transversal. Through any draw two index lines cutting the axes in the points u, v, w, that Au = x, Bv = y, Aw = z, and Bq = t. How are x, y, z,
the similar triangles in these figures,

From
x
:

we have
:.

AP PB
:

and

= AP PB,
:

t.

Now

if

AX, BY, AZ, x = mi/i(),

:
:

BT carry y = m /
2

the scales
z

2 (i>),

= m f (w),
3 3
:

mjiiq),
:

where Wi w 2 = m s m\, the relation becomes /j () /2 (y) = f-s(zv) /4 (g) and two index lines intersecting in a point on /15 will cut out values oi u, v, w, and q satisfying equation (IV).
Hence,
to

chart equation (IV) f\{u)

of a

fi{v)

=fz(w)

Mq)

proceed as follows:

Through the ends

parallel axes

AX

segment AB of any convenient length, draw the and BY and the parallel axes AZ and BT, where AZ

Art. 35

PRONY BRAKE OR ELECTRIC DYNAMOMETER FORMULA

make any convenient
y
angle with

69

may

coincide or

AX.
t

On

these axes

construct the scales

ntifi(u),

ra 2 /2 (z>),

= mf
3

(w),

where the moduli are arbitrary except read the chart, use two index lines, one joining u and v, and the other joining w and q, and intersecting in a point on AB. The following examples

for the relation

= mif (q) m2 = m nti

4
:

4.

To

illustrate this

type of chart:
Fig. 35a.

35.

Prony brake or

electric
( formula,
.

H.P.

dynamometer = 2TTLNW
.

The

33,000
for

sketch in Fig. 35a gives the

method

measuring the power of a rotating shaft. Either the prony brake or dynamometer may be used. With such an arrangement the power is given by the above formula, where L is the length of brake arm
the electric
in
feet,

N
is

is

the

speed of the

shaft in revolutions per minute,

and
If

W
=

the

load on scale in

pounds.

we

write the equation as

?
,

H.P.
A7 N

W tt 5260/L
miH.P.,

we have an equaM
(IV),

tion

of the

form

and our
N, 5260

scales are

x
z

=
=

y
t

=m

W,

= m\

BO Fig. 356.

L
exhibits

The

following

table

the choice of moduli, and the equations and approximate lengths of the scales.
Scale

the limits of

the variables,

Limits

Modulus

Equation

H.P.

o o o

to to to

80

Wi 5000 mi 400 m s
4

= = =

0.15

0.00225
0.03
W2OT3

0.5 to 5

w =

Wl

0.00045

?0

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

origin; similarly for the

Chap. IV

same

N- and

L-scales.

The

index

joining

L and

W and the other joining N W=

50 pounds, and

and H.P.

intersect

lines, one on the trans-

versal joining the zero points of the scales. The completed chart is given in Fig. 35c,

and the index

lines

show that

when L =

ft.,

= 2000

r.p.m., then

H.P.

38.

i.

Co

1*1

SI

36.

Deflection of
'

beam
is

fixed at

ends and loaded at center.

A -

Wl?
192
load

T 7 28

EI on beam

_ Here, A

the deflection of

beam
beam

in inches, in feet,

is

the total

in pounds,

is

the length of

E is

the modulus

Art. 37

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
and I
steel,
is

71

of elasticity of material in inch units,

the

moment

of inertia in

inch units.

We
scales

shall take
-rz L

E =

30,000,000 for
?

so that the equation

(IV),

may

be

written as

=
y

3.333,ooo I

which has the form

and gives the

wiA,

= m D,
2

= m W,
3

ra 4 (3,333>ooo) J-

The

following table exhibits the choice of moduli

and the equations

of the scales.

Scale

Limits

72

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

These
six cases

Chap. IV

may

be represented by

six charts similar to those dis-=rz

cussed in Arts. 35 and 36, for the equation can be written

L3

> 3.333.0000/'

LENGTH OF BEAM
5
I

(L)

IN
I

FEET
s
I

y>

O^c^n ((loloNlOO) O
h.
\
I I 1

\j

f>

,1,

1,500-

2,000-

3,000-*

DEFLECTION OF BEAM

(A)

IN /NCHES.

BEAM F/XED AT ENDS -LOADED AT CENTER.

Fig.
36ft.

which has the form (IV) when a value

scales are

is

assigned to

a.

In

all cases,

the

= wiA,

ra 2

L3

= m^W,
The

ra 4 (3,333,000) al.
(5)

In cases

(1) to (4),

the x- and z-axes are perpendicular, and in cases

transversal joining the zeros of
all

and
is

(6),

the x- and z-axes coincide.

scales are arranged so that there

only one

common

the scales.

In

all

cases the index line joining

W and / and

the index line joining

A and L

must

intersect

on the

common

transversal.

Art. 38

SPECIFIC SPEED OF TURBINE

AND WATER WHEEL

73

The completed
that there
O
<?<*,
<;.C s;

chart, Fig. 37, clearly distinguishes the six cases so

it.

is

no

difficulty in reading

LENGTH OF BEAM
< N \ N N N
N
N N

IN FEET,

DEFLECTION IN INCHES-BEAM FIXED AT ENDS -LOADED AT CENTER.

comb/zvat/o/v

chart -deflect/on of.beams.

Fig. 37.

tion will

Another and more compact method be given in Art. 43.

38.
Specific speed of

of charting this

composite equa-

turbine and water wheel.

specific

N VHP
j

The formula

gives

the

speed of a hydraulic reaction turbine

74

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

also of a tangential

Chap. IV

and
is

water wheel.
the

Here, N,

is

the specific speed, H.P.

the horsepower,

is

number
o.

of revolutions per minute,

and

H
is

is

Reaction Turbine
iNs

the head of water on turbine or

wheel

in ft.

The formula
in

ex-

tensively

used

Hydraulics

and in water power engineering work; the reaction turbine is used when the head is low and the quantity of water available
is

relatively large, the value of

s

varying from 10 to ioo, while tangential water wheel is used when the head is great and,
the
is usual in such cases, the water limited, the value of s varying from 2 to 6. Because

as
y-o.oos/V

Fig. 38a.

of this difference in the range

it is

of

for the

two

cases,

best to construct separate charts

If

we

write the equation as -^

VH.P.

m
z
z

we have an equation

of the

form

(IV),

and our
niiNg,

scales are

x =

= m 2 N,

= m VH.P.,

= mjl*.

The

following tables exhibit the choice of moduli and the equations of the

scales.

Reaction Turbine
Scale
nti

Modulus
m<i

Equation

= = m =
3

0.1

0.005
0.28

y
z

= = =

0.1

0.005 N_
0.28

VH.P.

ww
2

Art. 38

SPECIFIC SPEED OF TURBINE

axis; similarly for the

AND WATER WHEEL

75

common

action turbine

N- and -scales. The charts for the reand the tangential water wheel have been combined as shown in the diagram, i.e., the axes for the former have been placed perpendicular to the axes of the latter, and both charts use the same transSPECIFIC SPEED

>

(Ns)

OF REACTION TURBINE.
s$

3
ftji
1

<o

HEAD (H)
"
,,',,,,,
'

IN
,1 11.

/,

'...,,,

'

'

,'

.,

SPEED

IN) IN REV.

PER MIN.
n
VTTTp.

(R.T.)

SPECIFIC

SPEED OF TURBINE AND WATER WHEEL.

Fig. 386.

versal

on which the index lines intersect, one index and the other joining H.P. and H.
Fig. 38ft gives the

line joining

and

completed chart; for the reaction turbine, the index = 1000 r.p.m., = 70 ft., and H.P. = 201, lines show that when = 70; for the tangential water wheel, the index lines show that then N, = 1000 r.p.m., = 700, and H.P. = 275, then % = 4.6. when

7&
(V).

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

EQUATION OF FORM Mu) -/,() -ft{w) TWO OR MORE INTERSECTING INDEX

/4 (t) ....
LINES.

39.

ing three or

Charts for equation (V). A large number of equations involvmore variables can be written in the form (V), which is
(II),

similar to the second form of equation

but

in Art.

28

arithmic scales, whereas here

is

we

shall use natural scales.

we used logEquation (TV)

a special case of equation (V)

shall here consider the cases

when

there are four variables present.

We

or six variables.
cation of the

where equation (V) contains three, five, The method of charting to be employed is an amplifiin Art. 34.

method described
Three variables.

Case

(1).

be written as
scales are

Mu M
'

v)

Mw
2

Mu
)
:

M Mw
v)
'

1,

which
z

is

This equation can of the form (IV); the

)t

x
:

wi/i(),
:

y
.

= m Mv),

= w / (w),
3 3

= m

4>

Here the g-scale is replaced by a fixed point, where mi m 2 = m 3 m 4 P, on the y-axis and at a distance m4 from B. The first index line joins u and v, the second index line joins w and the fixed point P; the two lines
on AB. (Figs. 34a, 346.) be used as a center of projection from which the w -scale may be projected on the transversal AB. We shall then have two parallel scales and a third scale oblique to these, and a single index line will cut the scales in values of u, v, and w satisfying the equation. This method was employed in charting the formula for the tension on

must

intersect in a point
fixed point, P,

The

may

bolts in Art. 33.

An example
Case
(2).

illustrating case (1)

is

worked out
-

in Art. 40.
v)
'

Six variables.

M
:

u)

fi(q)

r)

w
1

'Ms)-

This

equation can be written as

/i(0
=

fM

=/ (0
8

and

:/4 (g)

= Mr)

/(*).

Each of these equations has the form (IV) and can therefore be charted by the method described in Art. 34. In Fig. 39a, the p-, v-, and r-scales
lie

along a

common

axis,

but the -scale need not be graduated.

To

read

the chart

we need two

pairs of index lines; the index lines (u, v)

and
in-

(w, p) intersect in

a point on

AB, and
is

the index lines (p, q) and

(r, s)

tersect in a point

on BC.

An example
Case
tion can
(3).

illustrating case (2)

worked out
'

in Art. 41.
v)
'

Five variables.

M
:

u)

'

Mo)
and

M
p
:

r)

M)
:

This equa-

be written as

Mu) Mv)

=/(w)

/4 (g)

= Mr)

and can be considered as a special form of case (2), where the 5 scale (Fig. 39a) is replaced by a fixed point through which the fourth index line must pass. An illustrative example is worked out in Art. 42.

Art. 40

TWISTING

MOMENT

IN A CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
: :

77

may also chart the equation fi(u) f2 (v) f3 (w) p by the method described in Art. 34, and the equation p = /4 (g) Mr) by the first method described in Art. 32. The arrangement of the scales is shown in Fig. 396, and this arrangement is more compact than that of Fig. 39a, and em-

We

ploys only three index lines instead of four.

^fc

Fig. 39a.

Fig. 39&.

lies along the transversal AB and the q- and won the same axis; the index lines (u, v) and (w, p) intersect on the transversal AB, and the third index line aligns p, r, and q. An illustrative example will be found in Art. 43. = 0.196 FD 3 Here 40. Twisting moment in a cylindrical shaft, F is the maximum fiber stress in pounds per sq. in., D is the diameter of the shaft in inches, and is the

In Fig. 396, the r-scale

scales are carried

twisting
If
z

moment
:

in inch

pounds.

we

write the equation as

5.1

M:
Our

D =F
of the

we have an equation
(V),

form

case

(1).

scales are

x
z

= ntiM, = m F,
3

y
t

= ntiD 3 = m 4 (5.1).
,

The
the

following table exhibits

of

choice

moduli and

the

fixed

5.1"-

equations of the scales:

Scale

Fig. 400.

Limits

Modulus
mi
2

Equation

Length

M
D
F

up

to 190,000 1" to 4" to 16,000

0.00005
0.1

x
31

0.00005
0.1

up

m = m =
3

0.0005

= =

9.5" 6.4"

0.0005

8"

78

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

2,000- -20,000

40,000

05

6.000+60,000

<0 kj
(J

8,00080.000

100,000

k k
^12.0~OZh-120000
<0
kj

k o
o: kj

14,000- -140,000

k
kj

16.000- -160,000

co

k
-180000

TWISTING

MOMENT IN
Fig.

CYLINDRICAL SHAFTS

M= 0.196 F O 3
40k

Art. 41

D'ARCY'S
4
2 3

FORMULA FOR THE FLOW OF STEAM IN PIPES

l

79

hence / = 5.1, and we have a fixed point on the from the origin. We construct the M- and Fscales on the same axis from a common origin, and the .D-scale and the (Fig. 40a.) fixed point on a parallel axis. The two index lines, one join1,

Now w = m m /m =

y-axis at a distance 5.1 in.

ing

M and D and the other joining F and the

common

fixed point,

must
lines

intersect

on the

transversal joining the zeros of the scales.

The completed chart is given in Fig. 406, and the index when F = 12,000 pounds per sq. in. and D = 3 in., then
pounds.
41.

show that
in.

M = 63,500
BL P = 2

D'Arcy's formula for the flow of steam in pipes,

&wd

Here, P is the drop in pressure in pounds per sq. in., that is, the difference between the pressure, p u at the entrance to the pipe and the pressure, p2 at the exit of the pipe; B is the weight of steam flowing in pounds per minute; L is the length of the pipe in feet; c is a quantity which varies with the nature of the inner surface of the pipe; w is the mean density of steam, i.e., the average of the density at the entrance and the density at the exit of the pipe; d is the diameter of the pipe in inches. This formula is extensively used in engineering practice. We usually desire the pressure drop between two points. The chart to be constructed will however solve for any one of the six variables involved. We have an equation involving six variables of the form (V), case (2) and as suggested in Art. 39, we shall separate it into two equations each involving four variables, and build up a Z chart for each of these. Taking the square root of both members of the equation, we write it
,

vzb

= vpcV^vj>,

or

ytB^vzy*,
Vp
i/c
Q,

and equating both members to an auxiliary quantity,

we

write

VZ
We
Scale

=-

Q'

and

-2_ = Vd5 ~

i/c'

now construct a Z chart for each of these equations, the two charts having the Q-axis i n common. For the first of these equations we have the following table:
Limits

Modulus

Equation

P
L

o to 25

QW2W3
0.4

o to 1500 o to 400

= = m2 m =
mi
3

4
0.02

mi

0.002

8o

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

The P- and 5-scales (Fig. 41a) are placed on the same axis and starting from the same origin, and the L- and Q-scales on a parallel axis, but the
Q-scale
is

not graduated.

For the second equation we have the following table:

Scale

Limits
fHi

Modulus
ra B ra 6 ra 7

Equation

Length
b

Q
d

o to 10 o to 10 30 to 70

= = =

0.002
0.06
r

s
6

= = =

0.06

Vd

Vw
(;)

19" 18"

wm = w
6 4

180

180

The w- and
scales are

Q-scales are placed

(2-axis.

on the common

on the same axis; hence the w- and XThe d and c scales are placed on a
parallel axis (Fig. 41a).

We
(c, iv)

use four index

lines.

The

and (d, Q) lines must interon the common transversal sect of the corresponding scales, and the (Q, B) and (L, P) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales.
It is

thus a simple matter to find

the value of any one of the six

variables

when

the other five are

Fig. 41a.

Thus, to find the value of P when c, %v, d, B, and L are known, proceed as follows (Fig.
41a)
:

known.

join the point of intersec-

tion of
in

(c,

w) and the

common

transversal (a) with d, cutting the ()-axis

transversal

a point, Q; join the point of intersection of (Q, B) and the (/3) with L, cutting out the required value of P.
Fig. 41& gives the
c

common

when

40,

w
then

2,

L =

800

feet,

completed chart, and the index lines show that d = 7 in., B = 300 pounds per minute, and = 1.34 pounds per sq. in.

42. Distributed load

on a wooden beam.
in

9WL BH

-.

Here, F

is

the

maximum
beam

fiber stress

in inches;

width of the

beam

pounds per sq. in.; L is the length of the the total load on the beam in pounds; B is the in inches; and is the height of the beam in inches.
is

beam (depending on the load which the floor must support), the allowable fiber stress (depending upon the kind and quality of the wood), and the length of the beam, are usually known and the width and height of the beam are to be determinedIn construction work, the total load on the
;

Art. 41

D'ARCY'S

FORMULA FOR THE FLOW OF STEAM IN

PIPES

81

D'ARC Y EQUA T/OA/-FL OW OF STEAM //V P/PES.

Fig. \\b.

82

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap. IV

Since

we have two unknown quantities we can of course get various combinations of these to satisfy the equation. By means of the chart to be
constructed
tions of

these combinawidth and height are

readily seen,

and any desired

combinations
chosen.

may

then

be

We have an equation involving five variables of the

form (V), case (3), and introducing an auxiliary quantity,
Q,

we

shall

separate

it

into

two equations; thus,

F W T = -pr L Q
Fig. 42a.

and

Q = = IP B 9 Z
chart

We now

construct a
()-axis in

for each of these equations, the

two charts having the

common.

For the
x

first

of these equations our scales are

TtiiF,

= m

(L),

= m W,
z

(Q),

and we have the following

Scale

table:

Limits

Modulus
mi
2

Equation

F L

up up up

to to

2000
40

0.003
0.3

to 15,000

m = m =
3

0.0008

Art. 42

DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A WOODEN BEAM

83

15,000

14,000-

13,000

12,000

DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A WOODEN BEAM- F=VUFig. 426.

84

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Q-scales are placed on the

Chap. IV
;

The H- and
L- and
parallel axis,

if-scales are

on the common on which there is also a

hence the placed on a fixed point,/, at a distance of 9.0 in.

Q-axis.

same

axis (Fig. 42a)

.g-scale
is

The

from the

origin.

index lines. The (L, F) and (Q, W) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales, and the (B, Q) and (/, H) lines must intersect on the common transversal of the corresponding scales. It is thus a simple matter to find the value of any one of the five variables when the other four are known. Thus to find the when F, L, W, and B are known, proceed as follows: (Fig. value of 42a) join the point of intersection of (L, F) and the transversal (/3) with

We use four

W,

and the transversal value of H.

If

cutting the ()-axis in a point, Q; join the point of intersection of (B, Q) (a) with the fixed point, /, cutting out the required

we wish we can
/,

project the //-scale on the transversal (a) using

the fixed point,

fixed point, /,
will

as a center of projection.
line

We
it,

can then discard the

and the index

through

for the index line (B, Q)

then cut the transversal (a)

then F, L, and
the index line

in the required value of H. Given W, we determine the point Q as above, and by rotating through Q we can cut out any desired combination of B

and//.
that

The completed chart is given in Fig. 426, and the index lines show = 10,000 pounds, L = 15m., F = 1,200 pounds per sq. in., when

and

B =

in.,

then

H=
is

12 in.
six

43.

Combination chart for

beam

deflection

formulas.

A =

1728 WU ^tft- Here, W 192 hit*

the total load in pounds,

is

the length of the

beam

in

feet,

is

the

moment

of inertia in inch units,

is

the deflection

in inches,

is

the

modulus

of elasticity (30,000,000 for steel),

factor which determines the

method

of loading

and P is a and supporting. Thus

when

the

beam

is

(1)

(2) fixed at
(3) (4) (5) (6)

both ends and uniformly loaded, both ends and loaded in center, supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, supported at both ends and loaded in center, fixed at one end and uniformly loaded, fixed at one end and loaded at the other,
fixed at

P P P P P P

Pi

2;

= P-i = 1 = Pz = f = P4 = \

= P6 = = P =
6

&

thus involves five variables and is of the form (V), case introduce an auxiliary quantity, Q, and separate the equation into two equations; thus,

The equation

(3).

We

Q Lz

W
3.333.OO0 /

and

Q = AP.

Art. 43

COMBINATION CHART FOR DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

first of

85
if

The
write

these equations has already been charted in Art. 36,

we
of

for

indeed
i.e.,

is

the deflection of a
1.

beam

fixed at

both ends and

loaded in center,

for

P=
L
3
,

We
z

shall here use the

same method
scales are

charting and the same scales employed in Art. 36.

The

= m

Q,

ra 2

= m 3 W,

= w4

(3,333.000) /,

and the following table exhibits the choice

Scale

of moduli?

Limits

Modulus
wi = 8

Equation

Length

x = 8Q
y = 0.000,224
2 = 0.000,04
t

W
/

10 to 35 ^2 = 0.000,224 up to 200,000 3 = 0.000,04

L3
I

10"

8"

up

to

2000

ra 4

w =w
2

= 0.000,000,001 12

= 0.003,735

nti

scales are arranged in form of a rectangle (Fig. the 43a); the L- and /-scales start from one vertex, B, and the Wand ^-scales start from the opposite vertex, A, but the <2-scale is not graduated. The two index lines, one joining and / and the other joining L and Q must intersect on the transver-

The

200,00b

sal

AB.
chart the equation
the

3000-*

We now Q = AP by

Fig. 43a.

method described

in Art. 32.
s

The
ntiP
-f-

scales are

x
where the
the 5-axis
xis

ntiQ,

tw 2 A,

m\P

nh

and r-axes must be

parallel

and extend

in opposite directions,

the transversal through the origins of these axes,

and k
in

is

the

distance between the origins.

These conditions are met

if

Fig. 43a

(where the x-axis

is

already constructed)

we make

the r-axis coincide

with the y-axis, and the .y-axis with the transversal from A to B. We have drawn AB 13" long, and we choose m 2 = 8, hence the equations of our scales are (Fig. 430)

= 8Q,

8 A,

13

P+i

The A- and L-scales are carried on opposite sides of their common axis. The six points P u P2 P6 of the P scale are easily constructed by means of the table
,

P.
s:

8.67"

6.5"

1 3.7"

\ 2.6"

^
0.52"

^?
0.2"

86

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

find the value of

Chap. IV
fol-

To

A when

/,

W,

L, and
(/,

are known, proceed as

lows: join the point of intersection of

W) and
Cb

the transversal

AB with

Q ?

<o
\i i VJ

fj_
(I)

M M
8

MOM E AIT
At-

OF INTERTIA

IN INCH UNITS.

Art. 45

CHART OF EQUATION

(VI)

87

= 100,000 lbs., L = 25 ft., and P = when / = 1000 inch units, is supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, then A = the beam
44.

i.e.,

All the equations charted thus far General considerations. under the general forms can be brought

1.17 in.

fi(u)+Mv) +/()+
Most

=Mt)

and fi(u)'Mv)-Mw)

=/

(/).

of the formulas of engineering can be written in one of these forms. have used various methods of charting these equations, employing In the case of three variables, the underlogarithmic and natural scales. lying principle has been that one index line will cut the scales in three

We

values satisfying the equation.

lying principle has been that

In the case of four variables, the underlines intersecting

two index

on an auxiliary

axis will cut the scales in four values satisfying the equation; this

method

has been extended to equations involving more than four variables. In the remainder of this chapter, we shall chart various forms of the above equations by methods requiring the use of parallel or perpendicuindex lines. In Chapter V, we shall consider some equations which cannot be brought under either of the above forms, but which may be charted by methods requiring the use of parallel or perpendicular index lines or by methods involving the construction of curved axes. We shall brief discussion of various combined methods. end Chapter V with a
lar

(VI)

EQUATION OF FORM /i(u) :/.() -/,(w) :/(). PARALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR INDEX LINES.

45.

Chart of equation (VI).

Consider
that

two

pairs of intersecting
is

axes

AX,
Y
.

AY and BZ, BT so constructed

BZ

either parallel to or

Fig. 45a.

Fig. 456.

coincides with
(Figs. 45a, b).

AX

and

BT

is

either parallel to or coincides with

A Y,

Draw two

parallel index lines,

one meeting

AX and A Y,

and the other meeting

BZ

and

B T in

11,

v,

w, and q respectively, so that

88

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

x,

Chap. IV

Au =

Av =

y,

Bw =

z,
:

uAv and wBt, we have x

the scales

and Bq = t. Then, in the similar triangles y = z t. Hence if AX, A Y, BZ, BT carry

:

mi/i(w),

y
:

nhftiv),

z
ra 4

ra 3 /3 (w),

ra 4 /4 (g),

respectively,

where m\
:

m% =

then
:

becomes

fi(u)

/a (i>)

= f (w)
3

:/4 (g),

which

will cut

equation (VI), and a pair of parallel index lines, (, v) and (w, g) out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying this equation. A pair of celluloid triangles will aid in reading the chart.
is

so constructed that

and BZ, BT Consider again two pairs of intersecting axes AX, and B T is perpendicular BZ is perpendicular to Draw two perpendicular index lines, one meeting to A Y (Figs. 45c, d).

AY

AX

Z Y

u
Fig. 45c.

X,

^L
q-

M /
W
A
Fig.
45</.

\
\

AX
x
:

and

AY
:

and the other meeting

spectively, so that

Au =

x,

Av =

y,

BZ and BT in u, Bw = z, and 5g =

v,
/.

w,

and q

re-

Then again

our axes carry the scales described above, a pair of perpendicular index lines, (u, v) and (w, q), will cut out values of u, v, w, and q satisfying equation (VI). A sheet of celluloid with two perpen-

t,

and

if

dicular lines scratched on

under side will aid in reading the chart. If the equation involves only three variables, i.e., f\(u) = f2 (v) -^(w), 1; here the g-scale is the equation can be written /i(w) f2 (v) = /3 (w) replaced by a fixed point through which the second index line must always
its
:

pass.
It
is

illustrated in Figs. 45a,

evident that there are other positions for the axes than those b, c, d that will satisfy the conditions imposed by

the problem.

Art. 46

WEIGHT OF GAS FLOWING THROUGH AN ORIFICE

Weight
of gas flowing

46.

through an

orifice.

tv

TT

is the weight of gas in pounds flowing per second, d is the orifice in inches, v is the velocity of the gas in ft. per sec, and specific volume in cu. ft. of the gas in the orifice.

Here, Trr?' 576 V the diameter of

CpV

TT

V is

the

[I!

111 M U VOLUMEtV) SPECIF/C

I I

5
I

II

I I

CU.FT.

*NJ. v

DISCHARGE OF GAS THROUGH AN ORIFICE. 2 v w* Av _ 'TTd

144 V

576 V

Fig. 46.
If

we

write the equation

w d =
2
:

the form (VI).

Fig. 456.

We

shall build

up a chart
z

183.5 ^> we have an equation ol similar to that represented by

The

scales are

= m

x w,

= m 2d

2
,

m v,
3

= w4

(183.5 V)>

and the following table exhibits the choice

Scale

of

moduli

Limits

Modulus

w
d
v

o to 0.4 0.2 to 2 o to 3000

to

200

9
47.

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Armature
or
field

Chap. IV

^2 234.5 + t2 Here Ri and R 2 are resistances in ohms and h and h are the initial and final temperatures Centigrade in an armature or field winding.

winding

from

fll

tests.

234.5

t!

Resista nee

\
IN

\JR,) a t

Initial

Tempera t ure
C. E. Lansil

TEMPERATURES

AN ARMATURE WINDING FROM TSTS

R t _ 234.S * t2 R, 234. S*t,

Fig. 47.

We
x

have an equation of the form (VI) and we

shall build

up a chart

similar to that represented

by
z

Fig. 45c.

The

scales are
t

= miRu

mzRi,

(234.5

+ h),

= m

(234.5

+ h),

and the following table exhibits the choice of moduli:

Scale

Art. 48

LAMfi

FORMULA FOR THICK HOLLOW CYLINDERS

91

We

of intersection,

note that the points h = o and h = o are 23.45 in. from the point B, of the z- and /-axes, which are respectively perpen-

dicular to the x-

and

y-axes.

But

it is

a simple matter to arrange the

axes so that the h- and ^-scales are within close range of the Ri- and R 2 scales. The (R it R2) and (/1, k) index lines must be perpendicular. The
chart
ti

given in Fig. 47, and the index lines drawn show that when 65 h = 33, and Ri = 3.04 ohms, then R 2 = 2.71 ohms. 48. Lame formula for thick hollow cylinders subjected to internal
is
,

rj2

pressure.

-7?

f-p
f 7

_i_ -,

Here, D
sq. in.,
is is

is

the exterior diameter of the cylin-

der in inches, d
fiber stress in

is

the interior diameter of the cylinder in inches,

is

the

pounds per
It

and p

is

the internal pressure in pounds

per sq.

in.

The formula
cylinders.
is

extensively used in the design of thick

also used in

pump

and press

ordnance work on big guns, to

determine what

known

as the elastic resistance curve of the steel at

various sections of the gun from breech to muzzle.

We
x

have an equation of the form (VI) and we

shall build

up a chart

similar to that represented

by
2
,

Fig. 45^.
z

The

scales are
I

= mid

2
,

mD
2

= m3 (/ of

p),

(/

+ p),

and the following table exhibits the choice

Scale

moduli

r-Si

ga

Art. 49

CHART FOR EQUATION

(VII)

93
inches apart, and anfirst

Consider a pair of parallel axes

other pair of parallel axes
pair;

AX

and BY,
(Fig.

k\

CZ and DT,

k 2 inches apart, parallel to the

49a.)

AB

and

CD

are also parallel.

Draw two

parallel

index

lines,

one intersecting

AX

and

BY

and the other intersecting CZ

-/-

-""^jY

X
Fig. 49a.

Fig. 49&.

and

DT in
t.

u, v, w,

and

q respectively, so that
parallel to

Au =

x,

Bv =
:

y,

Cw =
Then

z,

Dq =
Hence

Draw vE and qF

the similar triangles

if

and CD vEu and qFw, we have

AB

respectively.

in
ki

k\

AX, BY, CZ,

DT
y
t

carry the scales

x
z

= i/i(m), = m fz{w),
2
:

= mi/j(), = m / (g),
2 4

where Wi

kx

= mi

&2
ki

then
z

=
3

kz

becomes
/i()

~h(v)

=/ (w) -/ (g),
4

and a pair

of parallel index lines, (u, v)

(w, g), will cut

out values of

u, v, w,

and and q

satisfying this equation.

If

CZ and

DT

are

instead of parallel to
is

Ax and

drawn perpendicular By, and CD

Fig. 49c.

perpendicular to (Fig. 496), then a pair of perpendicular index lines, (u, v) and
(w, q), will cut

AB

out values of

u,

v,

w,

and

q satisfying the equation.

represent the equation fi(u) f2 (v) = f3 (w) -f- /4(g), the w- and gscales must be laid off in opposite directions. If the axes are arranged

To

in the

form of a square, or

if

the second pair of axes coincide with the

;

first

pair (Fig. 49c) then k x

k2

hence, mi

= m 2 and

all

four scales have the

94

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

.

Chap. IV

same modulus
of chart
is

Because of the restriction on the choice of moduli, this type not a very useful one. We shall only give a single illustration.

to

Uj

FR/CT/ON LOSS / N P/ PES f v2 LOST H EAD = 2cfg

I

20 -

Fig. 50.

50.

Friction loss in flow of water.

ft.,

fW 1^. H = 7- Here 2 dg
is

/ is

the length

of pipe in

v
is

is

the velocity in

ft.
ft.

per sec, d

the internal diameter of

pipe in

ft.,

the lost head in

due

to friction,

is

the friction factor,

and g =

32.2.

Art. so
If

FRICTION LOSS IN FLOW OF WATER

replace g

95

we

by

32.2, /by 0.02 (for clean cast-iron pipes)

and express

in inches,

our formula becomes

_
or
(log

0.02

lv

(12)
'

268.33
/

H_v

2 (32.2) d

d'

H + log 268.33)
form
(VII).

log

2 log v

log d

an equation

of the

We

shall arrange the axes as in Fig. 49c.

The
x

scales are
(log

= mi

-\-

log 268.33),

Wilogl,

= mi

(2 logy),

= mi\ogd>

The

following table exhibits the limits of the variables

and the equations

of the scales?

Scale

96
4.
t

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

=
pd
-,.

Chap. IV

Thickness,

1,

in inches ci a pipe of

d inches internal diameter (o to 60) with a fiber stress of/ pounds

to withstand a pressure of

p pounds per

sq. in. (o to 100)

per sq.
5.

in. (o

to 15,000).
.

P = -y

Approximate

formula for flange rivets in a plate girder;

is

the

effective

depth of the girder (20 to no), V is the vertical shear in pounds (50,000 to 275,000), R is the rivet value in pounds (1000 to 20,000), p is the pitch of the rivets in
inches
6.
(1

to 9).

ft

-J2J7

M Intensity of stress,

/, in

pounds per
(3 to 20)

sq. in. (750 to 1300) in the outer

fiber of

a rectangular beam, h inches in depth

due to a bending moment of

7-

M inch-pounds.
intensity,

and

b inches in

breadth

(2

to 16)

2 ir/r2 -jj

Field

H,

in lines per sq.

cm. at a point on a

line

through the center and normal to the plane of a circular turn of wire of negligible section conducting a current of / abamperes (o to 1000), the radius of the circular turn being
r

cm.
8.

(4 to 12)

and the distance

2
.

of the point from the wire being d cm. (4

force;
is

V2

to 12

V2).
is

wv C =
ft.

Centrifugal
(1

is

the weight in pounds

ft.

(1

to 150), v

the

velocity in

per sec.

to 50), r

the radius of the path in

(0.1 to 10), g

32.2,

is

the centrifugal force in pounds.

9-

P = wh

t)
ft.

Resistance to earth compression; w

is

is

the weight of the

4>

earth in pounds per cu.

(0 to 130), h

the depth in

ft.

(q to 15),

is

the angle of
ft.

repose of the earth (15

(o to 35.ooo).

to 6o),

is

the ultimate load on the earth in pounds per sq.

10.

Apply the methods

of this chapter to charting

some

of the formulas of the

combination chart, Art. 25.

n. Apply the methods

and
9, at

of this chapter to charting the formulas in Exercises 7, 8,

the end of Chapter III.

CHAPTER

V.
(Continued).

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

(Vm) EQUATION OF

FORM / (u) +/
x

Mw)
Mq)

2 (t?)

PAR-

ALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR INDEX LINES.

51.

Chart for equation (VIII).

in

Consider two
AT in

parallel axes,

BY, drawn
where

opposite directions, and two intersecting axes,

AZ

AX and and AT,

AB.

AZ

coincides with

AX and A T coincides with

AZ
and
u, v, w,

the transversal

(Fig. 51a.)

Draw two

parallel index lines,

one intersecting

AX and BY

and the other intersecting

and q

respectively, s*

2
Fig. 51a.

X
Fig. 51 b.

that

Au =
lines,

x,

Bv =

index

and let and Awq, we have

:

Draw BC parallel to these y, Aw = z, Aq = AB = k inches. Then in the similar triangles ACB

t.
:

Now

if

AX, = mi/i(),
:

AC AB = Aw Aq BY, AZ, and AT carry

y
:

or

+y
3

t.

the scales
z

= mi/a (),
then
i

= m f (w),
3

= m^Mq),
:/4 (g),

where

nil

= m
3,
:

4,

&

becomes
07

/i()

+/ (w) = / (w)
a
3

&
and any pair
values of u,
v,

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

of parallel index lines, (u, v)

Chap. V

and

w, q satisfying this equation.

(w, q), will cut the axes in This type of chart is illus-

trated in Art. 52.

In Fig. 516,

AX and BY are
:Mq).

drawn

in the

same

direction,

and hence

AC =
when

that this arrangement serves to represent equation (VIII) fi(u) and f2 (v) are opposite in sign, or an equation of the form

y, so

fi(u)-Mv)=Mw)
although

In the construction of the chart for equation (VIII), we note the following: (1) The u-, w-, and g-scales are all laid off from the same origin,

we

could have constructed

AZ

parallel to

AX

and

AT parallel

(2) The u- and vsame direction according as fi(u) and /2(f) have like or unlike signs. (3) The u- and vscales have the same modulus, Wi, and the moduli and the length of the transversal, k, are connected by the relation k Wim 4 /m 3 (4) The (u, v) and (w, q) index lines are always parallel.

to

AB

without affecting the relations of the

scales.

scales are constructed in opposite directions or in the

If

the equation (VIU) has the form /i(w)

it

+ fc{v) = fi(u)
in a similar
,

:fi(q),

con-

taining only three variables,

can be charted

manner.

Here

the w-scale coincides with the w-scale, so that the (w

in values of u,
in Art. 53.

q)

index line coinillustrated

cides with the (u, v) index line; hence a single index line cuts the scales
v,

and q satisfying the equation.

This type

is

AX and BY drawn in the same and two intersecting axes DZ and DT, where DZ is perpendicular to AX and DT is perpendicular to the transversal AB (Fig. 51c). Draw two perpendicular index lines, one intersecting AX and BY and
Consider again two parallel axes,
directions,

Art. 52

MOMENT OF

INERTIA OF CYLINDER

99

the other intersecting

DZ
z,

and

DT
/.

in u,

v,

w,

and

q respectively, so that
to the first of these

Au =

Bv = y, Dw = Then the lines. index

x,

Dq =

Draw BC parallel
and Hence
or

triangles

ACB

Dwq

are similar (since their

sides are

mutually perpendicular).

AC AB = Dw
:

Dq,

=* z

Now

if

AX, BY, DZ, and

mji(u),
:

y
:

DT carry = mj (v),
2

the scales
z

m f (w),
3 3

= m f {q),
A A

where Wi
x

=
y
:

m
z

i}

then
/

becomes

fi(u)

f2 (v)

=f

(w) :/4 (g)

and any

pair of perpendicular index lines, (u, v)

v,

and

{w, q), will cut the

axes in values of u,
trated in Art. 54.

w, q satisfying this equation.

This type

is illus-

In Fig. Sid,

AX and BY are drawn

2 (t>)

in opposite directions,

and hence

AC =
(VIII)

y,

so

that this arrangement serves to represent equation

fM +/
h
is

=Mw)
inertia

:Mq).
of

52.

Moment

of

cylinder.

2 (3 r

).

Here,

Wis the total weight of a right circular

in inches,

cylinder in pounds, r
i"

is

the radius

the height in inches, and

is

the

moment

of inertia in

pounds-(inch)2 units of the cylinder about an axis through its center of gravity and perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Writing the equation as 3 r2 h? = 12 I W, we have an equation form (VIII), and we shall follow Fig. 51a in the construction of the of

chart.

Here
x

= mi
=

2 (3 r ),

= mji2

=m

(12 f),

= m W.
A

Choosing k
Scale
r

15",

we have

the following table:

Limits

Modulus

Equation

Length

h I

40-i

MOMENTOF INERTIA OF RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER.

I = %(3r* + h*)

Art. S3
53.

BAZIN'S

HYDRAULIC FORMULA
v

IOI

where c

Bazin formula for velocity of flow in open channels, 87 =

.

c Vrs,
r is

0.552 +
ft.

Here, m

is

the coefficient of roughness,

the

Vr
(area divided

hydraulic radius in

by wetted perimeter),
c.

5 is

the slope

of the water surface,

and

v is the velocity of flow in ft.

per sec.

We

shall first build a chart for the coefficient,

The equation can

be written
0.552

r Vr

87 Vr + m = -T-,
,

or

V r+ m
/,

=
Vr
87

-,

which

is

the special form of (VIII) where the w-scale coincides with the

w-scale,

and hence only one index

y
15

line is required.

Hence
t

r = miVr,
=

= wd( m
we have

\
,

r = miVr,

/-55 mAz 2 c \)
V

V0.552/

87

Choosing k
Scale

in.,

the following table:

-2
-1.9
-i.a
-1.7

-1.6

-1.5
<0

-1.4

-1.3

-1.2

1.1

-1.0

k
-.9

A$

-a

&

-.7

-.6

-.5

-.4

iA

-.3

-.2
.1

COEFFICIENT IN BAZI N'S HYDRAULIC FORM ULA

87
0.552+{rr
102
Fig. 53.

A*T. 54

RESISTANCE OF RIVETED STEEL PLATE

I03

l'/4

v,

-l'/2

\ O

RESISTANCE TO TEARINC
1

r
i
1

(R) IN
i

THOUSANDS OF LBS.
1

RESISTANCE OF RIVETED STEEL PLATE. TEARING BETWEEN RIVET HOLES.

(P-D)tft = R
,

ft=

55000

Fig. 54.

104

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap V

Choosing k
Scale

10

in.,

we have

the following table:

Limits

Modulus
mi =
nil

D
R
t

up up up up

to 6 to 2 to 200,000 to
I

= =

2
1.65
3

nil

=mk=
nil

8.25

Art. ss

CHART FOR EQUATION

(IX)

105
3

Now

if

AX

carries the scales x

Wi/i(), xi

mj (w)

and

A Y carries

the scale y

= m 2j

{v),

then

and any index

lowing: (1)

nil

W2 = Wi 4
,

xi Xi

becomes
/iO)
u, v,

/2O)

jiiw)

line cuts

out values of

satisfying this equation.

In the construction of the chart for equation (IX)

we
2 2

note the

fol-

The

x-

and y-axes

other and they carry the

sines are in the ratio Wj

may make any convenient angle scales x = Wi/i() and y = m j {v).

with each
(2)

The

z-axis divides the angle between the x:

and y-axes into two angles whose

:

2,

i.e.,

AD Dw = m
and

ra 2

(3)

The

x-axis
z-

also carries the scale X\

ntif3 (w),

this scale

is

projected on the

axis by marked with the same value

If ?Mi

lines parallel to the y-axis, the points

and

their projections being

of w.

Aw AD
:

= m = sin
2,

then
(180 v

AZ bisects the angle XA Y = a) sin -, or

:

(Fig. 556).

Then

= Aw =
.

sin
.

sm-"
2

a a

2 sin cos 2 2
.

a
Xi

X\
.

sin

a
2

nil

2 cos

fz{iv)

In this case the w-scale

may
y

be constructed on AZ, and the

2

scales are

Wi/i(m),

= mif
1

(y),

= m

\2 cos

^J

fs (w).

Finally,

if

we
x

take a

20

our scales are simply

mifi(u),

rai/2 (z>),

niif3 (w).
is

The method
extension of the

of charting the second

form of equation (IX)

method employed

for charting the first form.

merely an Consider

the case of four variables,

/i(0

+ Mv) + Mw)
'

f4 (q)

By
t,

introducing an auxiliary variable,

write
A and 7 t
l

we can

/i()

"7TT hiv)

11 =

7 t

Mw)

Mq)
by
Fig. 55c.

We
a

chart each of these equations

/-scale

means

of three concurrent scales with

common

lines are necessary,

and

g-scales.

which need not be graduated. (Fig. 55c.) Two index one cutting the u- and f-scales and the other the wThe (, v) and (w, g) index lines must intersect on the /-axis,

io6

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Equations of the form (IX) are not very We shall only give one illustration.
56.

Chap.

common
-

in engineering prac-

tice.

Focal lengths of a lens.

/+F
-*
-?.

Here,
,

is

the focal

distance of the object,

is

the focal distance of the image, and

is

the

principal focal length of the lens.

We
are

shall take

the bisector of this angle.

our x- and y-axes at an angle of 120 and the z-axis as Let m\ = 0.5, then the equations of our scales

0.5 /,

0.5 F,

0.5 p.
line

that

The completed chart is given by Fig. 56. when / = 6 and F = 9, then p = 3.6.

The index

drawn shows

0)--

4-

<#
fr
l

^:

A
s
Another formula which

/_

K^W f
r

f
Fig. 56.

may be
R2

charted in the same

1

way

is

R\

R3

where
R3,
.

R
. .

is

the circuit resistance of a circuit containing resistances Ri, R2,

in parallel.

connected

(X)

EQUATION OF THE FORM ^(u) +/,() STRAIGHT AND CURVED SCALES

./,()

o/4 (),

in

(We note that the variable w occurs 57. Chart for equation (X). both members of the equation.) Consider two parallel axes and BY and a curved axis CZ (Fig. 57). Draw any index line cutting these

AX

ixes in u,
in

v, and w respectively. Draw wD parallel to AX, cuttinsr AB D, and draw wE and vF parallel to AB. The triangles uEw and wFv

Art. 58

STORM WATER RUN-OFF FORMULA

107
if

are similar, hence

Bv =

y,

AD
x

Eu Fw = Ew: Fv = AD DB. = 21, Dw = z and AB = k, we have

:
:

Therefore,

Au =

x,

=
x

Zi

Z\

Zi

or

(fc

Zi)

+ Ziy

kz,

or

+k

Z\

Zi

and
x

if

Wi/i(w),

;y

= m f2 (v),
2

RZ

k
2

Z\

7U 2

= Wi/
Zi

4 (w),

this relation

becomes
Wife

/i(w)

+ j {v)

/3 (w) = /4 (w).

Solving for

Zi

and

we

get
Zi

= =

W1/3O)

+W
2

/s(w),

mim
Wi/3 (w)

_fi{w).
2

+ ra

Hence
x
l

to chart equation (X) pro-

ceed as follows: Construct the scales

= m fi(u),
axes

=m f
2

(v)

on two parextending
If

allel

AX

and

BY

~-^W
.J*

in the

same

direction.

AB
Zi

inches, construct the points of the

curved scale
to

CZ by
off

assigning values

w, and laying

along

AB,

=
Fig. 57-

AD =
allel to

f3 (w), and par-

AX,

= Dw =

7WiW 2

mj (w)
3

-f

fi(w),
2

and marking the point thus

found with the corresponding value of w.

the three scales in values of u,
v,

Then any index

line will cut

and

satisfying equation (X).

chart the equation fx {u) f2 (v) /3 (w) = fi(w), we construct the scales x = Wi/i(w) and y = m 2 f2 (v) in opposite directions.

To

Storm water run-off formula, q + Nq* = P. This equation storm water run-off formula given by C. B. Buerger, in the Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.. Vol. LXXVIII, p. 1139, where iVand P are quantities which depend upon the sewer run, the area, and the rainfall, and q
58.
arises in the
is

the run-off in cu.

If

ft.

per sec. per acre.

we

write the equation

P
Z\

Nq* =

q,

we have an equation
,1
2

of the

form (X), with the scales

x

= m\P,

= m

N,

m^k
miq z

+w

=
1

raim 2

m\q^

-f-

mt

Let P, N, and q vary from o to

10,

and take Wi =

m =
2

and k =

14".

io8

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Then our
x
y/v
scales are

Chap.

= P,

= N,

Z\

14 g ?

2*+

The

and BY are drawn in opposite and the length of AB is 14 in. (Fig. 58a). We assign values to q, and on AB we lay off AD = z u and parallel to AX we lay off DD' = 2 and mark the point D'
axes
directions,

AX

with the value assigned to

points D'

q.

We

join the

by a smooth curve, thus giving a

curved scale for the variable q. Any index line will then cut out values of P, N, and q satisfying the equation. The completed chart is given by Fig. 58b, and the index line drawn = 5, then q = 1 cu. ft. per sec. per acre. shows that when P = 6 and

EXPRESSION

IN

BUERGER RUN-OFF FORM U LA.

Fig. 586.

Akt. 59

FRANCIS FORMULA FOR A CONTRACTED WEIR

I09

33

30-

-/

IS

-25

-3.5

*S

FRA/VC/S FORM ULA. CONTRACTED WEIR.

Q =3.33 ( B-O.2 H)
Fig. 59.

\-s

H$

HO

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Francis
is

Chap.

Here, Q
is

59.

= 3.33 (B 0.2 H) formua for a contracted weir. the quantity of water flowing over weir in cu. ft. per sec.,

the width of the weir in

ft.

ft.,

and

Hk B

is

the head over the crest of the

weir in
If

we

write the equation

3.33

H*B = 0.666 H* we
= m^Q, y =
Let

have an

equation of the form (X), with the scales x

z

m
0.3,

(3.33 B),Zi
5,

3
=

to
/-.

(0.666 if 2 ).
If

5
v

vary from o to

from o to
&
7

8,

and Q from o
1

t,^.

we choose
x

12,

our scales are x

axes

0.3 (A

t> = 2B,z

^ = Hi +
I2
=

m =

w =
2

0.6,

and
.ffs

0.4

H% +

The
of

AX and BY are drawn

We

in opposite directions,

and the length

H, and on AB we lay off AD = z u z, and mark the point thus found with the corresponding value of H. We join the points by a smooth Any index line curve, thus giving a curved scale for the variable H. will then cut the scales in values of B, H, and Q satisfying the equation. The completed chart is given in Fig. 59, and the index line drawn shows = 1.2 ft., then Q = 12. 1 cu. ft. per sec. that when B = 3 ft., and 60. The solution of cubic and quadratic equations.

AB

is

12 in.

assign values to

and

parallel to

BY we

lay off

DD'

w + pw +
z

q =

o,

iv
first

-j-

pw +
3
,

o,
3

iv z

niv 1

+ pw +

q =

0.

Let us consider
the equation as g The scales are

the cubic equation

-f-

?y

w -\- pw + g = o. Writing = w we have an equation of the form (X).

Z\

x
If

m\q,

mop,

kmi
;

miw

w,

-\-

mi

miw 2 i w, m\w -j- m 2

;

we

and k =

allow p and q to vary from 10", our scales are

10

to

+10, and choose Wi =

2

m =
2

q,

p,

zx

1
7>

ow

= -

tv

W+

I
f

In Fig. 60a, the - and g-scales are constructed on

starting at

XX' and YY

A and B
.

respectively.
,

Assigning positive values to w,

Zi

viz.,

o, 0.1, 0.2,
z,

10,

we compute
,

DD' =

and mark the

points,

and D' thus found with the corresponding

and

and lay

off

AD =

zx

values of w.

draw a smooth curve through these points, getting the curved axis AZ. Then any index line will cut the three scales in values of q, iv, and p satisfying the equation, or an index line joining p and q will
cut the curve in w, a root of the cubic equation.

We

We
YY'
iv
3
-f-

note that the line through

in

(p
-f-

pw

A (q = 6) and D' (w = w ) will cut = Wo since these values of q, w, and p satisfy the equation q = o. This observation allows us to construct the points of
2 )

Art. 60

THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

III

the curved scale as follows:

OnAB, we

layoff the scale

Z\

= 10 w/(w-\-\),

mark

the points with the corresponding value of w, and

vertical

through these points. Let the point D be marked w through this point. Then the line joining
(p

draw the verticals and let DD' be the

(q

o)

with

2 xc'o )

will

cut

DD'

in

a point of

the curve which

value wq.
the w-scale

must be marked with the Thus the points of the scale

Interpolation on
either along

are rapidly constructed.

may
by

be

made

the curve or,

Fig.
of

projection, along
for the cubic
is

AB.

The complete curve

in

drawn

6ob (curve marked

it

"C").

By

means

we can
I.

find the positive roots

of the equation.

Example

Solve the equation

in

+2w
p =2 and

6
q

= o. The index line = 6 cuts the curve

joining

w =
Fig. 60a.
If p and q lie aw'; the equation becomes

1.46 (Fig. 606).

The negative roots of the equation can be gotten by letting w = w' and
finding the positive roots of the resulting equation.

beyond the
w' 3 -lie

limits

10 and +10,
o,

let

w =

a2

P w + -5 = a*
'

or w' 3

+ p'w' + q' =
equation
3

o;

choose a so that p' and q >

within the limits

10 and +10.
the
3

Example
let

Solve
get w'

w
9000 a6

210

9000
let

=
a

o.

If

we
and

w =

aw'
3

we

210 az

Now

10,

w' 2.1 w' 9 = o. The index line joining p = 2.1 and = 9 cuts the curve in w' = 2.42; hence w = 24.2 (Fig. 606). q We may similarly build an alignment chart for the quadratic equation w + pw + q = o. The method of construction of the curved axis

we have

from the construction of the curved axis for the w3 so that DD' = z = w2 /(w +1). Again we note that the points A (q = o), D' (w = w ), and E (p = w ) must lie on a straight line, since these values of q, w, and p satisfy the
for this equation differs

cubic only in that

replaces

equation

-f-

pw

o.

We may

use this fact in constructing the

(curve
of the

The complete curve is drawn in Fig. 606 marked "Q"); by means of it we can find the positive roots
points of the curve.

equation.

Example
line joining

3.

Solve the equation

q

w2

5.15

w+

2.42

0.

The

index

p 5.15 and

2.42 cuts the curve in

w =

0.52 and

w =

4.65.

10

EQUATIONS. ALIGNMENT CHART FOR SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC AND CUBIC

112
Fig. 6o&.

Art. 60

THE SOLUTION OF CUBIC AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

cubic equation

113

The complete
w'
chart.

w + nw
3

formed into the equation

,

p'w'

+
it

g'

pw + q = o may be trans= o by the substitution w =

-f-

or

we may proceed

to solve

directly

by means

of

an alignment

In the construction of the curved axis

we have
UP

AD = z = low1'
x

and DD' =
~

= -w

-\-

nw

-\-

-\- 1

w-\-\)

+ n \ - w Jr\ "
'

In Fig. 60c,

let

the curve

and the curve

AC
1

to the cubic

AQ correspond to the quadratic w pw + q = o w + pw Then q = o (where n = o)

2

-\-

-f-

DQ= - w vf +
Thus
tance
starting at

DC =
,

w
w
Cn

DD' =
1

-\-

DC +

n- DQ.
dis-

C we

simply lay

off,

along DD', n times the fixed

DQ

to arrive at the point

of the curve corresponding to the

com-

plete cubic equation.

off

We
C

thus rapidly lay

from Co in either direction a uniform scale with interval equal to DQ, and get
the points
C-3,
.

d, C2

3,

C_i,

C_ 2

corresponding

to

the

curves

This

-1, -2, -3, .... 3 done along the various verticals and for the values of w for which n = o was plotted, and the curves for n = 10 to = 10 are drawn. For intermediate values of n we interpolate between two
n
I,

2,

is

curves.
Fig. 606 gives the complete chart for

the

equation

w + nw + pw
3 2

-\-

o.

Thus

the index line joining p and q; this cuts the w-curve in the required root. To find negative roots, and to find the roots when p and q lie beyond the limits 10 and +10, we

to solve this equation,

we draw

proceed as in the case of the simple cubic Example 4. Solve the equation w 3
index line joining
w>

-f2

pw

o.

+w

2.1

3.2

o.

The
1

p = 2.1 and

= 3.2

cuts the curve n

in

1.6.

=
If

Example 5. Solve the equation w3 96 w2 721.879 w 7,826.051 o (this equation occurs in the problem of the equilibrium of arches). we let w = aw' = 10 w', the equation becomes w' 3 -f- 9.6 w' 2 7.22 w' 7.83 = o and the index line joining p = 7.22 and q = 7.83 cuts the

curve n

9.6 in w'

0.59.

Hence w =

5.9.

We
wm pw

+ +

can similarly plot alignment charts for any trinomial equation pw n + 2 = o and for the fourth degree equation w4 + nw2 +
q

o.

U4
(XI)

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

Chap.

ADDITIONAL FORMS OF EQUATIONS. METHODS.*

Chart for equation of form
/i(u)

COMBINED

61.
is

+ /4O) Hv)
'

Hw)

This form
AX
A
Y, so that

a generalization of equation (IX).

and

AY
x,

and
v,

a curved axis

CZ
and
:

(Fig. 61).

Consider two intersecting axes Let any transversal cut the

axes in u,

and
y,

respectively,

and draw
2.
:

wD

parallel to

An = uDw

Bv =

AD

x',

Dw =
Dit
z
:

Then

in the similar triangles,

and nAv, we have

Dw Av =

An, or
x

=
if

1
:

z/x'
1

x,

J_

Now

x
x'

= =
=

ntifi(u),

y
z 1

=
=

m^Jiiv),

niif3 (w),

m\

Mw),

or
tion

nhfa(w)

fi(w),

this equa-

becomes
I

/4(W)

Fig. 61.

Thus, the w-scale

x'

is

a smooth curve through the points determined

by

mifz(w) and z = mojziiv) fi(w) and marked with the corresponding values of w. Any index line will cut the scales in values of u, v, w satisfy-

ing the equation.

62.

Chart for equation of form /i(u)

/

+/

2 (i>)

-fsiw)

= fi(q).

We
of

introduce an auxiliary variable

(1)

and write
and
(2)

Mv)

/i(w)

Mtc)

= Mq).

Equation

(1)

has the form

(III)

and may be plotted by the method

Equation (2) has the Art. 32, but the /-scale need not be graduated. form (I) and may be plotted by the method of Art. 23. The position of
the scales
intersect
is

illustrated in Fig. 62.

The

(v,

w) and

(u, q)

index lines must

on the /-axis. 63. Chart for equation of form/^u) /4(g) troducing an auxiliary variable /, we write

-\-fi(v)

fz{w)

1.

In-

(1)

Mu) Mq) =

and

(2)

*+/.()

/.(w)

I.

Art. 32.

(1) has the form (III) and can be plotted by the method of Equation (2) is a special case of the form (X), where fi(w) = I, and can be plotted by the method of Art. 57. The /-scale is not gradu-

Equation

* These forms, involving three or four and are therefore treated very brieflv.

variables, occur rarely in engineering practice,

(Vrt.

65

CHART FOR EQUATION OF FORM

The
position of the scales
is

(XI)

"5
The
(u, g)

ated.
(v,

illustrated in Fig. 63.

/-axis.

and

w) index lines must intersect on the

^>*

Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.

64.

Chart for equation of form

/,

/4(g)

I
,

/x(u)

^Mv)
7

Hw)

Introducing

an auxiliary variable
(1)

we

write
*

-tt\

anci

(2)

Equation
Art. 32.

(1)

has the form

(III)

and

may

Equation
of Art. 55.

(2) is of

the form (IX) and

is

be plotted by the method of may be plotted by the

method
on the

position of the scales.

/-axis.

The /-scale The (u,

not graduated. Fig. 64 illustrates the q) and (v, w) index lines must intersect

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

65.

Chart for equation of form -rrk

ji(*)
/,

+'ttt = Mv)
j

Introducing an

auxiliary variable

we

write

(1)

and

(a)

+ 3555-1.

n6
Equation
Art. 32.
(i)

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

has the form
is

Chap. V

Equation

The common
is

(III) and can be plotted by the method of a special case of the form charted in Art. 61. (2) The position of the scales /-scale need not be graduated.

illustrated in Fig. 65.

/-axis.

The

(u, g)

and

(v,

w) index lines must intersect

on the
66.

We introduce a new variable

(1)

Chart for equation of form /i(u) -/2(g) +fs(v) -fi(w)

/,

=f (w).
6

and write
(2)
t

h(u)Mq) =
has the form

and
(III)

+ f>(v) f*(w)

-/()

may be charted by the method ot (1) Equation (2) has the form (X) and may be charted by the Art. 32. method of Art. 57. The /-axis need not be graduated. The position The (u, q) and (v, w) index lines of the scales is illustrated in Fig. 63. must intersect on the /-axis.
Equation

and

^S^

Fig. 66.

Fig. 67.
is

An
nels,

interesting application of this type

given

by D'Ocagne.*

He

considers Bazin's formula! for the velocity of flow of water in open chan*

Vrs,

where

=
O.552

m
Vr

We

can combine these equations into one equation,

v=

Ws m 0.552 +
87
87

or

87 VI
v

m = 0.552
r

Vr

._

Vr
/

Here
* Traite de
t

V7
v

and

=
r

Vr
in Art. 51.

)-

We

Nomographic, p. 233. have charted this formula by means of two charts

Art. 67

CHART FOR EQUATION OF FORM

(XI)

117

Fig. 66 illustrates the positions of the scales.

scales

By

placing the

on the same

axis,

we

get a very compact chart.

The
-

m- and s(y, s) and

(m,

index lines must intersect on the /-axis. 67. Chart for equation of form f^u) -/2 (g)
r)

/6 (u?).

We introduce an auxiliary variable

+/3O)

Mw) = Mq) +
J

/,

and write

(1) /i()

fM

= Mq)

and

(2)

/3 f /4 f

+ = /,(/).
of

Both equations have the form (X) and can be plotted by the method

Fig. 67 Art. 57 with a common /-axis, which need not be graduated. the positions of the scales. The (u, q) and (v, w) index lines illustrates

must

intersect

on the

/-axis.

EXERCISES
Construct charts for the following formulas.
limiting values for the variables.
tional exercises will
1.

The numbers in parenthesis suggest These limits may be extended if necessary. Addibe found at the end of this chapter.
-\-

ir/i V =
ft.

(J

D-

d-).
is

Volume of a cask or buoy;

ft.

is

the diameter of the

ft.

base in

(o to 10),

the diameter of the middle section in

the volume in cu.
(o to 800).

(o to 10),

is

the

height in
2.

ft.

(o to 10),

is

ft. per sec.

ft.

Francis' formula for the discharge, Q, in cu. 3.33 b [(H + hy A 5 ]. over a rectangular, suppressed weir b ft. in width (2 to 15) due to a head of over the crest (0.5 to 1.5), considering the velocity head h ft. (o to 0.1) due to the

velocity of approach.
3.

Sp. gr.
is

r;r-

;.

Here, w

is

the weight in pounds of the solid in air (o to

gr. is

100), w'

the weight in pounds of the solid in water (o to 95), sp.

the specific

gravity (o to 20).
4.

i 44_L9000
in
ft.

Gordon
is

formula for columns with ends rounded and maxi-

mum

allowable compression stress of 20,000 pounds per sq.

(10 to 50), r

in.;
(1

is

the length of the

is

column

the radius of gyration in inches

to 12),/

the allowable

stress in
5.

pounds per
1 1

sq. in.
1

(1000 to 20,000).
.

1 = "d + "5" + "o- K f<2

/Ci
*V3

Equivalent resistance, R, of a parallel circuit the respecRi,

tive branches of

which have resistances

\

2,

and

R ohms
3

(1

to 10)

and containing

no

e.m.f.
6.

= vt

gt1

Distance,
g

s,

in feet

(260

to

+260) passed over by a body

ft.

projected vertically upwards with an initial velocity of v

in
t

per sec.

( 260

to

+ 260)

seconds
7.

(o to 17);

32.2.

V=

T
0.6490 7j

11 '. ^8

-Volume,
P

V, in cu.

ft.

of one

pound

of superheated

steam which has a pressure of

pounds per

sq. in. (50 to 250)

and a temperature of

T degrees

(280 to 650).

Il8

NOMOGRAPHIC OR ALIGNMENT CHARTS

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR CHAPTERS
Construct charts for the following formulas.
III, IV,

Chap.

V.

The numbers
be extended

in parenthesis suggest
if

limiting values for the variables.

1.

These
.

limits

may

necessary.

/ *VPi 2 Pi and P" = v PiP22 First intermediate pressure, P', in pounds and second intermediate pressure, P", in pounds per sq. in. of a three stage air compressor which compresses air from a pressure of Pi pounds per sq. in. (14.4 to 15.2) to a pressure of P% pounds per sq. in. (500 to 3000).
1

P =
in.,

per sq.

2.

Wt

2
.

Moment
i

about

its axis;

is

of inertia, /, in inch units of a right circular cylinder the total weight in pounds (o to 25,000) and r is the radius in inches

(o to 25).
3.

= y
its

Radius
is
.

of gyration,

K,

of a right circular cylinder about

an axis through
is

center of gravity

and perpendicular

to the axis of the cylinder;

the radius in inches (o to 25), h

4.

the height in inches (o to 40).

C, in microfarads of

C=
36I11

Capacitance,
r

two

parallel cylinders

io 5

per cm. length; each cylinder

in practical cases).
5.

cm.

in radius (0.1 to 0.25), their centers

separated by a

distance of d cm. (2.5 to 144), and immersed in a

medium
ft.

of dielectric constant k (k

V=

T
0.596 7^

0.256.
of

-Volume,
P

V,

in cu.

of

one pound of superheated

steam which has a pressure

degrees (280 to 650).

pounds per

sq. in. (50 to 250)

and a temperature

of

6. B.H.P. = 3.33 (A 0.6 Va)VH. Boiler horse-power, B.H.P. (0 to 500) for chimney design for power houses; A is the internal area of chimney in sq. ft. (6 to 16), is the height of the chimney in ft. (50 to 150).

7.

H.P.

nsd3
.

321,000
in. (0.1

Horse-power, H.P., transmitted by a r

1
1

solid circular shaft of

fiber stress in shear

diameter d
of 5

to 6) at

n revolutions per min. (50 to 2500) with a

triangle,

pounds per sq. in. (o to 50,000). = \ be sin A. Area of a 8. and included angle A (o to 90 ).

9.

K, with d = 0.013 V Dip. Piston-rod diameter, inches

K
d, in

sides b (o to 10)

and

c (1

to 10)

(1

to 6) of a steam engine;

D is the piston diameter in inches

60),

(12 to 24),

/ is

the length of the stroke in inches (12 to

in.

is

the

maximum steam
593 /V/

pressure in pounds per sq.

(80 to 150).

10.

A =

Sectional area, A, in circular mils, of a copper wire for

annual cost of transmitting energy over a line conducting a constant current of i" abamperes (o to 100) will be a minimum; c is the cost of generated energy in dollars per kilowatt hour (0.005 to 0.02), c' is the cost of the bare copper wire in dollars per pound (0.15 to 0.35), h is the number of hours per year that the line is in use (4 X 300 to 24 X 300), p is the annual percentage rate of interest on the capital invested in copper

which the

total

(4 to 6).
11.

(a 2

-f-

b 2 ).
a

Moment
T
2

of inertia, /, of a flat rectangular plate about

an
in

axis perpendicular to its

plane and passing through the center;

the length in
or Ti

is

the total weight

ft. (2
.

pounds
12.

(o to 30,000),
.

is

T =B
t

-\-

VB~

-f-

is

T B = =.
2

ft. (5

to 25), b

is

the breadth in

to 10).
.

is

Bending moment, B,
the twisting

in a circular

*i

shaft for which the twisting

moment

T,

and

Ti

moment which would

give the

same

effect as

B and T acting

together.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
13-

II9
sq. in.

P r

st
1

Allowable internal pressure,

r

p, in

pounds per

on a hollow
s is

cylinder of inner radius

inches;

is

the thickness of the cylinder in inches,

the

working strength of the material (20,000 pounds per sq. in. for steel). 14. R2 = R \i + a (t2 ti)\. Resistance, R 2 in ohms (o to 5) of a conductor of t 2 C. which has a resistance of Ri ohms (o to 5) at t C. (20 to 30) and is made of a material which has a resistance temperature coefficient of a at h C. (a = 0.00393 when h = 20 and may be taken as a constant for copper).
x

Fteley and Stearns' formula for the discharge, 0.007 3-3 1 H per sec. over a suppressed weir b feet in width (5 to 20) due to a head of feet over the crest (0.1 to 1.6).
l

5-

Q =
ft.

Q, in cu.

dip in degrees
17.

(1

Depth, D, to 55,000) to a stratum, where A the and H the horizontal distance (100 to 1,000). T = H sin A. Thickness, T, to 1,000), where A the dip degrees the horizontal distance to 90), and H (100 to 1,000). tan C = tan A sin B. Projection of dips. C the dip of the projected
16.

D = H tan A.
(1
is

in

ft.

(1

is

to 89),

is

in

ft.

in ft. (1

is

in

in ft.

18.

is

angle in degrees

(0.1 to 89),

is

the dip of the bed in degrees

(1

to 89),

is

the angle

of projection in degrees (1 to 90).

19.

N=f
2

R?KC.

Explosion
R is
.

formula.

is

the

number

of half-pound blocks

of

T.N.T. (20 to 10,000),

20.

for the material (0.10 to 0.50),

d = 8 rh 4 h2
of
ir

is a constant a constant for tamping (0.1 to 5.0.) Diameter, d, of the base of a segment of a sphere of radius
ft.

the radius of rupture in

(0.5 to 15.0),

is

and height
21.

segment

h.
% .

V=
T=

rh2

^ h Volume,
h.
.

V, of a

segment of a sphere of radius

and

height of segment
22.
;

N AHs the
with axis,

number of
is

teeth

(1

to 100) in a spiral gear, a

is

the angle

(o to 8o) of teeth
14,

the

number

of teeth for which to select cutter (12-

No. 8; 14-17, No. 7; 17-21, No. 135, No. 2; 135 up, No. 1).

6; 21-26,

No.

5;

26-35, No. 4; 35-55. No. 3; 55-

CHAPTER

VI.

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES.

68.

Experimental data.

In

scientific or technical investigations

we

are often concerned with the observation or

ties,

measurement

such as the distance and the time for a freely falling water and the temperature of the water, the load and the elongation of a certain wire, the voltage and the current The results of a series of measurements of the of a magnetite arc, etc.
of carbon dioxide dissolving in

two quantibody, the volume

of

same two quantities under similar conditions are usually presented in the form of a table. Thus the following table gives the results of observations on the pressure p of saturated steam in pounds per sq. in. and the volume v in cu. ft. per pound
p =
10

20
19.72

v=

37-8o

30 13.48

40
10.29

50 8-34

60

6.62

40

Art. 68

EXPERIMENTAL DATA
fact that a

121

smooth curve can be drawn so as to pass very near the some relation may exist between the measured quantities, which may be represented mathematically by
plotted points leads us to suspect that

The

the equation of the curve.

of the points,

and the drawing

Since the original measurements, the plotting of the curve all involve approximations,

the equation will represent the true relation between the quantities only

approximately.

formula, to distinguish

Such an equation or formula is known as an empirical it from the equation or formula which expresses

a physical, chemical, or biological law.

large

number

of the formulas

in the engineering sciences are empirical formulas.

mulas

may

then be used for the purpose of

Such empirical forinterpolation, i.e., for computis

when the value of the other within the range of values used in determining the formula.
ing the value of one of the quantities
It is at

given

once evident that any number of curves can be drawn so as to

pass very near the plotted points, and therefore that any

equations might approximate the data equally well.

number of The nature of the

experiment
If

may

give us a hint as to the form of the equation which will

best represent the data.

the points appear to
first

lie

Otherwise the problem is more indeterminate. on or near a straight line, we may assume an

equation of the
tion
is

degree, y

bx, in the variables.

But

if

the

points deviate systematically from a straight line, the choice of an equa-

more

difficult.

Often the form of the curve

of as simple a

will suggest the

etc.,

type

of equation, parabolic, exponential, trigonometric,

but

in all cases,

we should choose an equation

form as

possible.

Before

proceeding any further with this choice

we may

test the correctness of

i.e.,

the form of the equation by "rectifying" the curve, assumed equation in the form
(i) f(y)

by writing the

a
x'

+
=

bF(x)
F(x),

or

(2)

y'

bx',

where

as coordinates;

and plotting the points with x' and y' lie on or very near a straight line, then this line can be represented by equation (2) and hence the original curve by equation (1). We shall use the method of rectification quite freely in the work which follows. Having chosen a simple form for the approximate equation we now
y'

f(y)

and

if

the points of this plot appear to

efficients

proceed to determine the approximate values of the constants or coappearing in the equation. The method of approximation
in

of accuracy.

determining these constants depends upon the desired degree We may employ one of three methods: the method of selected points, the method of averages, or the method of Least Squares. Of these, the first is the simplest and the approximation is close enough for a large number of problems arising in technical work; the second requires a little more computation but usually gives closer approximations;

employed

122

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

while the third gives the best approximate values of the constants but the work of determining these values is quite laborious. All three methods
will

problems which follow. After the constants have been determined the formula should be tested by performing several additional experiments where the variables lie within the range of the previous data, and comparing these results with those given by the empirical formula. We shall now work two illustrative examples to indicate the general

be illustrated

in

some

of the

method

of procedure.

(I)

THE STRAIGHT
y =
bx.

LINE.

69.

The

straight line,

The following table gives the results

-

experiments on the determination of the elongation E in of a annealed high carbon steel wire of diameter 0.0693 in an d gage inches of length 30 in. due to the load in pounds.
series of

Art. 69

THE STRAIGHT

LINE, y = bx

123
of a

or curve are likely to be magnified.

The drawing

good plot

is

evi-

It is best to mark the plotted points as dently a matter of judgment. the intersection of two short straight lines, one horizontal and one

vertical.

124

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
The determination

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

of the constant.

We

shall

now determine the

in several

con-

stant b in the equation

three

E = bW.

This

may be done

ways.

The

of celluloid on the I. coordinate paper so that the scratched line passes through the point

methods which are generally employed are as Place the sheet Method of selected points.

follows:

= o, E = o, and then among the plotted points

ber of points
line, in
lie

rotate the sheet until a good average position

is

obtained,

i.e.,

until the largest possible

num-

either

on the

line or alternately

on opposite

sides of the

such a manner that the points below the line deviate from it by approximately the same amount as the points above it. Then note the values of and E corresponding to one other point on this line, prefer= 250, E = ably near the farther end of the line. Thus we read = bW, we have Substituting these values in the equation E 0.0650. 0.0650 = 250 b, and hence b = 0.000260, and finally E = 0.000260 W. Since the choice of the "best' line is a matter of judgment, its position, and hence the value of the constant, will vary with different workers and often with the same worker at different times.

II.

Method

of averages.

The
,

vertical distances of the plotted points

from the representative line are called the residuals; these are the differences between the observed values of E and the values of E calculated from the formula, or E Ee where E c = bW; some of these residuals If we assume that the "best" line are positive and others are negative. is that which makes the algebraic sum of the residuals equal to zero, we have 2 (E - bW) = o or 2 - bZW = o,
,

hence

2 = ^rr = 2 IF

0.3225 - 1235

0.000261,
b.

and we may
position.

call this

an average value of

By

this

method

it is

no

longer necessary to shift the line

among

the points so as to get an average

III. Method of Least Squares. In the theory of Least Squares * it is shown that the best line or the best value of the constant is that which makes the sum of the squares of the differences of the observed and calculated values a minimum, i.e.,

2 (E bW) 2 = minimum.
Hence the derivative
or
of this expression with respect to b

must equal

zero,

~J1(Eor
*

bW) 2 =
2

o,

or

2 W(E - bW) =
and
b

o,

2W - bZW
See Bartlett's "

o,

= =;.
this theory.

EEW

The Method

of Least Squares," or

any other book on

Art. 70

THE STRAIGHT

LINE, y =

+ bx

125
the other the

We

values of

form two columns, one giving the values of 2 and adding these columns, we find

EW and

67.007/255,725

0.000262.

compare the results obtained by each of the three For this purpose we complete the table by computing the values of E from the formulas
methods.
I.

We may now

E=

0.000260

W;

II.

These are marked EJ, E c u in the table. To discover how closely C the computed values agree with the observed values we form the residuals
, ,

E = E IU
ir

0.000261

W;

III.

E=

0.000262 W.

A = E - E\
1

= E - E

n
c
,

Am =

E - E ul
c

Disregarding the signs of these residuals,

their

we add them and

divide

by

number,

8,

and

find the average residual to

be 0.00048, 0.00045,

0.00043, respectively.

We

also find the

sum

of the squares of the resid-

therefore draw the following conclusions: all three methods give good results; the method of Least Squares gives the best valus of the constant but requires the most
uals to be 356, 270, 254, respectively.

We may

method of averages gives, in general, the next best value and requires but little calculation; the graphical method of selected points requires the least calculation but depends upon the accuracy of the plot and the fitting of the representative line. 70. The straight line, y = a -f- bx. For measuring the temperature coefficient of a copper rod of diameter 0.3667 in. and length 30.55 in., the following measurements were made. Here, C is the temperature Centigrade and r is the resistance of the rod in microhms.
calculation; the of the constant

126

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

this line;

Chap. VI

on

thus,

C = =
a

20, r

=
b

76.45,

and C =
a

48, r

84.60.

Substi-

tuting these values in the equation r

+
=

bC,

we
a

get

76.45

20

and

84.60

48

b,

from which we determine

=
r

70.63

and

0.291,

so that our relation

becomes

70.63

0.291 C.

85

84
83

82
81

80
(r)

79
78

77
75
75
i

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Fig. 70.

II. Method of averages. Since we have to determine two constants, we divide the data into two equal or nearly equal groups, and place the sum of the residuals in each group equal to zero, i.e., 2 (r a bC) =0 or Er = na + bUC,

where n is the number of observations in the group. Thus, dividing the above data into two groups, the first containing four and the second three sets of data, and adding, we get
314-65

= 40+110.26 and

251.35

= 30+135.16,

Art. 70

THE STRAIGHT

LINE, y =

+ bx

12

from which we determine

a

=
r

7-59

and

0.293,

so that our relation becomes

70.59

0.293 C.

The best values of the constants are sum of the squares of the residuals is a minimum, i.e., H (r a bC) 2 = minimum; hence the partial derivatives of this expression with respect to a and b must be zero; thus,
III.

Method of Least Squares.

those for which the

A2
or or

(r

[2 (r

-a

- a - bC) = - bC) (-1)] =

2

0,
0,

12
S

(r

bC) 2

o,

[2 (r

-a,

bC) (-C)]

o,

Hr = an

&SC,

2>C = a2C

62C 2

where is the number of observations. We solve these last two equations for a and b. (Note that these equations may be formed as follows: substitute the observed values of r and C in the assumed relation r = a + bC\ add the n equations thus formed to get the first of the above equations; multiply each of the n equations by the corresponding value of C and add the resulting n equations to get the second of the above
equations.)

We now compute

the values of rC,

C 2 HC, UrC, and SC 2 and

, ,

substi-

tute these in the equations for determining a

and

b.

We

thus get

566.00
20,044.50

= =

7 a 245.3 b, 245.3 a 9325-33

+
b

b,

from which we determine

a
so that our relation

=
r

70.76

and

0.288,

becomes

70.76

0.288 C.
results agree

Comparison of
uals

results.

We note that the various

and with each other.

very

well with the original data

and

find that the average residual is approximately the same by the first tion necessary in applying the method of Least Squares
is

and

compute the residsmallest by the third method two methods. The computais

We

very tedious.

The method
and
this
large.

of selected points requires the fitting of the best straight line,

difficult

becomes quite

We

shall therefore use the

when the number of plotted points is method of averages in most of the

illustrative

examples which follow.

128

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
(II)

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

FORMULAS INVOLVING TWO CONSTANTS.

= ax As stated in the plotted points deviate systematically from a straight
fc

71.

Simple parabolic and hyperbolic curves, y

Art. 68,
line,

when

drawn so as to pass very near the points; the shape knowledge of the nature of the experiment may give us a hint as to the form of the equation which will best represent the data. Simple curves which approximate a large number of empirical data are the parabolic and hyperbolic curves. The equation of such a curve b is v = ax parabolic for b positive and hyperbolic for b negative. In Fig. 71a, we have drawn some of these curves for a = 2 and b = 2,
is

a smooth curve

of the curve or a

If

0.5, 0.25, 0.5, 1.5,2.

b

Note that the parabolic curves

all

pass

ART. 71

PARABOLIC AND HYPERBOLIC CURVES,

ax"

129

// a set of data can be approximately represented by an equation of the

form y

= ax

b
,

Instead of plotting (log

then the plot of (log x, log y) approximates a straight line. x, log y) on ordinary coordinate paper,

we

on logarithmic coordinate paper (see Art. 13). We determine the constants a and b from the equation of the straight line by one of the methods described in Art. 70. Example. The following table gives the number of grams S of anhydrous ammonium chloride which dissolved in 100 grams of water makes
plot (x, y) directly

may

a saturated solution of 6 absolute temperature.

(log e)

2.43 2.44 2,45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50 2.51 2.52 2.53 2.54 2.55 2.56 2.57

75

70

65

60
55
(S)

50
45 40

35

30
25

13

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI

The curve appears to be form illustrated in Fig. 71a. We therefore plot (log 0, log S) and note that this approximates a straight line, so that we may assume The
points
i.e.,
(0,

S) are plotted in Fig. 716.

parabolic,

of the general

5 =

ad b

or

log

5 =

log a

-f-

b log 0.

We
points.

shall first

determine the constants by the method of selected

6"

We
=

note two points on the line whose coordinates are

2.445, log

log0

1.50

and
log a

log

2.555, log

5 =

1.84,

hence we have
1.50 1.84
.".

= =

log a

+ +

2.4456,
2.5556.

3.09,

log a

= 6.0550 =

.*.

log

5 = 6.0550

3.9450 10, a = 0.000,000,881. or 5 = 0.000,000,881 309 3.09 log0,

.

We We

shall

now determine
6.1078
7.1079

the constants

by

the

divided the data into two groups of four

sets,
b,

method of averages. and adding, we have

= 4 = 4

log a -f
log a

9-8143
10.1374

+
or

b.

.*.

.*.

log

= 3.09, log a = 6.0546 = S = 6.0546 + 3.09 log

the table

3.9454

10,

0.000000882.
309
.

5 =

0.000000882

We complete
residual.

by computing

5, the residuals,

and the average

The agreement between

The

the observed and computed values of

is

quite close.
following table gives the pressure

Example.
pound.

in

pounds per
cu.
ft.

sq. in. of saturated

steam corresponding to the volume v in (From Perry's Elementary Practical Mathematics.)

per

Art. 72

SIMPLE EXPONENTIAL CURVES,

first

ae"

*3*

Dividing the data into two groups, the

four and the last three sets,

and adding, we have

5.2445 6.6196
b

= =

4 log a 3 log a
2.6822,

+ +

5.14356, 1.33836. a

1.0662,

log a

481. 1.

log

p =

2.6822

1.0662 logy,

or

pv lom2

481. 1.

We

now compute p and A and note

{logv) 0.8 1.0 1.2

the close agreement between the

observed and calculated values.

0.2 0.4
0.6
1.4 1.6 1.8

260
240

220 200
180

160

140
(P)

120 100

80
60
40 20

13 2

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC
.

CURVES

Chap. VI

There is a very simple method of verifying whether a set of data can be approximated by an equation of the form y aebc Taking logarithms
3
0,
,

_ _r __^_^_^__^__^
r
7

of both tion
(b

members of this equawe get log y = log a -\e) x,

log

and

if

y'

log y,
y'

2.5

this

equation becomes
e) x,

log a -f (b log

of the
2.0

first

an equation degree in x and y'';

(x, y')

therefore the plot of

of
(x,

or

log y)

must approximate

1.5
(y)

a straight line. Hence, If a set of data can be approximately represented by an

equation of the form y
then the plot of

1.0

= a& x

(x, log y)

ap-

proximates a straight
0.5

line.

Insteadof plotting (x, logy)

on ordinary coordinate paper,

we may

plot

(x, y)

directly

Art. 72

SIMPLE EXPONENTIAL CURVES,

a<*>

133

134

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
Example.

NON-PERIODIC
temperature
6

CURVES

Chap. VI

The

following table gives the results of measuring the

electrical

conductivity

of glass at

Fahrenheit.

(O

Art. 73

PARABOLIC OR HYPERBOLIC CURVE,

(0,

+ bx n

135

In Fig. 72c, the points

C) and

(0,

log C) are plotted; the latter

plot approximates a straight line.

tion

We may
C =

therefore

assume the equa-

C =

aew

or

log

log a -f (b log

e) 6.

We
the
sets,

first

use the method of averages to determine the constants. Omitting set and dividing the remaining data into two groups of three

we

get

24.3198
26.5251
b log e

30 30

= =

3 log a 3 log a

+ +
a

400 600

( log e )> (b log e).

-

0.0110,

log a

b
.'.

0.0253,

log

C =

6.6399

10

O.OIIO0,

= 6.6399 ~~ I0 = 0.000436. or C = 0.00436

002539
.

We now
markably
of C.
73.

close

compute the values of C and the residuals and note the reagreement between the observed and computed values

Parabolic or hyperbolic curve,

it is

y=a

+ bx n (where n is known).

In using this equation,

assumed that from theoretical considerations

It is

we

suspect the value of n.

evident that

If a set of data can be approximately represented by an equation of the bx n where n is known, then the plot of (x", y) approximates form y = a

straight line.

Example. A small condensing triple expansion steam engine tested under seven steady loads, each lasting three hours, gave the following results; i" is the indicated horse-power, w is the number of pounds of steam used per hour per indicated horse-power. (From Perry's Elementary Practical Mathematics.)

136

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI
first

determine the constants.

three

Dividing the data into two groups, the

and

last four sets,

and adding, we have

1210.9
821.7
.'.

= 3a = 40
1

+ +
a
1

94.6
57-8

b,

k
37-8

=
or

1.6,

=
1.6

37.8.

.*.

wl =

37.8

1.6 J,

w =

We now

compute the values

of

w and

the residuals.

P)

Art. 74

HYPERBOLIC CURVE,

=
a
-\-

bx

137

It is surmised that for low velociIn Fig. 73&, we have plotted (v, p). ties, the pressure and the square of the velocity are linearly related, i.e.,

p = a

bv 2

We

verify this

by

plotting

(v

2
,

p)

and noting that

this

approximates a

straight line.

We
400

use the method of averages to deter-

100

200

300

500

600

700

800

900 1000 1100

8.5

3.0

2.5

(&2.0
1.5

1.0

0.5

I3

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI

The equation
plots (x, -)

may

also

be written

in the

form

+ -, x

so that the

and (-,

-J

approximate straight

lines.

Hence,
equation of the
/i
I

If a set of data can be approximately represented by an x\ ( r-, or - = a -\- bx then the plot of ( x, - or of form J = v a ox y yJ \
;

XX
+
line.

l\ - approxi-

\x yt

mates a straight

10

8
7

5
ty)

Art. 74

HYPERBOLIC CURVE,

=
a

+ bx

139

theory of magnetization is the reluctivity H/B, and if we plot (H, H/B), we note that this plot approximates a straight line for values of H > 3.1. (We may similarly introduce the permeability, B/H, and note that the Hence, we assume a plot of (B/H, B) approximates a straight line.)
relation
of

the form

H= ^
B

-f-

bH.

Using the method of averages,

{B)

140

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

(III)

FORMULAS INVOLVING THREE CONSTANTS.

parabolic or hyperbolic curve,

It is often imc. a simple equation involving only two constants to a set of In such cases we may modify our simple equations by the addition data. Thus the equation y = ax b may be of a term involving a third constant.

75.

The

y = ax b

possible to

fit

modified into y

ax b

-+- c.

Kb

is

positive, the latter equation repre-

sents a parabolic curve with

intercept c on

OF;

if

is

negative,
resents

the

equation

rep-

hyperbolic

curve

with

asymptote y = c. In Fig. 75a, we have sketched the

xb
,

curves y = 2

y = 2 x*
2 x~
-

y =

-0
.x

5
,

+ 2, + 2 to

illustrate the relation of the

simple types to the modified

types.

In Art. 71
that
if

it

was shown
relation
ax*,

we suspect a
form y

we can To verify this by observing whether the plot of (log x, log y) approximates a straight line. Now the form y = ax b
of the
-f-

may be

written log (7

c)

log a

b log x, so that the plot of

would approximate a straight line. To make this We might test we shall evidently first have to determine a value of c. attempt to read the value of c from the original plot of {x, y). In the parabolic case we should have to read the intercept of the curve on OY, but this may necessitate the extension of the curve beyond the points plotted from the given data, a procedure which is not safe in most cases. In the hyperbolic case, we should have to estimate the position of the asymptote, but this is generally a difficult matter. The following procedure will lead to the determination of an approximate value of c for the equation y = ax h + c. Choose two points (xi, 71) and (#2, V2) on the curve sketched to represent the data. Choose a third
(log x, log (y
c))

point (x 3
of 73.

73) on this curve such that x 3 = vxix 2 and measure the value Then, since the three points are on the curve, their coordinates
, ,

must

satisfy the equation of the curve, so that

7i

axi b

c,

72

ax2 h

c,

y3

ax 3b

c.

/Vbt. 75

PARABOLIC OR HYPERBOLIC CURVE,

ax*

+c

141

Now,

since Xz

VX1X2,

therefore
or

x 3b

= Vxi

x2b
c

and

ax 3 b
c)

= Vax
(y2

b
y

ax2b

yz-

V^ yi
,

c),

and therefore
It
is

c-JSZ -tf

+ 3 2-2y

evident that the determination of

c is

partly graphical, for

it

depends upon
line lying

the reading of the coordinates of three points on the curve

sketched to represent the data.

evenly
lie

among

the

The curve should be drawn as a smooth points, i.e., so that the largest number of the

plotted points
sides

on the curve or are distributed alternately on opposite

for
c,

and very near it. Having determined a value

we

plot (log x, log (y

c)).

If this

plot approximates a straight line, the constants a

log (y

and

b in the

equation

c)

log a

b log

may

then be determined in the ordinary

way. Example.

consumed by the arc

In a magnetite arc, at constant arc length, the voltage V (From is observed for values of the current i.

Steinmetz, Engineering Mathematics.)

142

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

we

use the method of averages, dividing the data into two groups of three

sets each,

and

find

5.8684 4-5572
.'.

= =

3 log

a,

3 log a

2.5844
1. 9561,

b.

-0.507,

log a =

.*.

log

(V

30.4)

1. 9561

0.507 logi, or

= 90.4. V = 30.4 +

90.4 f"

507
.

Finally,

we compute

the values of

V and
i)

the residuals.

(log

9.6J9.7 160
150 140

9.8

9.9

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

130
120
110 (V) 100

90
80
70

60 50

Art. 76

THE EXPONENTIAL CURVE

ae

bx

+c
,

143

the curve sketched to represent the data, and then a third point (x 3 y 3 ) on Since x2 ) and measure the value of y 3 this curve such that x3 = \ (x x

the three points are on the curve..

yi

ae hXi

c,

y2
yi

ae bx
c

c,

y3
,

ae* 1*
ys

c,

or log

yi

c_ =

(b\oge)x u log

(b log e)

x2 log

c_

(b log e)

x3

Fig. 76c.

ae bx

+c
2 ),

Now,

since
(b log e)

x3

=
c

\ (#1

+x
e) Xi

therefore

x3

% [(b

log
.

+
c\

(6 log e)
,

x2 ],
j y\

and

ys y3

if, 2
i

yi-

y%

y2

Hence
If

;y 3

= V(y

c) (y 2

c),

and

=
yi

yiyi

yz*

+ y2 -

2y3

that they form an arithmetic progression,

the equation y
If

the data are given so that the values of x are equidistant, i.e., so we may verify the choice of

following manner.

c and determine the constants a, b, and c in the Let the constant difference in the values of x equal h. we replace x by x + h, we get y' = ae6 I+A -+- c, and therefore, for the

ae bx

>

difference in the values of y,

Ay =
and

y'

ae b( x+ V
-

log

Ay =

log a (e

bh

ae bx
1)

aebx

(e

bh

1),

(b log e) *,

144

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI

This last equation is of the first degree in x and log Ay so that the plot of To apply this to our data, we form a (x, log Ay) is a straight line. column of successive differences, Ay, of the values of y, and a column of the logarithms of these differences, log Ay, and plot (x, log Ay) if the
;

approximates the data, then this last plot will approximate a straight line. We may then determine b log e and i) and hence a and b in the ordinary way, and finally find an log a (e average value of c from 2y = dZe hx + nc, where n is the number of data. In studying the skin effect in a No. oooo solid copper Example. diameter 1.168 cm., Kennelly, Laws, and Pierce found the conductor of following experimental results; F is the frequency in cycles per second, L is the total abhenrys observed.
equation y
6/l

aeP*

Art. 77

THE PARABOLA,

= a+bx+cx?

145

We now compute L and the residuals, and note the close agreement between the observed and computed values except for the first two values of F. If we omit these two values in computing a and b, these constants have slightly different values, but the agreement between the observed and computed values of L is about the same.

146
(i)

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
Choose any point bxk + cxk 2 and
,

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. V!

(xk jk)
,

on the experimental curve;

then

yk

+
y

yk =

b(x
is

xk )

-+-

c{x 2

Xk

2 )
,

or

J-Jk =
jO
Jvfa

(b

+ cx

k ) -j-

ex.

This
(x,

last

equation

of the first degree in

x and

y-yk

so that the plot of

X
(2)

J will
Xk/
If

approximate a straight

line.
i.e., if
if

the values of x are equidistant,

they form an arithmetic

replace x
2

progression, with

common
get y'
cfoc.

difference h, then

we

by x

+
y'

h in

y This last equation is of the first degree in x and Ay, so that the plot of (x, Ay) will approximate a straight line. Hence, if a set of data may be approximately represented by the equation
the equation,

we

+ b (x + h) + c (x +

/*)

and Ay =

(bh

chr)

+ bx +

ex2

then (1) the plot of (x,

\

I,

where (x k yk) are the

,

k/

coordinates of

any point on

the experimental curve,

will

approximate a

straight line, or (2) the plot of (x, Ay),

where the Ay's are the differences in

y formed for equidistant values of x, will approximate a straight line. The following examples will illustrate the method of determining the
constants.

Example. In the following table, 9 is the melting point in degrees Centigrade of an alloy of lead and zinc containing x per cent of lead. (From Saxelby's Practical Mathematics.)

Art. 77

THE PARABOLA,

+ bx + c*
'

H7
= a'

tions.)

We may now

assume the relation

I8l

the
into

method two groups

36.9 of averages to determine the constants.

of three

b'x,

and use

Dividing the data

and two
6-55

sets respectively

and adding, we get

3.64
:.

= =
=

3 a'
2 a'

+ 249.3 + 10.4
1

b',
b'.

b'

0.0130,

a' 6

1. 10.

tRt
.*.

1.

10
6

36.9

+ 0.0130X,

or

141. 4

+ 0.620 x + 0.0130 x

2
.

We now
'300r

compute

and the

residuals.

290
280

270 260 250

(0)

240

230220
210

200
190

180

148

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

V

Chap. VI

Art. 78

THE HYPERBOLA,
by substituting the
6 a

=
a
-\-

bx

+c

149

We determine a
summing, thus
or

six sets of values of

V and

R, and

ZR =
131.6

0.004

6 a

and therefore
Hence,
finally,

0.004 (4 2 ) a = 4.62.

SF + 0.0029 2 V\ + 0.0029 (36,400),

V+
0.0029

R =

4.62

0.004

2
-

We now compute the values of R and the residuals; the agreement between the observed and calculated values of R is very close.
78.

The hyperbola, y =
y

bx

+- c.

This equation
=

is

a modifica-

tion of the equation

x
discussed in Art. 74.
o,

In the latter

equation, x

o gives y

while in the former, x

o gives y

c.

We

may

verify whether the equation y

=
(xk

-+-

c fits

a set of experi-

mental data as follows.

curve; then yk

Choose any point

yu)

on the experimental

=
a
(x

bxk

c,

and
or

jk

=
(a

is

xk )

+
M

bx) (a

foe*)

= yk
-

(a

+
y

bxk )

+q>
,

(a -f 6**) x.

This
of
x,

last

equation
will

of the first degree in x

and

so that the plot

yk

approximate a straight
data

line.

Hence,
y

if

set of

may
I

be approximately represented by the equation

=
a

+ ox +

c ,

the plot of [x,

\

Xk\ yU

),

where (xk yk) are the coordinates

,

of a point on the experimental curve, will approximate a straight line.

Example.

The

following table gives the results of experiments on

the friction between a straw-fiber driver and an iron driven wheel under a pressure of 400 pounds; y is the coefficient of friction and x is the slip,

per cent.

(From Goss, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.,

for 1907, p. 1099.)

IS

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
In Fig. 78

NON-PERIODIC
(x, y);

CURVES

Chap. VI

we have

plotted the points

the experimental curve

appears to be an hyperbola with an equation of the form y

To

verify this

we note

the point x
:

0.65,

a bx 0.129 on the curve, and

c.

plot the points (x,

line.

j.

This

last plot

approximates a straight

We may

therefore

assume the

relation

0.129

bx,

and

0.5

OA

0.3
iv)

0.2

0.1

Art. 79

THE LOGARITHMIC CURVE,

log y

=a

+ bx + ex

151

have computed both y and y' and note that the agreement with is probably as close as could be expected. The logarithmic or exponential curve, log y = a + bx + ex 2 79. hx cxl These equations are modifications of the logarithmic or y = ae + The equation form log y = a + bx and the exponential form y = ae bx = aebx+cx2 may be written log y = log a -f- (b log e) x + (c log e) x 2 and y 2 This last equation so is equivalent to the form log y = a + bx + ex 2 is similar in form to the equation y = a + bx + ex discussed in Art. 77, and the equation may be verified and the constants determined in a similar way.
the observed values
.

We

Hence,
log

if

a
bx

set of

data
,

may

be approximately represented by the equation

log
the

ex 2

then

(1)

plot

of

(x,

log

y k^

where

are the coordinates of a point on the experimental curve, will approximate a straight line, or (2) the plot of (x, A log y), where the A log y are the
(xk, yk)

differences in log
straight line.

y formed for equidistant values of

x, will

approximate a

Example. The following table gives the results of Winkelmann's experiments on the rate of cooling of a body in air; 9 is the excess of temperature of the body over the temperature of its surroundings, / seconds from the beginning of the experiment.

152

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

c
.*.

Chap. VI

O.OOOOOI911,

O.OO0625.
/

log 6

log 118.97 5
t

0.000625

or

log 6

2.07544

0.000625

+ 0.000001911 + 0.000001911

z
.

We now compute 6 and the residuals and note the between the observed and calculated values.

close

agreement

Art. 8 i

THE EQUATION

=
dx

+ bx + ce
If
fit

53

ce 81. The equation y = a -f- bx curve approximates a straight line, we

may

a part of the experimental an equation of the form

deviation of this straight

bx to this part of the curve.

The

line

from the remainder of

6
(y)5

3
2
1

0.

154
line

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC
c (e
dh

CURVES
i)
2

Chap. VI

we may determine
and d

the constants log

and d

log e

and
and

therefore c
12
11

in the usual

way.

We now

write the equation in the

ce
dx

form y

bx,

10

Art. 8 i y'

THE EQUATION

+ bx + ce ax

155

+ bx

to this part of the data. into

and dividing the data

two groups
7.27

of four

Using the method of averages and three sets, we have

6.08
:.

=4^ + 766, = 3 a + 78 b,
0.03,

b
y'

and

= =

a
-f-

1.25

1.25

0.03 x.

156
.\
/.
.'.

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI

dloge = 9.8725
d

10

0.1275,

logc

0.5277.

= - 0.294, c = 3.37. log r = 0.5277 0.12753c,

equation
is

and

3.37

e~-

2Hx

The

final

1.25 -f 0.03 x

3.37 e-

mx
.

compute y and the residuals, and note the tween the observed and calculated values.
82.
.

Now

close

agreement be-

A part of the experimental The equation y = ae hx -f- ce dQB curve may be represented by a simple exponential y = ae bx i.e., a part
,

of the plot of (x, log y) approximates a straight line.

then study bx of this exponential curve from y c y ae the rest of the experimental curve. The plot of (x, r) may be representable by another exponential, r = ce dx where the values of r are negligible for that part of the experimental curve to which y = ae bx has
the deviations,
r

We

yo

been
tion y

fitted.

The
-+-

entire curve can then

.

be represented by the equa-

ae bx

cedx

may fit an experimental curve although no part of the curve can be approximated by the simple exponential y = ae bx^ jf t h e values of x are equidistant, we may verify that this equation is the correct one to assume by the following method. Let Consider three succesthe constant difference in the values of x be h. sive values x, x -f- h, x + 2 h and their corresponding values y, y', y" We evidently have
ae bx
-f-

The equation y =

cedx

= y' = y" =
y

ae bx
-

+ cedx
-f_J_

ae b( z+ ^ ae b(x+2h)

ce d ( x+ V

ae bx e bh

+ ce dxedh

ce d(x+2h)

ae bx e 1bh ^_ ce dx e 2dh^

Now
the

eliminate

bx

and
e(

dx
)

first

equation by

6+d

',

from these three equations by multiplying the second by (e bh + e6 ), and adding the
'1

results to the third equation.

We

get
y'

y"
or

(e

bh

+ edh

e^+^v =
e(
~

o,

=
y
is

(e

bh

4- e dh )

^y

b+d^ h

an equation of the first degree in y'/y and y"/y so that the plot approximate a straight line. From this straight line and hence b and d as usual. determine the constants e bh + e dh and g( 6+d We now write the original equation ye~dx = ae^ b ~d x + c. This is a linear ~' equation in e^~^ x and ye~ dx so that the plot of (e b r x ye~dx ) would From this straight line determine the approximate a straight line. values of the constants a and c.
This
of (y'/y, y"/y) will
)
;i
,
^>

( -

>

Art. 82

THE EQUATION
x

ae n

+ ce

157
e~ x y
,

In Fig. 82a,

e~

0.5

we have plotted the equations y = e~ bx y = e~ x -f- e~ 2x y = e~x e~ 2x

,

e~ x

-+-

0.5 "'*,

2.0
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

W)i.o
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0,

158
i

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

0.8.

Chap. VI

>

We

therefore

assume log

i'

=
/

log a

-f-

(b log e)

/,

and using the

method

of averages for the values of

>

0.8,

we have
e,
e.

9.851

8.8325
.'.

10 10

= =

3 log a
2 log a

+ 4.8 b log + 5.5 b log

log a

bloge
b

.-.

= -

1.07,

9.535 6 a

10

-0.4644,

0.6934,

4.94,

and

logi'

0.6934

0.4644/,

or

V =

l mt 4.94 e~
-

Art. 83

THE POLYNOMIAL
/

+ bx + ex + dx* +
2

159
ce di or log r

straight line, except for

log c

0.8.

We
= =
c

therefore

assume
t

(d log e)

t.

Using the method of averages for

0.7456 9.9301 10
2 log c

<

0.8,

we have

+ 0.1 d log 2 log c + 0.6 d log

log c

e, e.

:. /.

dloge = -1. 63 10,

d

0.4544.

= -376,
1. 63

=
or

2.85,
r

and

log r
final

The

0.4544 equation is

10/,

-3 2.85 e 76 '.
-

107 4.94 <r

<

2.85 <r 3 76 '.

-

We now compute and the residuals and note the very close agreement between the observed and computed values of i. 2 3 The equa83. The polynomial y = a + bx + ex -f- d* + = a + bx + ex 2 may be modified by the addition of another tion y

.

term into y

-\-

bx

-\-

ex 2

-\-

dx3

If

the values of x are equidistant,

we may verify the correctness of the assumption of the last equation by the following method. Let the constant difference in the values of x be h. Then the successive differences in the values of y are Ay = (bh + ch 2 + dh 3 ) + (2 ch + 3 dh 2 ) x + 3 dhx2 2 3 2 x, A-y = (2 ch + 6 d/* ) + 6 A 3 y = 6dh3 Hence the plot of (x, A 2y) will approximate a straight line, and the values of A 3 y are approximately constant. From the equation of the straight line we may determine the constants c and d, and writing the original equation in the form (y ex2 dx3 ) = a -\- bx, the plot of (x, y cx 2 dx3 )

approximate a straight line, from which the constants a and b Another method of determining the constants be determined. a, b, c, d in the equation y = a -f- bx + ex2 + dx3 consists in selecting four points on the experimental curve, substituting their coordinates
will

may

in the equation,

and solving the four

linear equations thus obtained for

the values of the four quantities

In a similar

kx n -fbe determined so that the corresponding curve passes through n I points of the experimental curve; it is simply necessary to substitute the coordinates of these n + 1 points in the equation and to solve the + 1 linear equations for the values of the n + 1 quantities, a, b, c, k. If the values of x are equidistant, we can show that the plot of (x, A n-1 v) is a straight line and that A ny is constant, where A n-1 y and A n y are the (n i)st and nth order of differences in the values of y. Thus, if a sufficient number of terms are taken in the equation of the polynomial, this polynomial may be made to represent any set of data exactly; but it is not wise to force a fit in this way, since the determination of a large number of constants is very laborious, and in many

and d. manner the polynomial y = a + bx

a, b, c,

+ ex

may

+
.

i6o
cases a

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

much

simpler equation involving fewer constants

may

give

much

more accurate results in subsequent calculations. We shall work a single example to illustrate the method
ing the constants.

of determin-

Example.
data:

We

wish to

fit

a polynomial equation to the following

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

(X)
Fig. 83.

Art. 84

TWO OR MORE EQUATIONS

l6l

In Fig. 83 we have plotted (x, y). We form the successive differences and note that the third differences are approximately constant, and that the plot of

may
or y

therefore

bx

2 (x, A y) approximates a straight line (Fig. 83). We assume an equation of the form y = a + bx -f ex 2 -f dx3 ex 2 -f- dx3 since the curve evidently passes through the
,
,

origin

of coordinates.

To

determine the constants

b,

c,

and

d, select

three points on the experimental curve; three such points are (0.2, 0.463), Substituting these coordinates in the (0.5, 1.625), an d (0.8, 3776) equation, we get

0.463
1.625

3.776

= = =

+ 0.04 c + 0.008 d, + o. 25 c + 0.125 d, 0.8 b + 0.64 c + 0.512 d.

0.2 b 0.5 b
b, c,

Solving these equations for

b

and

d,

we have
d

= =

1.989,
is

1.037,

2.972

and hence the equation

y

1.989 x

-+-

1.037 * 2

+ 2.972 r

5
.

now compute the values of y and the residuals. Two or more equations. It is sometimes impossible to represent a set of data by a simple equation involving few constants or even
84.

We

by a complex equation involving many constants. In such cases it is often convenient to represent a part of the data by one equation and another part of the data by another equation. The entire set of data will then be represented by two equations, each equation being valid
range of the variables. Thus, Regnault represented the between the vapor pressure and the temperature of water by three equations, one for the range from 32 F. to o F., another for the range from o F. to ioo F., and a third for the range from ioo F. Later, Rankine, Marks, and others represented the relato 230 F. tion by a single equation. The following example will illustrate the representation of a set of data by two simple equations. Example. The following data are the results of experiments on the collapsing pressure, p in pounds per sq. in. of Bessemer steel lap-welded tubes, where d is the outside diameter of the tube in inches and t is the thickness of the wall in inches. (Experiments reported by R. T. Stewart in the Trans. Am. Soc. of Mech. Eng., Vol. XXVII, p. 730.)
for a restricted

relation

162

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
Qog %)
8.2
8.3

NON-PERIODIC
8.4

CURVES

Chap. VI

2.8

0.02

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.09

(Va)
Fig. 84.
t

Art. 84

TWO OR MORE EQUATIONS

163

It should be noted that a set of corresponding values of t/d and are not the results of a single experiment but the averages of groups containing from two to twenty experiments.

Following the work of Prof. Stewart, we have plotted (t/d, P), and note that the experimental curve approximates a straight
all

Fig. 84,
line for

values of t/d except the

therefore

first

four,

i.e.,

for values of t/d

If

>

0.023. of

We may
points t/d

assume

P =

bl-A.

we use
b

the

method

selected points to determine the constants a

and

we may choose
12 15 as lying

the

0.065,

the straight line;

we

4 2 50. and t/d then have

0.030,

P =

on

4250
1215
:.

= =

a a

-f-

0.065

b,
b.

-f 0.030

86,714,

= 1386
1386.
If

and

P=

86,7 14

(?\-

This result agrees with that given by Prof. Stewart. method of averages to determine the constants a and b last 22 sets of data into two groups of 11 each, and get
12,639

we use we divide

the the

30,397
:.

= =

11
11

a a

+ 0.3231 b, + 0.5247 b.
a

88,085,

= -1438,
1438.

and
In our table

P = 88,055^)we have
The
values of

given the values of

computed from
first

this last

formula agree very closely with these. It is seen that the percentage deviations are in general quite small though large in a few cases, varying from 0.2 per cent to 10 per cent, which is to be expected from the nature of the
experiments.

formula.

computed from the

We

now attempt

to

fit

an equation to the

first

four sets of data. or ce

d

The
above
Stew-

addition of a modifying term of the form c[-.\

to the

formula
art's

is

not successful here.

to
fit

We

shall therefore follow Prof.

work and attempt

'

an equation of the parabolic form,

(log-^, log

P =

\Jl

e ver ^y

tms choice by plotting

Pj and observing
ex-

that this plot approximates a straight

line.

(The fewness of the

periments for values of t/d

<

0.023

a handicap here.)

Assuming

logP = loga

+ Mog^j,

164

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

of averages,

Chap. VJ

and using the method

we

find

4.9354
5.4485
b

= = =

2 log a

+ 2 log a +
3.1
1,

(6.5053 (6.6649

10) b,

I0 )

b.

80,580,000

and

P=
compute the values
of

80,580,000 f-1

/A 311
.

We

The

entire set of data

from this formula. have thus been represented by means of two

simple equations, each valid for a restricted range of the variables.*

EXERCISES.
[Note.

The

exercises which follow are divided into

two

sets.

The type

of

equation
is left

that will approximately represent the empirical data

the
first set.

is

suggested for each example in

For the examples

in the

second

set,

the choice of a suitable equation

to the student.]
1.

Temperature
10.421

coefficient; r

is

perature of the

coil in

degrees Centigrade,

the resistance of a coil of wire in ohms, 9 [y = a -f- bx\

is

the tem-

EXERCISES

165

7. Newton's law of cooling; d is the excess of the temperature of the body over the temperature of its surroundings, / is the time in seconds since the beginning of the experiment. \y = ae bjc
\

i66

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS NON-PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VI

is

16. Straw-fibre friction at 150 pounds pressure according to Goss's experiments; y the coefficient of friction for a straw-fibre driver and an iron driven wheel, x is the slip,

per cent

D
1

a
1

c + bx +
0.213

0.153

0.179

EXERCISES
25.

167

Test on square

steel wire for

winding guns;

is

the stress in pounds per sq.

in.,

is

the elongation in inches per inch.

60,000

70,000

80,000

68
35.

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
Experiments with a crane; /
is

NON-PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VI

the force in pounds which will just overcome a

weight w.

300

8-5

12.8

EXERCISES
46.
volts,

169

Volt-ampere characteristic of a 60 watt tungsten lamp:

is

is

the

number

of

the
2

number

of milli-amperes.

CHAPTER
EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
85.

VII.

Representation of periodic

PERIODIC CURVES. phenomena. Periodic phenomena,

such as alternating electric currents and alternating voltages, valve-gear

motions, propagation of sound waves, heat waves, tidal observations,

etc.,

of

may be represented graphically by curves composed of a repetition congruent parts at certain intervals. Such a periodic curve may in turn be represented analytically by a periodic function of a variable, i.e., by a function such that/(* k) = /(.v), where k is the period. Thus

the functions sin x and cos x have a period 2 t, since sin (x

2 t)

sin

and cos

(x

21) = cos

2 7r/5, since sin 5 (x

tion sin x

sin

+ + + sin 5 x has a period 2 t, since sin + sin 5

.r.

Again, the function sin 5 x has a period 2 71-/5) = sin (5 x 2 ir) = sin 5 x, but the funcx.

(x

2 t)

sin 5 (x

+2

7r)

Now, any single-valued periodic function can, in general, be expressed by an infinite trigonometric series or Fourier's series of the form
y

f( x )

ao

+ +

a i cos x
61 sin

+ a cos 2 x + 62 sin 2 x +
2

-f

-f- fl

cos

n.v

& n sin w.v

-f-

where the coefficients a k and b k may be determined if the function is known. This series has a period 2 x. But usually the function is unknown. Thus, in the problems mentioned above, the curve may either be drawn by an oscillograph or by other instruments, or the values of the ordinates may be given by means of which the curve may be drawn. Our problem then is to represent this curve approximately by a series of the above form, containing a finite number of terms, and to find the approximate values of the coefficients a k and b k The following sections will give some of the methods employed to determine these coefficients. 86. The fundamental and the harmonics of a trigonometric series. In Fig. 86a we have drawn the curves y = a x cos x, y = b x sin x, and
.

= fli cos x -\- b\ sin x. The maximum height or amplitude of y = #i cos x is a and period is 2 t. The amplitude of y = b\ sin x is bi and the period is Now we may write
x

the
2 t.

ai cos

+ bi sin x

= Vai

+ be
170

l
.

sin

x H

..

cos x

Art. 86

TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES

171
a>\

and

letting

Vaf +

bi

cu

\V +
Ci=

=
bx\

cos

fa,

y/af+W
fa

sin fa,

we may
y

write

= d sin
is

(x

+
C\

<i),

where

Va + &r,
2
x

tan

!
,

Here y

Ci

the amplitude

and

fa is called
is

the phase.

resented

by y
y

a\ cos x,

= =

sin (x

+ fa)

called
its

the fundamental

The wave repwave and

bi sin

x are called

components.

Fig. 86a.

Similarly,

we may
y

represent y
-f-

a k cos &x, y

=
(&x

b k sin &x,

and
where

fl/t

cos kx
2

&& sin

&x
<fo

= =

c& sin

+ fa),
.

a = Va k +
its

2
fc

and

tan -1 a k /b k

The wave
monic,

represented by y

c* sin

(&x

+
7r

$*.)

is

called
is

the &th har-

amplitude

is c k , its

phase
sin

is fa, its

period

2 ir/k, since

sin

K* +

[fcx

A]

sin (&x

fa)

and
is k.

its

frequency, or the

number
is

of

complete waves

in the interval 2 t,

The

trigonometric series

often written in the form

+ c n sin (rax + fa) + y = Co-f-Cisin (x+fa) +c2 sin (2x + fa) + showing explicitly the expressions for the fundamental wave and the successive harmonics. The more complex wave represented by this expression may be built up by a combination of the waves represented by the various harmonics. Fig. 866 shows how the wave for the equation
y
or

2 sin (x

+ ^J + sin Ux- ^j + h sin (3 x + ^J

x i
,

y j

cos x

^S cos
2

^2
4

cos 3 x-f-

yV 3 sin x
.

4 sin 2

V2 sin
.

t,

172
is

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

up
as the combination of the fundamental
is

Chap. VII

built

and the second and

third harmonics,
tion of

and how the fundamental wave the harmonic waves.

modified by the addi-

Fig. 86b.

In the case of alternating currents or voltages, the portion of the

wave

extending from x

= 7rtox =

27ris merely a repetition below the x-axis

to x

of the portion of the

wave extending from x = o

r; this

is illus-

trated in Fig. 86c where the values of

the ordinate at x

xr

ir

is

minus

the value of the ordinate at x

xr

Since
'2ir

sin (k [x

ir]

<f>k)

FlG

86c

= sin (kx + fa = -f-sin (kx + = -sin (kx +

3

+
<f>k)
</>*)

kir)
if if

k
k

is is

even
odd,

the series can contain only the odd harmonics and has the form

y
or

= =

Ci

sin (x

+ fa) + c
3

sin (3

< 3 )

+c

sin (5

<fo)

+ +

ai cos
bi

x sin x

+ a cos 3 x + a cos 5 x -f + 6? sin 3 x + 65 sin 5 x +

5

Art. 87

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS

'

173
is

87.
If,

Determination

of the constants

when

the function

known.

in the series

= f( x ) =

fl o

+ di cos x + a cos 2 x + + bi sin x + b sin 2 +

2
2

+ a n cos x -f + 6 sin nx +
n
/2tt
I

we multiply both we have

sides

by dx and
n2x

integrate between the limits o

and 2r,

r*

ydx = a

P2*
I

dx

a>i

cosxdx+
sin
2

+a n

cos wx dx

+ +

i/O

i/O

t/0

\- bi

f
J
I

x dx

+ bn
sin
A

sin
J

wx dx

'

flo

sin x\

+
2

On

nx

-h
=
If

cosx

cos nx

7ra

since all the other terms vanish

limits

we multiply both sides by o and 2 x, we have

fcx 2x

cos kx dx

and integrate between the

y cos

dx

J^2tt

cos kx dx
'

+ dk Jr2w cos
I

&x dx

^2 IT

+ -r

cos nx cos &x dx

+
2:

sin&x

k)

+ 6 J sin nx cos &x dx + sin 2 &x + rr * + 2& +

I

Oi-

On sin (n

sin (n

-\-

k) x\

2ir

cos (

k) X k

+k COS ( + k) X n +k
n
sin

=
Similarly,
if

irak,

since

all

the other terms vanish.

tween the limits o and 2

Jf*2ir
/"2x
t

we multiply both sides by nwe have

,

kx dx and integrate be-

/*2r

sin

&x dx

*7o

sin
t

kx dx

-{--
-f '

-\-

cos nx sin

fcx

Jo
/2 2t
j / '0

dx

-f*

J"2ir sin 2 kx dx

+ b nJo &n

sin

wx

sin

kx dx
2tt

= t_
.

2*

cos kx

On
2
t?n

cos (& n) x k n am sin (w ) x n k

^/*-

+ &* x cos (& + n) x

k
0111 sin
-\~~

sin 2

&x

2 &

2tt

n
/vy v

/vy .v

p + k) x n + k
(
^/fr

ir&jfc,

since

all

the other terms vanish

174

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Collecting our results,

Chap. VII

we have

2 tJq

c
i
I

y dx,

ah

it

r 2x
I

Jo

y cos kx dx,

bk

r 2w
I

t Jo

y sin kx dx,

where k

= 1,2, 3, .... Each coefficient may thus be independently determined and thus each individual harmonic can be calculated without calculating the preceding harmonics. 88. Determination of the constants when the function is unknown. In our problems the function is unknown, and the periodic curve is drawn mechanically or a set of ordinates are given by means of which the curve may be approximately drawn. We shall represent the curve by a trigonometric series with a finite number of terms. We divide the interval from x = o to x = 2 t into n equal intervals and measure the first n

ordinates; these are represented

by the

table

I)

*n

Art. 88

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS

(a

175

Xsin

+ t&)

sin

-f sin (a

+ ^ + sin

(a

+
.

/3)

-f-

w/3

sin -f sin (a -f [n

,6')

sin fa + n

sin -

If

we

let

o and

fi

2
I

7T
,

these

become
1)
7r

Vcos

2t
rl

sin sin

lir

(n

cos

o,

since sin

lit

o,

lir
lir
.

^sin

2
rl

it

sin
.

(n

1)

it

sin
sin

o, since sin It

o,

We may prove these theorems as follows: By means of the well-known trigonometric identities 2 sin u sin v = cos u sin v = sin (u + v) sin (u v),
*

cos (u

v)

cos (u

+ w)

we may
2 cos

write the identities

sin -

sin

2 sin

a sin

2
2 cos (a+.#) sin- =sinf a-\
J

cos la
J

cos

+a-f

sinl

a-)--

2 sin

(a+/3)sin-

=cos(a+- J cosf

2cos(a+2/3)sin- = sinf

a+^J-sinfa+^J

2sin(o!

+ 2 8)sin- = cosfa+^J-cosf a+^J/

2 cos (a

+ [w

/3)

sin -

sin

2 sin (a

3 2 w ( ^ + [n 1]/3) sin - = cos a+ -

(

/?

Adding, we get
2 sin

Adding, we get

-^cos

(a

-f-r/3)

sinf a-\

/3
J

2 sin -

^jsin

(a-f-r/3)

=cos (a
j

-sin (a-f)

- /?

cos

2-I
or

\
j

2 cos \a-i

~\
/3
I

sin

2 sin

/3

sin

\
J

sin
.*.

^cos(a+r) =

jcosf a+^-/3j-

_t

sin
;.

|-sin

J^sin (a+r/3)

(+^~

_T I

sin2

176

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

/

Chap. VII

for all values of

1

except
0,

= =
2

when ^cos rl **
when ^cos rl

= * Xcos o =
cos 2

n,

n,

=^
when
I

m = n.

Since x r

r -

T we n

may = =
o,

finally state that

Vcos

lx T

except

= o
I

or
n.

= n

n,

when
all

o or

=
/.

Xsin

lx r

o for

values of

To

determine a we merely add the n equations, and get

^y
To
of a k

= na = na
,

+a

2) cos kx r

+ ak J)sin kx +
T

since

all

the other terms vanish.

in that equation,

determine a k we multiply each of the n equations by the coefficient i.e., by cos kx T and add the n resulting equations;
,

we

get cos kxr

Xy

a ]}cos kx r

+
r

a-h

^cos 2 kx r

+
l

+a p ^cospx
Now,
XCOS&3V =
t

coskx r

-r-

+ bp^ smpx

coskx r

VcOS pX r COS kx

^COS
^sin

(p

+ k) X + \ X COS (P ~
T

k)xr

= =
if

Oj

Xsin px r cos kx r * =

(p

-\-

k)

xT

-\-

^sin

(p

k)

xr

o;

2 COS

fcx r

= J<2 X-

(i

+ COS 2 fcx

r)

= 2

-J-

2**

- T!cOS 2 kxT

=
2

k
u k

9*

We
use the trigonometric identities
2 cos 2 sin

n,

t 11

n
2

u cos = cos (u + f ) + cos (m ) cos v = sin (+)+ sin ( ). sin u sin v = cos (m w) cos ( + v).

Art. 88

DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS

]xy r cos kx r

1 77

Hence,

==

a k except when k
,

=-

nak,

when k =

To determine
we
get
sin

6a

we multiply each
i.e.,

of bk in that equation,

by

sin

of the n equations by the coefficient kx r and add the n resulting equations;

,

^y

kxr

a ^sin kx r

-j-

aP ]xcos />x r

sin

kx r

-J-

+ bk ^sin
Now,
2}sin kx r

kxr

-f-

+b

^sin px r sin kxr

o;

Vcos px r sin
Xsin px r

&;t r *

=
=

\ ]xsin (&

-f-

) xT

+ ^ ^sin ( p) x

| ]>}cos (
\-

=*

o;

sin fcx r *

^ ]}cos (

&)

xT

k)

x T = o;

Xsin 2 fcx,. =

X^2 (i

cos 2 &x r )
'

=
2

2*->

^cos 2

kx r

if

5^

=
Hence,

0, '

if

ft

^y r sin

fcx r

bk.

Collecting our results,

we have

finally

=
n

%y

= -(y
r

+ yi + y*+

+ yn-i),
(y

fl

=
=

2> cos -a: = - 2)yr cos nr = =

=
2
(yo cos

- Ji + y - ?3 +
2

- ?-i),

2 ^~

a*

- 2^yr cos kxr

2 w
\

+ yi cos

foci

-\-

n -i

cos kx n -i)

bk

=
*

2^y T

sin

kx r

- (yQ sin kx

+ yi sin kx +
t
t)

+ y_i sin kxn _J.

We

use the trigonometric identities

2 cos
2 sin

2 sin

u cos w cos sin v

t;

= cos (m + + cos (m = sin (w + + sin (z< v). cos (w v) cos ( + v).

1/)

1/).

178
If

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
n
is

PERIODIC
is

CURVES

Chap. VII

an even integer, our periodic curve

now

represented by the

equation

+ Oi cos x +
+ 61 sin x +

+ au cos kx +

+ a cos - x n 2
2

^
(

+ bk sin kx +

+ 6 ~ 2

sin
l

x.

\2

The w
a an
2

coefficients are

determined as above.

Thus

is

the average value of the n ordinates.

the average value of the n ordinates taken alternately plus and

is

minus.
ak or bk
is

twice the average value of the products formed

by multiply-

ing each ordinate

of

by the

cosine or sine of k times the corresponding value

x*

We
others.
If

note that each coefficient

is

determined independently of

all

the

we wished

to represent the periodic curve

by a

Fourier's series con-

taining n terms, but had measured

ordinates,

where

m>
It

n,

we

should

have to determine the

coefficients

values of the ordinates as

by the method of computed from this series

least squares.

The

will agree as closely

as possible with the values of the measured ordinates.

may

be shown
of least

that the expressions for the coefficients obtained

by the method

squares have the same form as those derived above.f

We may

also derive the values of the coefficients as follows:

In Art. 87,

we have

shown that
J"27r

y cos kx dx = ak

/2-ic
I

cos2 kx dx,

Jo

since all the other terms vanish.

If

we

replace the integrals

by sums, and take

ak

for

dx the interval 2

ir/n, this

becomes

S.yr cos kxr

^cos2 kx r =
=

-ak,

if

k 9^0 or k

9^

nak,

if

o or k

=
2

Hence,

S^

= na

>

^y? cos
,yr

Xr

n<ln

>

2^
bk.

cos ^ Xt

= ~

ak

'

Similarly

we may show

that

sin

kx r

= -

See

A Course

in Fourier's

Analysis and Periodogram Analysis by G. A. Carse and

G. Shearer.

Art. 89

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

179

We shall illustrate the use of the above formulas for the coefficients by
rinding the fifth harmonic in the equation of the periodic curve passing

through the 12 points given by the following data (Fig. 89).

X

i8o

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

;

Chap. VII

measure the ordinates at the beginning of each interval

resented by the following table:
o

let these

be rep-

300

Art. 89

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

6o
c

181

120

i8o

0.47

1.77

2.20
1

2.20
77

240 1.64

3oo

0.49

0.47
v

2.20

2.20

0.49
0.47
1.28

.64

w
0.47

2.26
1.28

0.56 3-84

2.20
2.26
r 5

p
2

2.20 - 1 73
.

2.67

0.56 1-84 0.72

3-84 6.10

-1.58

6oo 32
Hence,

and

6a 3 = i-95 0.11, 3 0i = 3-03, = -2.65, 3^2 = -1.373&1 = 5-28, = 0.33, a = o.l a = 0.02, ai = 1. 01, = 1.76, b = 0.46, &i y = 0.02 + 1 .01 cos x 0.88 cos 2 x + 0.33 cos 3 x

fls

+
y

.76 sin x

0.46 sin 2 x.
was plotted was

The equation from which

the curve in Fig. 866

-^ j + - sin ( 3 x + = cos x- 0.87 cos 2 x+0.35 cos 3 x+l-73 sin x + 0.50 sin 2 x 0.35 sin 3 xWe observe the close agreement between the two sets of coefficients,
=
2 sin
Ix

+ g + sin
J

2x

the small discrepancies being due to the approximate measurements of the ordinates for our example.

(ll^Twelve-ordinatejcheme.

Given
3

the curve and wishing to deter-

mine the
y

first six
fli

harmonics,

i.e.,

the 12 coefficients in the equation

4 5

-f-a 6

+ 02 cos 2 x + a cos 3 x + a cos 4 x + a cos cos 6 x + Oi sin x + o sin 2 x + b sin 3 x + b sin 4 x

cos x
2
3

5 x
&5 sin

-f-

5 x,

we

divide the interval from x = o to x = 360 into 12 equal parts and measure the ordinates at the beginning of each interval let these be rep;

resented

by the following

table:

182
If

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

PERIODIC
yz y*
V3

CURVES

Chap. VIJ

we arrange
yo

the y's in two rows

y\

y*
yio

y* y*

y$ yi

ye

yn

Sum
Diff.

V\

v2

V*
3

W\

W2

w
,

and remember that cos 330 = cos 30 above equations may be written
12 a 12 a 6

sin

330

= sin

30

etc.,

the

a\

6 a2

= = = =

-\-

vi

v
vQ v

Vi

+ vi
Vi

cos 30
cos 6o

+v + + vi + cos 6o + v cos 120 +

2
i' 2

-f-

+ ^6 + ^6 + v cos 8o + v cos 360

6

6bi
2

6b =
If

W\ sin 30 W\ sin 6o

+ U'2 sin 6o + + w sin 120 +

2

+w +w

b b

sin 150

sin

300

we now arrange
Bo
V\

the

v's

and w's
v3

in

two rows
1V2

v2 v4

W3
r3

Vh

Sum
Diff.

Po
go

Pi
ffl

Pi
g2

P*
Si

the equations

may be
g
po
g

written

= 12 a = 6 ai = 6fl 2 =
12 a
6

ffi

pi
<?i

+ cos 30 ^+^i cos 6o

ri

+ 22 + 23 -3 + 2 + g cos 6o + p2 cos 120 + Pz cos

2

180

6bi 6 62

= =
if

sin

30

Si

sin 6o

+r +5
the

2 2

sin 6o sin 120

r3 sin

90

Finally,

we arrange
Po pi

p's, g's,

and

r's

as follows:
ffo

pi

p*
li

r3
Diff.

22
fe

Sum
the equations
12 a

become
12 a 6
2
.

6 d\ 6 a2 6 03

= = = =

k-hhq

(po-ps)
fa.

+ gi sin 6o + q sin 30 + (pi -pi) sin30.

30
2)

6 a5 6 a4 6 &3 6
65
t

6 6

61

=
=

ri

sin

+r

sin 6o

+r

62

($i

+5

sin 6o.

6 b

k h= 20 2i sm 6o + 22 sin 30 = (0+ pz) ~ (pi + Pi) sin 30 = h. = r\ sin 30 r sin 6o + r%. = (si s ) sin 6o.
.

Art. 89

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

arrange the above scheme in a computing form as

183
fol-

We may now
lows:

Ordinates

y
v

yi

Ji
yio
v-i

Jz
y* v3

yi y*
Vi

y& yj vb

ye

yn

Sum
Diff.

V\

v6
b

W\

W2

Wz

Wi

184

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Example.

Chap. VII

In the periodic curve of Fig. 89, the interval from x

is

360 measured.
to x

divided into 12 equal parts and the ordinates ya to yn are

Art. 89

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

last result

185

The

was obtained by using the

kx

relations

ak cos

bh sin

kx

c k sin

(kx

</>*),

where
(III)

c-k

vV +

bk *

and

<pk

tan -1 7^
bh

Twenty -jour -ordinate scheme.

i.e.,

Given the curve and wishing to

x

find the first 12 harmonics,

the 24 coefficients in the equation

2

Oo

+ ^1 cos x + a + 61 sin x + b

cos 2 x
sin 2

+ +

| u cos + 6 n sin
12
;

12

1 1

x,

divide the interval from x = o to x = 360 into 24 equal parts and measure the ordinates at the beginning of each interval let these be represented by the following table:

we

i86

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
Multipliers

PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VII

Art. go
first half.

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

187

Hence in finding the coefficients we need merely carry the summation over the first half-period thus,
;

ah

= - ^y cos T,y

kx,

bk

= - ,y

sin kx,

where k
is

is

the

number of intervals (I) Odd harmonics up

odd, x and y are measured in the first half-period only, and n into which the half-period is divided.
to the fifth.

Given

the curve and wishing to

determine the coefficients in the equation

y = ai cos x-\-a 3 cos 3 x-\-a$ cos 5
x-\-bi sin x-\-b 3 sin 3 x-\-b$ sin 5 x,

we
y

choose the origin where the

wave

crosses the axis, so that

when x =

o,

o, divide the half-period into 6 equal parts, and measure the 5

y\,

ordi-.

nates

y2 y3 y4
,
,

y&-

Thus we have
1

30

50

88

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VII

The

following example will illustrate the rapidity with which the co-

efficients

may be

determined.

wish to analyze the symmetric wave of Fig. 90a, i.e., and 5th harmonics. Choose the x-axis midway between the highest and lowest points of the wave, and

Example.

We

to find the coefficients of the 1st, 3d,

-30-Fig. 90a.

the origin at the point where the

direction.

wave

crosses this axis in the positive

Then
y\,
.

divide the half-period into 6 equal parts and measure

. . ,

the ordinates

Jb-

These are given

in the following table:

1

30

50

Art. 90

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

189

Result:

= 5.65

+ 7.90 cos 3 x 2.25 cos 5 x + 19.84 sin x + 2.27 sin 3 x + 2.93 sin 5 x.
cos x

(II) Odd harmonics up to the eleventh. Given a symmetric curve and wishing to determine the coefficients in the equation

= ai cos x + a cos 3 x + + 61 sin x + 63 sin 3 x -f

3

+ #11 cos + &n sin

1 1

1 1

x,

we
y

choose the origin at the point where the wave crosses the axis, so that

o,

divide the half-period into 12 equal parts, and measure the 11

yi, y2,

ordinates

yn-

Thus we have
165

15

190

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VII

We may
form:
yi

conveniently arrange the work in the following computing

y%
yio
So

yz
y*
s3

yi
y*
S4

y$
yi
s-

ye

si

s3 s6

yn

s2
Sq

Sum
Diff.

si

d\

d3

= = d =
sa

rx r2
e\

do

d3

di

d-

Multipliers

Art. 90

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

and measure the ordinates
15
yi, y%
. .
.
,

191
in

parts

yn.

These are given

the following table:

)2

Art. 91

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

I93

Substituting these pairs of values in our series,

of the

we have n equations
T

form
yr

+ #1 cos x + a cos 2 x + + sin x hi sin 2 # +

r

b\

T -f-

-f-

+ dk cos kx + 6 sin kx +
r r
.

where

takes in succession the values

o,

1,

2, 3,

adding

these n equations,

we

get
r

Vy

= a +ai^cos^

+a^cos fex +
r

-\-b k

smkx +
/

where the summation

If

is

carried from r
in

to r

=
for

I.

we

Vet

/3

the expressions

^ cos
.

(a

rfi)

and

2
vi

sin (a

+
,

r/3)

derived in the note on p. 175, these become

7r\

SI
.

cos a+fcr
\
,

n
2

sin&7r = - ,,
,

/
x

cos a-|
\
.
.

k(n 1) 7r\
n
)

=0, since
.

sin

fc7r

= o, = o>

sin (kir/n)

Xsin

2i\ / , [a-\-kr\

sin for / kin i)?r\ =0 = - T r-c sin H n sin (k-KJn) / \ J

,

since sinfcx

except

when k is a multiple of w, for then both sin kir and sin (kir/n) are But equal to zero and the fractional expression becomes indeterminate
when
k
is

a multiple of n,

Xcos a
(

kr

^Tcos (a
(a

multiple of 2 t)

= ^cos a = n cos = ^sin a = n

a.

Vsin a
(

kr

= ^sin
J

+ multiple of 2

-w)

sin a.

Hence we may

state

^cos a
[

-\-

kr

o,

except

when
k

w, 2 , 3 ,
.

= n cos a, when
^sinfa

=
k

n, 2 n, 3 ,

+ kr

= =

o,

except
a,

when
k

n,

2 n, 3 n,
.

n sin

when

w, 2 w, 3 n,

(1)

If

we

start our intervals at

o,

then x r

=
k

and

^cos kx = ^cos( o
r

+ kr +
kr

=0, except when

=
k

n, 2ti,

= n cos o =
^sin kx r = ^sin o
(

n,

when

n, 2 n,

3 n,

...

=0,

for all values of k.

'

X^

- na

+ nan + na2n +

(a Q

-f-

an

+ a2n +

fl3n

).

194
If

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

(2) v '

Chap. VII

we

start our intervals at

'

7T

-, then xr '

n n
7T

7T

and
.

Vcos&x/ = Xcos(&-+&/'

=o

except
kir\

when
,

=
,

n, 2 n, 3 n,

= wcos
n
^Vsin kx T '

= n when k = 2n, An, 6n, = n when k = n, 3 n, 5 n,

values of
k.

= ^sinf &

\-

kr

-]

o for

all

^3'/ = na

=
have

na n + wa n wa n + (a o + a 2n - as + ain
2 3

).

Subtracting the second set of ordinates, y

y

f
,

from the

first set, y,

we

%yror

'2,yr

= (yr-y/)=yo-yo'-\-yi-yi'+y2-y2+ = 271 (a + n + a 5n +
fl 3

+y n-i-y'n-i

),

an

+a n+a 5n +
3

bo-yo+yi-yi +

-\-y n -x

y' n-i).

n ordinates start at x = o and are at intervals of 2 ir/n, n ordinates, start at x = ir/n and are at intervals of 2 ir/n; thus, the period from x = o to x = 2 ir is divided into 2 w equal parts each of width ir/n (Fig. 91a). Hence, If, starting at x = o, we measure 2 n ordinates at intervals of -w/n, the average of these ordinates taken alternately plus and minus is equal to the

The

first set of

and the second

set of

mm

of the amplitudes of the nth, 3 nth, 5 nth,

cosine components.

Fig. 91a.

Thus, to determine the sum of the amplitudes of the 5th, 15th, 25th, cosine components, merely average the 10 ordinates, taken alternately plus and minus, at intervals of 180 -7- 5 = 36 or at o, 36 72
.
. ,
,

324

(Fig. 91c); therefore

25
"
* "

G5

+ ai6 + a +

tV

(yo

+ yn yios + ym ym +ym ^252 + ^288 ^324).

^36

Art. 91
If

NUMERICAL EVALATUION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

. . .

1 95

the 15th, 25th,

5

harmonics are not present, then

=
(3) KJ/

A (yo y +
Similarly, J
'

^72

^ios

3*144

ym + ym y + y^
at x

y*i\)>

if

we start our intervals

2
11

then x r

2x = + r
2 n

and
2}cos kx r

2)cos Ik

^sin kx T = 2)sin I k

+ +

J = o for all values of k, kr \ = o except when k = n,

kr
.

2 n, 3 n,

kir

wsin

2 n

= 11 when = o when = n when

k k k

= =

n, 5 n,

2 n, 4 n, 3 n, 7 n,
3

9 n, 6 n,
1 1

n,

.'.

^y
(4)

= nao-\-nbn nb
if

n-\-nb bn

= n (a +6 & +& n &?+

at

Again,
r

we
and

start

our intervals

'

then

Xr

=
2 n

\-

Vcosx/ = 2)cos(&
Vsin^jc/

+ kr )=

o for

all

values of

k,

sin (^

+ ^-)=

o except when k
3&7T

= n,

2 w, 3 ,

ttsin

2 w

= when^= w, 5 w, = o when k = 2n, 4, = w when = 3 w, 7?.',

9, 6w,
11 w,

Subtracting the second set of ordinates,

y'

from the

first set, y,

we

have

%yr - 2)>V

=z

%(y ~

>')

30

3V

iyi

- 3V +
-\-

+ y~n-i - y'-i

= 2n
or
bn

(&,.

b Zn

b bn

b 7n

),

-b 3n +fa n -b 7n +
first set of

=- (30-30' +31 -3/+

2 n

+yn-i-y'n-\)'
intervals of

The
2 ir/n, '
'

n ordinates start at x
set of

71-/2 11

and are at

and the second

;

n ordinates start at x

=
2

- and are at n
2
tv

intervals of 2 ir/n
is

thus the period from x

=
IT

7r/2

n to x

+ tt/2 n

divided into 2 w equal parts each of width

//, starting at

Hence,

71-/2

n,

the average of these ordinates taken alternately plus

we measure 2 n ordinates at intervals of ir/iu, and minus is equal to the

196

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VII

sum

of the amplitudes, taken alternately plus

.

and minus,

of the nth, 3 nth,

5 nth,

sine components.

taken alternately components, merely plus and average the 10 ordinates taken alternately plus and minus, at intervals 18 i.e., at starting at x = 180 -4- 10 = 18 of 180 -1-5 = 36

Thus

to determine the

sum

of

the amplitudes,
. . .

minus, of the 5th, 15th, 25th,

sine

x=

54

90

.,

342 (Fig. 91c); therefore

-

bb

bis

+b
2i
.

tV (yu

y-oi

^270

+ ygo - ym + yi62 + ^306 ^342).

^198

yigs 4-

^
^342)

If

the 15th, 25th,

65

harmonics are not present, then

^126

tV

(Jl8

ybi

+ ^90

+ yi62 ~

.^234

^270

+ ^306 ~

We may also note that the set of 2 n ordinates measured for determining the b's lie midway between the set of 2 n ordinates measured for determining the a's, so that to determine any desired harmonic we actually measure 4 n ordinates, starting at x = o and at intervals of We use the 1st, 3d, 5th, ... of these ordinates for determining 7r/2 n. a, and the 2d, 4th, 6th, ... of these ordinates for determining b. If the higher harmonics are present, these must be evaluated first. The absolute term a is obtained from the relation
yo

a\

a-i

a3

+
we

We

shall

now

Example.

methods developed by an example. Given the periodic wave of Fig. 89 and assuming that no
illustrate the

higher harmonics than the 6th are present,

efficients in the

are to determine the co-

equation
a

+ ai cos x + a cos 2 x + + b\ sin x bi sin 2 x +

2

-\-

+ a cos 6 x + &6 sin 6 x.

6

To determine a 6 and b measure 12 ordinates ginning at x = o and x = 15 respectively (Fig.

6

at intervals of 30
91b); then

be-

40tY

-20+
Fig. 9 1 b.

Art. 91 ^6

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

T* (yo yso tV (9-3 ~ i5-o
' *

197

&6

+ ^300 ^wo) + ^60 ^90 + - 23.0 + 37.0 - 31.0 + 15.3 - 4.0 - 8.0 + 13.2 + 174 14 2 + 6.0) = 0.25. ~ ^lOS + = iV (Jl5 - ? + + ~ Jito) - 16.0 + 19.5 - 31.0 + 35.3 - 23.8 + 10.5 + 5.7 - 10.0 = tV (i3-o + 14.5 - 11.0 - 0.5) = 0.52.
= =
'

3*75

'

'

"

3>315

40-i-y

-20^
Fig. 91^.

To determine beginning at x =
#5

a 5 and b 5 measure 10 ordinates at intervals of 36 o and x = 18 respectively (Fig. 91c) then

= = = h = = =

T(T (yo

^36

+ ^72 ~ + J90

^lOS

+ +

'

'

'

+ ^288 ~ ^324)
'

tV (9-3-I5-3

+ I8.8-32.8+33-0-I5-3-I-0+9-5-I5-0+8.4)
^126
'

0.04.
tV
t'o

+ ^306 ~ ymt) (13-8-16.8+23.0-36.8+25.5-9.0-7.7 + 13.4-13.2 + 1.5)

(jl8

^54

-O.63.

40tY
30-

20-

10

2J5
0

e5
45

112.5

247.5

292.5
' '

1E~

3 37.5/
375=

-10-

~20
Fig. gid.

I9&

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
>

PERIODIC

CURVES

Chap. VII

To determine a 4 and 4 measure 8 ordinates at intervals ginning at x = o and x = 22| respectively (Fig. gid) then
;

of 45

be-

04

= = = h =

1 (> 1 (9.3 I I

345 + ^90 + + 3270 ~ 33is) - 16.0 + 23.0 - 35.3 + 15.3 + 5.7 - 13.2 + 11.0) = -0.03. + J ~ 3337.5) (^22.5 367.5 + yiU.S (14.5 - 18.0 + 35.0 - 27.7 + 7.7 + 8.8 - 14.7 + 3.0) = 1.08.
3*135
* ' '

2 92.5

To determine az and b 3 measure 6 ordinates at intervals ginning at x = o and x = 30 respectively (Fig. gib); then G3 = (yo Jeo + 3*120 3iso + 3*210 3300) = I (9-3 - 174 + 37-0 - 15-3 - 8.0 + 14.2) = 3.30. h = I (yS0 J90 + 3150 3210 + 3270 3'330) = I (15.0 ~ 23.0 + 31.0 - 4.O - 13.2 + 6.O) = I.97.
beginning at x
a2
.'.

of 6o, be-

b2

To determine a 2 and b 2 measure 4 ordinates at intervals of 90 = o and x = 45 respectively (Fig. 916); then - 390 + 3'iso -3270) = | (9-3 ~ 23.0 + 15.3 + 13-2) = 3-70, + a = (30 a = 345-b 6 = 1(3-45 -3135 + 3225-3315) = I (16.0- 35.3 - 5-7 + 1 1.0) = -3-50, bo = 2.98.
,

beginning at x
ai
bi.

To determine =
a3
b3

ai

and bi measure 2 ordinates at intervals and x = 90 respectively (Fig. 916); then

of

180

+
-

+a = + b- =
5

\ (30

(y 90
ao

- 3'iso) = \ (9-3 ~ 15-3) = -3-oo, - 3270) =5(23-0 + 13-2) = 18. io,

.'

ai
bi.

.*.

= =

-6.26.
20.60.

To determine
a

we have
a3

+
=

ai

a2

a4

a5

a6

30

9-3-

^o

8.63.

Result:

8.63

6.26 cos x + 3.45 cos 2 x + 3.30 cos 3 x 0.03 cos 4 x 0.04 cos 5 x + 0.25 cos 6 x + 20.60 sin # 2.98 sin 2 # + 1 .97 sin 3 x + .08 sin 4 x 0.63 sin 5 x + 0.52 sin 6
1

re.

This result agrees quite closely with that of Art. 89,

p. 184;

the differ-

ences in the values of the coefficients are due to the fact that by the method of Art. 89 only the ordinates at o, 30 6o, 330 are used, whereas by the method of this Art. a large number of intermediate ordiIf the curve is drawn by some mechanical instrument, nates are used.
,

the present

method
183
is

will
;

evidently give better approximations to the

less

values of the coefficients but the labor involved in using the computing

form on
92.

p.

much

than that used in measuring the selected

ordinates above.

Numerical evaluation of the coefficients. Averaging selected Odd harmonics only. If the axis is chosen midway between ordinates. the highest and lowest points of the wave and the second half-period is

Art. 92

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

199

merely a repetition below the axis of the first half-period, then only the odd harmonics are present. If the ordinates at x = x r and x = x T + -k In the are designated by y r and y r +w respectively, then y T+ir = y T method of averaging selected ordinates, the 2 n ordinates are spaced at intervals of ir/n and are taken alternately plus and minus; then y^, is at a distance it = n (r/n), or n intervals, from y r and since n is odd, yr+T will occur in the summation with sign opposite to that with which yr
.
,

occurs, so that,

e.g.
*

an

CLZn

+
-

yo

yi

200
05

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VII

fa

03
fa

= = = = =

^36 + yn ym + ym) 8.6 + 6.3 27.7 + 19-0) = Ho

i (jo
I

2.20.

(yi8-ya+yw-ym+yi62)=

b (11.3-2.7+20.5-25.5+10.7)

= 2.86.

3 (Jo % (y 30
3

- yeo + ym) = Mo - 2 -8 + 26.5) = 7.90. - y + ywo) = \ (10.7 - 20.5 + 16.6) = 2.27.

5

01
0i

+a +a - fa + 65

= =
y

j (y
T

= o, (yn) = 20.5,
)

.'.

ax
fa

/.

= =

-5.70.

+19.91.

Result:

= 5.70 cos x

+
We may

19.91 sin

+ 7.90 cos 3 x 2.20 cos 5 # + 2.27 sin 3 x + 2.86 sin 5 x.

compare this result with that obtained for the same curve by the use of the computing form on p. 187. If only the 1st and 3d harmonics had been present in the above wave, we should have
a3

\ (y
3

ym

+ ym)

fa
fa

i
fa

(yso

y
90 .

J90

+ yuo)

0i + a yo o;

If all the odd harmonics up to the ninth had been present wave, we should have

in the

above

09
^9

07
fa

05

03
01

yw + yw + yso ym + ym yuo + ym) V70 + J90 yiW + ^130 ~ ^150 + yi7o) ^30 + + Vol. ~ + ^102. ~ yi28.57 + 3 154.2g) 7 (yo ^25. = 7 (^12.86 + ^64.29 ~ ^90 + Jll5.71 ~ J141.43 + yi67.u) y36 + y72 yios + ym) fa = \ (yi y + y y = + 09 = I (yo ym + yi2o) fa fa = I (y - y + ym) + 03 + 05 + 07 + 09 = yo = O; fa fa + fa fa + fa = ^90.
= = =
4 (yo
3'eo
;

h (yiO

>'50

',

71

43

}'77.14

86

;y3S.57

',

(>'o

bi

90

126

+ ym

30

90

Similar schedules

may

be formed

for

determining the odd harmonics

up

to
93.

any

order.
coefficients.

Graphical evaluation of the

Various
much more

graphical
laborious

methods have been devised

for finding the values of the coefficients in

the Fourier's series, but these are less accurate and

than the arithmetic ones. The graphical methods, while interesting, are of little practical value in rapidly analyzing a periodic curve, so that we the Ashworth-Harrison shall describe here only one of these methods method.* If, for example, we divide the complete period into 12 equal intervals and measure the 12 ordinates, we shall have the table

Art. 93

GRAPHICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

have already shown
(p.

20I

We
6 6

181) that

<2i

= 2) Jr cos x =
T

Jo cos o

+ yx cos 30 + + ^ sin 3 +

+ yn cos 330 + yn sin 330

.

61

= 2)> sin *' =

evident that
if

sm

It is

we

radiating from a

common

consider the v's as a set of co-planar forces the sum of center at angles o, 30 6o,
,

the horizontal components

is

equal

to 6 a\ and the sum of the vertical components is 6 b\. To facilitate the finding of these sums we may draw the polygon of forces, starting at a and laying off in succession point the ordinates, each making an angle

with the preceding, as in Fig. 93a (proper regard must be had for
of 30

the signs of
rapidly

the ordinates).
of a

polygon of forces

The may be constructed

protractor

by means

carrying an ordinary measuring scale

along the diameter.

Then, OA, the OP on the horizontal, is equal to 6 tti, and OB, the projection of the resultant OP on
projection of the resultant

the vertical,

is

equal to 6bi.

Further-

more,

if

we
6
C\

write a\ cos x
</>i),

+b

-60
93a.

sin

x
In Fig. 93a
a,\,

=
of

C\

sin
is

(x -f

then the length

OP

and the angle

POB

is 4> x

we have made
</>i

the
find

construction for the determination of

curve drawn in Fig. 89 using the table of

and ordinates on
b i}
C\,

for the periodic

p. 184.

We
134,

OA =
hence
fli

6ai

= 414,
Z

OB = 6bi= 126.0, POB = </>!= -18.1

;

OP =

cy

6.9,

b]_

21.0,

C\

22.3,

-18.1".

These

very closely with those obtained on p. 184. a 2 and b 2 by laying off in succession the ordinates, each making an angle of 6o with the preceding; we proceed similarly in finding the other coefficients. A separate diagram must be drawn for each pair
results agree
find

We may

of coefficients.

More

generally,

if

we

divide the complete period into n equal intervals

(p.

of width 2

x/ and measure the n ordinates, then

177)

202

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

PERIODIC
+
)

CURVES
-\-y n -i

Chap. VII

a,k

^y

cos kx r

= yo cos o -fvi

cos k

cos k

2(ni)ir

-b k =
point

^^^r sin
if

^jc r

= ^o sin o -{-^i sin ^

( +

2 (n-l)ir

+y-i

sin k

Hence,

construct the polygon of co-planar forces by starting at a and laying off in succession the ordinates, each making an angle
2 kir/n with the preceding, then

we

OA,

the projection of the resultant

OP

on the horizontal, is equal to nau/2, and OB, the projection of the resultant OP on the vertical, is equal to
nbi,/2,

except

when

o or k

n/2,
,

when we

get

the values

na 0} nb
n/2

na n /2, nb n /2, respectively.

more, the length of

Further(or n)

OP

is

VJ20 U

Fig. 93c.
c k and the angle between OP and OB gives the phase complete harmonic c* sin (kx <*) <f>k Example. Analyze graphically the periodic curve in Fig. 86b. As in the example on p. 181, we shall find the first three harmonics from the data

times the amplitude

of the

Art. 94

MECHANICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

203

Result:

+ 1.03 cos x 0.89 cos 2 x + 0.33 cos 3 x + 1.78 sin x 0.45 sin 2 x = 0.02 + 2.08 sin (x + 30 + sin (2 x 6o) 0.33 sin (3* 90
=
0.02
)

).

Note the close agreement of this result with that obtained by the method on p. 181. Harmonic analyzers. 94. Mechanical evaluation of the coefficients. A very large number of machines have been constructed for finding the coefficients in Fourier's series by mechanical means. These instruments are called harmonic analyzers. The machines have done useful work where a large number of curves are to be analyzed. Among these analyzers we may mention that of Lord Kelvin,* Henrici.f Sharp, | Yule, Michelson and Stratton,|l Boucherot,T[ Mader,** and Westinghouse.fi We shall briefly describe the principles upon which the construction of two of these instruments depend. f| The harmonic analyzer of Henrici. This is one of a number of machines which use an integrating wheel like that attached to a planimeter
arithmetic

or integrator to evaluate the integrals occurring in the general expressions for the coefficients

do

T Jo
I

y dx,

ak

=IT

Jo

y cos kx dx,

bk

- / T Jo

y sin kx dx

given on p. 174. If the curve in Fig. 94a represents a complete period of the curve to be analyzed, then evidently

f ydx =
Jo
so that,
if

area

OABCDBO;
is

the tracing point of a planimeter

allowed to follow the curve

,

OABCDBO,
Oo

the integrating wheel will give the reading 2 xa

from which

may

be computed.

* Proc.
t Phil. X
||

1f

Roy. Soc, xxvii, 1878, p. 371; Kelvin and Tait's Natural Philosophy. Mag., xxxviii, 1894, p. no. Phil. Mag., xxxviii, 1894, p. 121. Phil. Mag., xxxix, 1895, p. 367; The Electrician, March 22, 1895. Phil. Mag., xlv, 1898, p. 85. Morin, Les Appareils d'Integration, 1913, p. 179.
xi,

** Elektrotech. Zeit., xxxvi, 1909; Phys. Zeit.,

ft

1910, p. 354.

The

Electric Journal,

xi,

1914, p. 91.
last of

XX Brief descriptions of all

but the

these

may

be found

in

Modern Instruments
1914.

and Methods of Calculation, a handbook of the Napier Tercentenary Celebration, For the principle of the planimeter and integrator, see pp. 246, 250.

204

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Integrating

Chap. VII

by

parts,
-;

we may
y sin kx

write
i

-r\w

C 2w sin kx
.

kit Jo
j

dy =

-j P* slnkxdy,
i
I

kit Jo
l

P2*
/

P2*

ycoskx
)

coskxdy=l + T~ kirJo R-kJo

coskxdy.

Now

if

the planimeter carries two

integrating wheels

whose axes make at

71-/2

each instant angles kx and

WX
boundary

kx with the y-axis, and the point of intersection of these axes is capable of

moving
the

parallel to the y-axis, then as

tracer

point

passes

around the

OABCDBO,
/

these wheels give readings proportional to

sin

kx dy

and

sin

kx dy
J

cos kx dy,

from which the values of a k and &* can be found. In one form of the instrument the curve is drawn on a horizontal A mechanism is attached cylinder with the y-axis as one of the elements. to a carriage which moves along a rail parallel to the axis, by means of which a tracer point follows the curve while the cylinder rotates; the mechanism allows the axes of the integrating wheels to be turned through an angle kx while the cylinder roCoradi, tates through an angle x.
the Swiss manufacturer, has perfected the instrument so that several pairs of coefficients

may

be read

with a single tracing of the curve.

360

refer enfi e

Fig. 946.

Fig. 94c.

The Westinghouse harmonic analyzer.This machine, constructed by the Westinghouse Electric and Mfg. Co., is particularly useful in

Art. 94

MECHANICAL EVALUATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS

205

analyzing the alternating voltage and current curves represented by a

polar or circular oscillogram.
Fig. 946 gives one period of a periodic curve drawn on rectangular coordinate paper. In Fig. 94c, the same curve is represented on polar coordinate paper. This is done by constructing a circle of any convenient radius, called the zero line or reference circle and locating any point P

by the angle 6 = x and the radial distance r = y from the zero line. Thus the points marked P, A, and B in Figs. 946 and 94c are corresponding points. If only the odd harmonics are present, the second half-period
of the curve in Fig. 946 will be a repetition half-period; in this case, the diameters at
will
all

below the x-axis

of the first

angles of the curve in Fig. 94c

circle.

be equal, and equal to the diameter of the reference

The

re-

lation
f

between

and

0,

f(fi)

a i cos

+a

cos 2 8

+
is

bi sin 6 -f b 2 sin

2 6 -f

+ cos kd + + fa sin kd +
Q>k

the function to be analyzed.

This

is

done

as follows.

The

circular record of the periodic curve,

drawn by hand from the

is

rectangular record or directly

by the

circular oscillograph,*

transferred

to a card of bristol board

and a template

is

the curve.

In the

initial position

the template

prepared by cutting around (Fig. 94^) is secured

on a turntable
B.

T so

that the axis 6

is

lies

The

turntable

set

on a carriage

under the transverse cross-bar which slides on the rails L. The

1914,
p.

The

Electric Journal,

xi,

262.

2o6
carriage
is

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VII

given an oscillatory motion by the motion of a crank-pin

(Figs. 940, 94/)

slot

attached to a rotating gear

G and

sliding in a transverse

5 on the bottom of the carriage. The carriage thus has a simple harmonic motion whose amplitude is the crank-pin radius R. By means of a crank and a simple arrangement of gears, the carriage makes k complete oscillations while the template makes one revolution, when determining the kih harmonic.

r^T^U

j^Zh

Fig.

94<?.

Fig. 94/.

a pin

The cross-bar B is attached to the oscillating carriage; this bar carries C held in contact with the edge of the template by means of springs,
Reyy, the motion of the end of the bar, be said to consist of two components, viz., the transverse

so that the bar has a transverse motion as the template revolves.

ferred to a pair of axes xx
Q{x,y),

and

may

motion

of the bar,

f(d), the

function to be analyzed, and the

simple harmonic motion of the carriage,

(i)

= R sin

kd

or
is

(2)

= R

sin (kd

-J

R cos kd,
dotted position
its

according as the carriage

of Fig. 94c or of Fig. 94/.

started with the slot

6"

in the

planimeter

is

attached with

tracing point

This point then describes compound Lissajous figures whose areas Ai and At may be read from the integrating wheel of the planimeter.
at Q.

Now

from
Jr2ir

dy
(1),

dd
I

Rk
p2v

cos

and from

(2)

~ = Rk da
r

sin kd,

hence

xdy =

rRk cos kd dd = Rk

f2ir

t/0
/2tt

Jo
/*2ir

cos kd dd

= Rk irak,

Jr2

xdy =

rRk
fc

sin kd dd

= Rk

r sin kd dd

Rkrrbk,

*J0

t/0

using the formulas for a and b k on p. 174.

Therefore

dk

= Au

Rh

bk

= A2
Rkir'

Gears are provided to analyze

to 50,

for all
is

even and odd harmonics from

and the

shifting of the gears

a very simple matter.

EXERCISES
EXERCISES.
1.

207

Sketch the periodic curves

y
2.

= = =

2 cos x;

cos 2 x;

2 cos *

+ cos 2 x.
\ sin 3 x;

Sketch the periodic curves

y y
3.

I
I

+ sin x; y = \ sin 2 x; y = + sin x \ sin 2 * + 3 sin 3 x.

);

Sketch the periodic curves

y = y =
4.

2 sin (x

2 sin (x

40.5

sin (2

*
72.

-f 72.
)

);

\ sin (3

90);

40.5)

sin

(21

5 sin (3 x

90).

Sketch the periodic curve

y
5.

cos * 4- 0.4 cos 3 x

+
+

0.5 sin

0.5 sin 3 x.

Sketch the periodic curve

y = cos x

0.4 cos 3 x

0.2 cos 5

0.5 sin x

0.5 sin 3

0.3 sin 5 x.

6. By use of the formulas on p. 177 and the direct method illustrated on p. 179, determine the coefficients of the third and fourth harmonics of the periodic curve in Fig. 89; use the table of ordinates on p. 179. Determine the first three harmonics of the periodic curve given by the following 7. data; use the computing form on p. 180.

208

EMPIRICAL FORMULAS PERIODIC CURVES

Chap. VII

13. Determine the odd harmonics up to the eleventh for the symmetric periodic curve from which the following measurements were taken; use the computing form on
p. 190.

CHAPTER

VIII.

INTERPOLATION.
95.

Graphical Interpolation.
i.e.,

Having found
we may use

the empirical formula

this in the process of

connecting two measured quantities

interpolation,
in

computing the value of one

of the quantities

when

given within the range of values used in the determination of the formula. It is the purpose of this chapter to give some methods
the other
is

whereby interpolation may be performed when the empirical formula is inconvenient for computation or when such a formula cannot be found. Let the following table represent a set of corresponding values of two
quantities

2IO

INTERPOLATION
For most problems the arithmetic or algebraic methods

Chap. VIII

to be explained

in the following sections give

much

better results.

96.

series of equidistant values of

Successive differences and the construction of tables. Given a x and their corresponding values of y,
Xo
X\

x2
h
Xo

xz
2 h
Xo

Xn
3 h
Xo

x
3'o

+
yi

+
yi

+
y*

+
yn
,

nh

we

define the various orders of differences of y as follows:

1st difference

2d difference 3d difference
fcth

= A = A = A

1
:

a
b
c

2
:

3
:

= = = =

yx ax
bx

y
a
b

ax
bx
cx

= y2 = a2 = b
2

yi,
ci\,

a n -i = y n
b n -2=
CL n

-2

y n -\ ~ &n-l',
;

bx

C n _3= b n -3 b n -2',

difference

= Ak

ji

0)

kx

j2

ji,

These

may
I

be tabulated as follows:

Art. 96

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENCES
if

211

Similarly,

=
xn

x n where n

is

a positive integer,
1

Ay =

(x

h) n

xn

+
l

wx".

/*

+^

12

~
I

xn

~2

hz -f

**

= nx n ~ ., h
A2y =
|~ (*

n (n

1) n - - 2 '-x h?

+
,

+ An
,

+ /0 n_1

n
/* -I-

~ ^

(x

+ /*)"-

/*

= W =
(

fn**-1*

+ V^LZl) x n-2h

2 _|_

A v

I)

x n_2 /* 2
(

+
X

1)

2)

n ~3

+
3

A n v= n(n

1)

{n

2)

hn

\nh n

hence the nth differences of x n where n is a positive integer, are constant, and hence the wth differences of any polynomial of the nth degree
,

Ax n
where n
is

+ Bx

n ~l

Cx n

~2

+ Kx +
If in

L,

a positive integer, are constant.

forming the differences

of a function

some order

of differences, say the wth,

becomes approxi-

mately constant, then we may say that the function can be represented approximately by a polynomial of the wth degree, where n is a positive
integer.

The formation

of the differences for various functions

is

illustrated

in the following tables:

(1)
y
I

=
A
1

x3
A5 A3

212
(3)
X

INTERPOLATION
y

Chap. VIII
y

= <K

(4)

= v^

Art. 96
If

SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENCES

213

the computation had been carried to six decimal places,

3

A 2 would no.

be constant but A would be. In (3), A 2 is approximately constant, so that

four decimal places, Vac could be represented

if we desire to work to by a polynomial of the

second degree within the given range of values of

1

x.

In (4), A is approximately constant so that Vx could be represented by an equivalent polynomial of the first degree. In (5) and (6), A 2 and A 3 are approximately constant, so that R may be approximately represented by a polynomial of the second degree in V, and / by a polynomial of the third degree in V. In (7), log x may be approximately represented by a polynomial of the first degree, and in (8), log sin x by a polynomial of the third degree

within the given range of values of

In general,
it is

x.

evident that

we may
h.

stop the process of finding suc-

cessive differences

much

sooner the smaller the

and the smaller the constant interval the differences become irregular.

We

number of digits required should stop immediately if

The formation of differences is often valuable where a function is to be tabulated for a set of values of the variable. Thus, suppose we wish to form a table for y = irx 2 /^, expressing the area of a circle in terms of
the diameter, for equidistant values of
of the second degree,
x.
if

Since

we have a polynomial
1

A 2y

is

constant, and

and the work

is

to be

carried to 4 decimal places,

we need merely compute

A 2y =
1.5708,

the values of y for

1,

2,

and form the corresponding

differences; proceeding back-

wards,

add this to Ay = 3.9270 and get 5.4978, add this to 7.0686 and get 12.5664, which is the value of y for x = 4. proceed in the same manner to get the values of y for suc-

we

repeat the value of

We
y

cessive values of x.

= 5rxI /4
0.7854

A'

A2

214

Art. 97

NEWTON'S INTERPOLATION FORMULA

215

where the coefficients are again those of the binomial expansion with n replaced by n + 1. Thus we have shown that if equation (I) is true for any positive integral value of n, it is true for the next larger integral value. But we have shown (I) to be true when n = 4, therefore it is true when n = 5 since it is true for n = 5, therefore it is true for n = 6; etc. Hence
;

(I) is

true for

all

positive integral values of n.

Now if some order of differences, say the kth order, is constant, i.e., k A y = ko, then y is a polynomial of the &th degree in n, and equation (I)
may
A
be written

+ Bn + Cn* +

Ln*

=y

n + na + ^ ~
la
.

l)

K+
. . .

n (n

1)

(n

h + 1)

The
in n,

right

member
for

of this equation

is

also a polynomial of the &th degree

and
{i.e.,

since these polynomials are equal for all positive integral values

of

more than k values

the &th order of

n, integral, fractional, positive,

Hence
yn

if

of n), they must be equal for all values and negative. differences is constant, we have
(n

of

yo

+ na

n (n
-\

1)

r-

+ n
\)
.

1)

(n

2)

-r.

- cQ
i)

n{nfor all values of n.

(n-k +

This fundamental formula of interpolation is known In this formula, y is any one of the tabulated values of y and the differences are those which occur in a line through y and parallel to the upper side of the triangle in the tabular scheme on p. 210. Newton's formula is approximately true for the more frequent case where the differences of some order are approximately constant; all the more so if n < 1 We can always arrange to have n < 1 for if we wish lies between the tabular to find the value of y = Y for x = X, where values Xi and x i+ i, we use Newton's formula with v, and the correspondas Newton's interpolation formula.
. ;

ing differences

a*, bi,

c,-,

so that

Xi

-\-

nh and n

jY"

<
7

x-

1.*

The

values of the binomial coefficients occurring in the formula have been tabulated for values of n between o and 1 at intervals of o.oi.f Let us now apply Newton's formula to the illustrative differencetables (1) to (8).
*

The ordinary

interpolation formula of proportional parts disregards

all

differences

so that y = yo nao, where n = (X Xo)/h. This simple formula will often give the desired degree of accuracy if the interval h can be made small enough.

higher than the

first,

See H. L. Rice, Theory and Method of Interpolation.

2l6
(i)
/

INTERPOLATION

Chap. VIII

To compute
4)
n, 3

(34)
\

3
;

^0 = 27,
1

h=

l,

= (3.4-3)/! =0.4;
f

/.

(3

,/ = 27 + (04) / \ (37)+ = 39-304-

(04)

0-6)

(24)

+
,

(0.4) (-0.6) -JlA

(-1.6)

,_.

(6)

To compute ^23.5; y = 2.8439, h = 1, n =(23.5 - 23)/i = 0.5; ^23^5 = 2.8439 + \ (0.0406) + \ (0.0011) = 2.8643. If we use the ordinary interpolation formula of proportional parts, v/23.5 = 2.8439 + \ (0.0406) = 2.8642, which would be correct to
(3)
.*.

three decimals only.

(4)
.'.

To compute ^612.25; ^612.25 = 84902 + \

;y

= 8.4902, (0.0046) =

= i, n = (612.25 6i2)/i = {;

8.4914.

(5)
/.

(7)
.'.

To computed when 7=65; R = 14.9, h = 20, n = (65~6o)/20 = j; R = 14.9 + 1 (7.9) - s\ (2.4) = 16.7. To compute log 501.3; y = 2.6998, h= 1, = (501.3 50O/1 =0.3;
log 501.3

2.6998

+ 0.3 (0.0009)

2.7001.

(8)

To compute

log sin i 16';

y =

8.3088

10,

=
(

10',

n =

(i 16'
.*.

i io')/io'

log sin i 16'

= =

0.6;

(8.3088

10)

+ 0.6 (0.0580)

=
8.3436

0.12

0.0069)
we have

+ 0.056 (0.0016)
If

8.3445

10, correct to

4 decimals.
parts,
10, correct to 2

we

use the ordinary formula of proportional

log sin i 16'

8.3088

10

0.6 (0.0580)

decimals only.
If

the value of x for which

the end of the table

take care of this

the differences,

we wish to determine the value of y is near we may not have all the required differences. To case Newton's formula is slightly modified. If we
and form

invert the series of values of x in the tabular scheme on p. 210,

we have
X

Art. 97

NEWTON'S INTERPOLATION FORMULA

;y 4

217

Starting at

and applying Newton's formula, we get

.

yn

yi

+ n(-a
,

3)

+^
n
(n

1)

-b 2

+ -^

1)

in

(n

1)

(n

2)
>

-r-^

(-c

x)

n (n

1)

n (n

2)

Comparing the

result with the

scheme on

p. 210,

we

note that the

differ-

ences are those which occur along a line parallel to the lower side of the
triangle in that scheme.
X4

and x3 then
,

rc4

Here ;y 4 is any value of y, and nh, and n = (x4 X)/h.

V24.8.
In table
(3),
;y 4

if

X lies between
2.9240, h

Example.

(25
.'.

To compute 24.8)/ 1 = 0.2;

I,

^24.8 = 2.9240

0.2 (0.0395) H

'

0.0011) =

2.9162.

a series of corresponding numerical values of two quantities are we may use Newton's formula for finding the polynomial which will represent this series of values exactly or approximately. For this purpose we replace n by (x x )/h. Thus, in table (i), h = 1, x = 1, n = x 1
If

given,

/.

+
,

(x

1) 7

+
.

(x

1) (x

P
[2

2)

^I2H
n

x(xi)(x 2)(xi)^
1

-^6 = x

, 3
.

In table

(5),

20,

F =
,

20,

=
20

=
20
2
/ '-2.2

'

\ / V d * = 5-5 + (--lJ3.6 +
. ,

v -i)(V\20
/

\20
2
.

=
The values
In table
.

4.1

+ 0.015 V + 0.00275 V
this

of

computed by

formula agree quite closely with those

in the table.
(6),

I,

V =
10)

10,

= V
IO)

10; II)

.*.

t I

1900

+
1

nr (V
.

n* 600
10)

+
,

(V11)

(72
12)

150

(V2042

(V200

(V8|

= -6850 +
The
in the table; thus,

Vby

V +
2

3
.

values of / computed

this

formula agree quite closely with those

V =

12 gives /

3254.

Various formulas of interpolation similar to Newton's have been derived which are very convenient in certain problems. Among these may be mentioned the formulas of Stirling, Gauss, and Bessel.*
*

tion,

For an account of these formulas, see H. L. Rice, Theory and Practice of Interpolaand D. Gibb, Interpolation and Numerical Integration.

2l8
98.

INTERPOLATION
Lagrange's

Chap. VIII

formula

of

interpolation.

Newton's
When

formula
this
is

is

applicable only

when

the values of x are equidistant.

not

the case,

we may
ai yi

use a formula

known
y,

as Lagrange's formula.

Given

the following table of values of x and

d2

Art. 99

INVERSE INTERPOLATION
In the table on p. 132
14
68.7

219

Example.

we have

220

INTERPOLATION
Example.
In table
'

Chap. VIII

(7),

given log x

2.7003, to find x.

n =

yo

If

= 0.56, and x = x nh = 501 -f- 0.56 (1) = 501.56. 0.0009 only the first and second differences are taken into account, then

yn

wa

+
71

(ft

a quadratic equation which can easily be

solved for n.

Example.

In table
27.3

(5),

given
-+-

R =

27.3, to find V.

Here
or

22.8
1.1

n (10.5) H
9.4 n

^(2.2), 4.5

o;

hence

ft

0-455 and x

The
gives

empirical

= V + nh = 80 -\- (0.455) 20 = 89.1. formula R = 4.62 0.004 V + 0.0029 V on p. V = 89.1, R = 27.3.

2

149

But

if

the third and higher orders of differences have to be taken into

account, the

method would require the solution of equations of the third and higher degrees. In such cases as well as in the case where the values of x are not equidistant, we may use Lagrange's formula and merely interchange x and y; i.e.,
x

(y
1

(flj

a2

">

(y

a2 )

- gs) (ai a

3)

(y + X2 (a aO a
2

x)

(y-a (a a
2

3) z)

+
.

Example. In table (8), given log Using only the following values,
log sin x

sin

8.3850

10,

to find x.

8.3088

10

8.3668

10

1.4179

10

70'

80'

90'

we have

(0.0182) (-0.0329)
(

0.0580) 0.1091)
(
'

gQ

(0.0762) (-0.0329) (0.0580)

(

0.0511)

4. Q

(0-0762) (O.OI82) (O.I09I) (0.051 I)

= = We may
n

70'

(0.0946) + 80' (O.846) 8347' = I 2347'.

+ 90' (0.249)

also use a

method

of successive approximations as follows:

From Newton's formula we

write

=
a

yo

\{n

1) b

I (n

1)

(n

2) c

Applying

this to the

above example, and taking only the

first

first

differences

into account,

we

get as a

approximation,
10)

m = y-yo = GO

(8.3850

(8.3668
I

10)

0.05I

182

0.350-

511

Art. 99

INVERSE INTERPOLATION

221
of

Taking also second differences into account and introducing the value i for n in the denominator, we get as a second approximation,
2
ao

yo
1) b

0.0182
0.0511

182

+ $ (ni
A3

+ 0.0017
Hence

0.345-

528
the

We may continue in this way approximating more and more closely to

value of n.
In this example
is
it

will

be unnecessary to carry the work to

i 20'

third differences since

negligible.

0.345,

and
check
yo

x
this

=x
by

+ nh =
10,

(0.345) (10')

i 23.45'.

We may
hence,

direct interpolation.

Here
n

=
10

8.3668

10',

and

0.345;

8.3668

+ 0.345

(0-0511)

0.1 13

(-0.0053)

8.3850 -10.
5

We

Example. Find the real root of the equation x 3 form a table of differences of the function y x* -\X

I.

=0.

$x

222

INTERPOLATION
EXERCISES
i.

Chap. VIII

Tabulate the values and differences

x-,

of the following functions;

is

the

common

interval.
(a)

from x

5 to x

(b)

V^c,

from x

to

when k 1; and from x = 3 to x = 3.1 when & = 0.01. x = 10, when & = 1, and from x = 563 to x = 570 when
12

1.

(c)

from x

60 to x

70

when h =

I,

and from x = 260 to x

262 when

0.2.

ttD 3
(d)
(e)
(f)

(volume
6
x,

of a sphere),

from

to

D =

1.8

when h =
I

0.1.

log x, to 4 decimals, from x

tan
e
x

(g)

to 4 decimals, from x 32 to x log cos x, to 4 decimals, from x = 88 10' to x

,

= =

356 to x

= =

362 when h = 33 when h =

10'.

89 20'

when h =

10'.

to 4 decimals, from x = 0.8 to x = 0.9 when h = 0.01. (i) 5 (a sin a), to 4 decimals (area of a segment of a circle subtending a central angle a, in radians) from a. = 25 to a = 32 when h = 1.
(h)
2. Tabulate the differences for the following experimental results and indicate for each case the degree of the polynomial that would best express the relation between the

variables.
(a)

S =

stress in lbs. per sq. in. in steel wire

used for winding guns,

E =

elongation

in inches per inch.

EXERCISES

223

CHAPTER

IX.

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION.

ioo.

The

necessity for approximate methods.

In

a large

number

of engineering

problems
/

it

is

necessary to determine the value of the

Geometrically, this integral represents the

definite integral,

f(x) dx.

area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis, and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Physically, it may represent the work done by an engine,
surface, etc.

by a moving body, the pressure on an immersed analytically known, the above integral may be But if we merely evaluated by the methods of the Integral Calculus. know a set of values of f(x) for various values of x, or if the curve is drawn mechanically, e.g., an indicator diagram or oscillograph, or even where the
the velocity acquired
If f(x)
is

function

is

analytically

known but

the integration cannot be performed

in all these cases, by the elementary methods of the Integral Calculus numerical, the integral must be evaluated by approximate methods

graphical, or mechanical.

The planimeter

is

ordinarily used in measuring

indicator diagram and in certain problems in such approximations often have the desired degree Naval Architecture; Where a higher degree of accuracy is required or where a of accuracy. planimeter is not available numerical methods must be used. In certain problems it becomes necessary to determine the value of

the area enclosed

by an

the derivative,

-j-.

Physically, it arises in problems in which the y = f( x ) a t velocity and acceleration are to be found when the distance is given as a

ax any point.

Geometrically, this represents the slope of the curve

function of the time, in problems involving

values and rates of change of various physical quantities, etc.

maximum and minimum To

evaluate the derivative

culus
if

we may

the function

is

analytically

use approximate methods

It is

numerical, graphical, or mechanical.

use the methods of the Differential Calknown. Otherwise we are forced to

our purpose,

in the following sections, to

develop some of the

numerical, graphical, and mechanical methods used in approximate integration

101.

and

differentiation.

Rectangular, Trapezoidal, Simpson's, and Durand's rules. Suppose we wish to find the approximate area bounded by the curve y ~ /(*)> tne x-axis, and the ordinates x = x and x = x n (Fig. 101).
224

Art. ioi

TRAPEZOIDAL, SIMPSON'S, AND DURAND'S RULES

225

We

divide the interval from x

h,

x to x

x n into n equal intervals of

,

width
(1)

and measure

the (n

Rectangular

rule.

If,

1) ordinates y y u yi, y n -i, y n starting at P we draw segments parallel

to the x-axis through the points

Pi, P2,

Pn-u the area enclosed

y n -i).

by the rectangles thus formed

is

given by

AR =

h (j

y\

y*

^n-a

^n-l

^n JL

Fig. ioi.

If,

starting at

points

Pn
is

P_i,

Pn we draw segments parallel to the x-axis through the P Pi, the area enclosed by the rectangles thus
,

formed

given by

Ar = h
It is

(yi

+ y + ^3 +
2

y n ).

evident that the smaller the interval

Trapezoidal
rule.

h,

the better the approxima-

tion to the required area.

(2)

If

the chords

P Pi, P1P2,
')+
,

Pn -\Pn
is
n

are

drawn, then the area enclosed by the trapezoids thus formed

hi

+M
2

u (fc^ + ^ fyn-i + y
,

= h

[i (yo

+ y n + y% + y
)

4is

+ y-i].

This expression for the area

by the rectangular rules. It and the flatter the curve, the

area.
If

the average of the two expressions given evident that the smaller the interval h better the approximation to the required
is

is steep at either end or anywhere within the interval, be modified by subdividing the smaller interval into 2 or 4 parts; thus, subdividing the steep interval between x n -i and x n in

the curve

the rule
Fig. 101

may

into 2 parts:

AT =

r+

Jl
J

h hn-i -\-y m \ /y n -x

2\

HH^=)
,

h/ym

+y

226

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

into 4 parts:

^=

[^)

+
bx

Chap. IX

+-() + -( j

(3)

Simpson's
2 3
.

rule.
. .
,

Let us pass arcs of parabolas through the points

P n -iP n-\P n-f-

P0P1-P2,

P P Pa, through P PiP

=
(ax 2

Let the equation of the parabola

c.

be y

= ax 2

Then

parabola, the x-axis, and the ordinates x

I

=
r2
\

the area bounded by the x and x = x 2 is

+ 6.r
(.T 2

-f-

c)

<fo;

= ax?
3
"

bx 2 h2

\~

cx
I

~ (*2 3

a
3

xo

jo

b + 2 (x x
2 2 (JC 2

2 )

+C
Now,
3

.To)

-*~Z

2 a (*2 2

+ #2*0 + Xo + 36
2 )

+ #0) + 6
-,

C].

= ax

-+-

&3C

c,

y2
f

= ax
-

2 2

+ bx +
2
1

c,

ft

=
1

Vi

= axr

+ 0x1 + c = a
A =

+6
+
we

c,

and we may

easily verify that

I h (v
43*1

y2 ).
this

If

we have an even number

of intervals

and apply
get

formula to the

successive areas under the parabolic arcs,

As = \h(y

()

+$y +y )+\hty +4 yz+y +

l

i)

=I h

(y

+ 4 yi + 2 y + 4 ^3 + 2 +
2
ry4
)

+ /?(y _ +4;y-i+;y) +2 y_ + 4 yn_i -f y

n)

= I h[(yo+y n +4 (yi+yi+yr]

\-yn-i)

+2

(^2+

+y

hy-)]*

To apply Simpson's rule we must divide the interval into an ctcw number of parts, and the required area is approximately equal to the sum of the extreme ordinates, plus four times the sum of the ordinates with odd subscripts, plus twice the sum of the ordinates with even subscripts, all multiplied by one-third the common distance between the
ordinates.
(4)

DuranaVs rule* If we have an even number of parts and apply Simpson's rule to the interval from X\ to xn-i and the Trapezoidal rule to the end intervals,

A =

h [(iy

+ % yi) + (| yx + 1 y + f y + + 1 y -z + t y -2 + 1 y
2
3

n -i)

(h y-i
,

+ \ yn)].
n ].

Applying Simpson's rule to the entire interval from x to x n

A =h [%y + %y + f y2 + |y +
x

+ i y n -z +
.
.

y_ 2

+ | yn-i + h y

Adding,

2A =

hliyo+yt-yi
*

+2y + 2y +
2 3

-f-

2 y n-3

+2

n _2

+ Jf y n_i +|y].

Given by Prof. Durand

in

Engineering News, Jan., 1894.

Art. 102

APPLICATIONS OF APPROXIMATE RULES

227

Hence,

AD =
=

5
[ x .j

(y

h [0.4 (y

+ y + H Cyi + y-i) + ^2 + ys + + y) + 1.1 (yi + yn-i) + y% + ya +

n)

+ y -*] + yn

2 ].

Collecting our rules,

(1)

we have

or
(2) (3)

AR = AR = AT =
'

^s =

(4)

AD =

+ yn-i), + + yi + + +y +y +y h [\ (y + y + y-d+ yi + yi + 4(ji + ^ + + yn-i) [(> + y) + 4 i + 2 (y + yi + y + h [0.4 (y + y n + 1.1 (yi + y-i) + 3^ + yz 4h (y h (yi
>i
2

n ).

n)

y-o 2

+ yn-2)]. + y-a].
some
ex-

102.

Applications of approximate rules.

We

shall give

amples
1.

illustrating the application of these rules.

Area.

Evaluate

r w dx
/

This

is

equivalent to finding the area

J'2

between the curve y = i/x, the x-axis, and the ordinates x = 2 and x = 10. If we divide the interval into 8 parts, then h = 1 we have the
;

table
3

10

228

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap.

DC

\A T =2[\ (12.5 + 0.5) + 12.8 + \A S = I [(12.5 + 0.5) +4(12.8 +

+ 6.8]

224.8;

13.0+12.8
(12.9

+2
Hence,
3.

+ 11.8 + 6.8) + I3.O + 12.4 + IO.4)]

452.2 sq.
ft.

226.1.

AT =
Work.
V

449.6 sq.

ft.,

As =

Given the following data

for

steam
10

Art

102

APPLICATIONS OF APPROXIMATE RULES

[0.40
[4

229

A T = TV As = 4 s
7

(040

+ 0.63 + + -9i +

1.00

+ 0.74] = 2.44; + 0.74) + 2 (0.63 + 0.98 + 0.92)]

2.52
3-5

2.52.

Hence,

As
3-5

2- =

0.72.

We divide
ordinates
0,

the interval into 14 parts; then h

\,

and we measure the

0.30, 0.42, 0.54, 0.68, 0.88, 0.96, 0.98,

1. 00,

1.02, 0.97, 0.89, 0.78, 0.64, o.

AT=

I [0.30

0.42

0.64]

2.52.

^s = tV [4(0.30+0.54+
Hence,

+0.64)
"

+2 (0.42+0.68+
2.55
0-73-

+0.78)] =2.55.

p = AS _
3-5

3-5

We
5.

note that
Velocity.

As

with 9 ordinates has the same value as

a weight of 1000

AT

with 15

ordinates.

Given
The

1% grade (Fig. 102b) with a frictional resistance of 10 lbs. per ton

tons sliding

down a

at

all

speeds.

total resistance

is

30,000

100'

lbs. (a frictional resistance of

10,000

lbs.

and

Fig. 1026.

a grade resistance of 20,000 lbs.). Let the following table express the accelerated force F as a function of the time t in seconds:
t

200

300

400

i6,ooo|ii,ooo

230

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap. IX

A
and

buoy

is

in the

form of a

solid of revolution

D is the diameter in ft. at a depth p ft.

with its axis vertical, below the surface of the water.

Art. 103
8.

GENERAL FORMULA FOR APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION

23

The pressure on a plane area Pressure and center of pressure. perpendicular to the surface of the liquid, between depths x and x n is J^n xy dx, where w
.

is

the weight of the liquid per unit volume, y

...
I

is

the width of the area at a depth x beneath the surface.

The depth
x y dx
2

of

the center of pressure of such an area

is

given by x

= ~jn
/

All

xy dx

these integrals can be evaluated approximately.

9.

Center of gravity.

The coordinates
OY
/

of the center of gravity of

an

area are
/

xy dx

Moment about
Area

\y*dx

y= J -j.
J

= Moment about OX
Area

ydx

ydx

The
12.5,

half-ordinates in
12.8,

ft.

of the mid-ship section of a vessel are

13.0,

12.9,

13.0,

12.8,

12.4,

11. 8,

10.4,

6.8,

0.5,

and the ordinates are

section.

ft.

apart.

Find the center of gravity of the

X20
J'

xy dx

Moment about
Area

OY

'20

ydx
and applying Simpson's
X
rule to the table,

232

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap. IX

where x
is

= x

nh,

is

true for

all

values of n
limits o
Q

constant or approximately constant.

if some order of differences Multiplying by dn and inte-

grating term

by term between the

fn
I

and
n
(n

n,

we have
1) dr.

Jrn

Pn

I'n
/

dn = y

dn

Jo

-f a

ndn

Jo

.
L?
Co

Jo

4-,-

f
/

Uwo
Since x

n {n

1) (

2)

dn

-f-

Xo

+ nh,

therefore,

and

dn = ydx.
h

Hence,

ri

Thus,

if

the differences after

some

order, as the ^th, aie negligible,

we

may

use this formula to get the approximate area between the curve, the
.

and the ordinates x = x and x = x n The process is equivalent to approximating the equation of the curve by a polynomial of the fcth degree. The differences do, bo, c are those which occur in a line through y parallel to the upper side of the triangle in the scheme on p. 210. Similar integration formulas can be derived from the other interpolation
%-axis,
, .

formulas.
If

the interval from x to x n

is

large,

it is

well to divide this into smaller

intervals,
results.

apply the formula to each of the smaller intervals, and add the In this way we may derive the formulas of Art. 101 and similar

formulas as special cases of the above general formula. Let us first note that by means of the rule for the formation of the
successive differences of a function (p. 210)

we may express
.

the differences

bo, Co,

in

terms of y

yi, yz,

Thus,

ao
bo

= yi yo, - 2 y + yo, = a a = (y - yi) - (yi - yo) = = bi - b = [(y - 2 y + yO - (y 2yi + yo)} = ys x

y-i

3 Ji

+ 3 ^i-^o,

do
eo

=
=

3>4

4 ^3
5 yi

ys

+ 6 y 4 yi + yo, + 10 10 y + 5 yi
2
3/3
2
.

h=

k (k

1)

yk

kyii-i

r-

yk-2

where the

coefficients in the right

members

of these equations are

th<?

binomial coefficients, taken alternately plus and minus.

Art. 103
(1)

GENERAL FORMULA FOR APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION

,

233

(Fig. 101a)

all zero, i.e., approximate the curve Let n = 1 and b c Bx. Then from xo to Xi by a straight line, y = A
,

jj'ydx =
Applying
rule:

h [ yo

+ |a] -

ft

bo

*<* -

yo)]

*p4-^T

this result to

each interval and adding, we get the Trapezoidal

ydx =
(2)

[J (y

+ yn + yi + y +
)
2
. .

+ y-i].
.

(Fig. 101a)

all zero, i.e., approximate the curve Let n = 2 and c d from x to x2 by a parabola, y = A + .Bx + Cx 2 Then
, ,

y dx

= =

ft

[2

+ 2 a + 6 = M 2 yo + 2 (yi y + (y 2
]

y:

+y

)]

-[yo

+ 4yl + y2].
an even number of
intervals,

Applying
adding,

this result to

two at a time, and

we

get Simpson's rule:

ydx=-[(y
(3)

+yn)+4(yi+y3-\
,
,

r-y-i)+2(y2+y4 H

hyn- 2 )]

(Fig. 101a)

Let n = 3 and d c all zero, i.e., approximate the curve from x to x3 by a parabola of the 3d degree, y = A Bx -f.
.

Cx2
'

.Dx3

Then
h[?,

/
t/jTo

y dx

+%

+l (ya -

+% Co] =

ft

[3yo+f (yi-yo)
yo)]

3 ^2

+ 3 yi -

ft

[y

+ t (y -2yi+y + 3 yi + 3 y2 + yd2

Applying this result to intervals, where w we get Simpson's three-eighths rule:

yrf*

is

a multiple of

3,

and adding,

= |ft[yo+2(y +y6+y9+
3

-)+3(yi+y2+y4+y 5

)]

(4)
i.e.,

Let n = 6 and the differences beyond the 6th order negligible, approximate the curve (Fig. 101a) from x to x 6 by a parabola of the

6th degree, y

= A
ft

+
y

Bx

Cx2

f
*J Xa

y dx

[6

+
/o,

18 a

+ 27 b
,

+ Hx + 24 c +

6
.

Then
<*o

W
3

+ ?&*> + AV /oj.

Substituting the values of a

rVo- /o tV get Weddle's rule:

placing

by

thus neglecting

T io /o

in terms of the y's and rewhich will be fairly small, we

Aw =

y <fx

f\

ft

[y

+ 5y + y + 6y + y +
x 2

5 y*

+ ye].
6.

We may

apply this rule to n intervals where n

is

a multiple of

234

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Example.

Chap. IX
*

Apply the approximate rules

(i) to (4) to

evaluate
0.1.

2e dx

We divide the interval into 6 equal

table

parts, so that h

From

the

Art. 104

NUMERICAL DIFFERENTIATION

235

Hence,

&-[l*+(n-i)c> + {6n'-i8n+ii) +
The
o and 1 at intervals of 0.01.* x n we have n For the tabulated values x Xi, these values of x we have the simpler formulas
,

values of these coefficients are tabulated for values of n between

>

o,

so that for

dy T _ = _^
1

u a __ 60+ - co --<zo+
l

If

the value of x for which ~-

is

required

is

near the end of the table,

we may

use similar formulas derived from the modified Newton's formula

for end-interpolation (p. 217).

Example.
p.

Find

-~-

dv

and

d~v
-=-^

for

3 and x

3.3
.

from table

(1)

on

211 and check the results

by

differentiating y

= x3

Since x

is

a tabulated value
(6)

we apply

the second set of formulas

| = [37 -i (24)+ i
From
For x 6, w

]= 27;
=
27
'

<*y d%2 J2y

[24

6]

1:

=
'

_ =
Sx
the

<,

-2

dx2

6x
where a

Co

= =

3.3
0.3.

we apply Then
24
)

first set

of formulas,

37, b

24,

dy dx

| = [37 + (- o. 4 T + (o.47)|]= 3^.67;

y

g- [4 + (-0.7) e]=
d2 y

19.8.

From

x3

dy dx

3x2

32.67,

j^2 = 6x=i9.

Rate of change. The following table gives the results of obthe observed temperature in degrees Centigrade of a vessel of cooling water, / is the time in minutes from the beginning of observation.

Example.
;

servation 6

is

236

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap. IX

From

the table of differences

t

Art. 105

GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION
of

237

For values

between

B =

9 and
2

B =

10,

we have

dB

^=[io+( 2W -i)(-f)+(3 -6n+2)(-^)]

dB

= |(ii-6n-6^).
=0, and n =
0.94.

For a maximum,
Therefore,

=
nh

0,

hence 6 2
9.94.

+ 6
/x

11

B =B +

We
ju

find the corresponding value of

by the

interpolation formula,

=
If

1330

(0.94) (10)

(0.0282)
1

(-30)
only,

+
we

(0.0100)

(-20) = 1340.

we

take account of

A and A

get

^| =
Then

io+(2- i)("y)=o,
fx

or

=| = o.83,
(-30)

and

5=9.83.

1330

(0.83) (10)

(0.0275)

1337-5-

105.
integral

Graphical integration.
/
%)

Let

us find the value of the definite

f(x)

dx or the area under the curve y

(Fig. 105a)
is

= f(x) by

graphical

methods.
at

We draw the curve y = f(x)

and along the ordinate

(x,

y) erect the ordinate y'

whose value

a measure of the area under

Fig. 105a.

the curve y
y'

= fix) from
Thus

the

initial

point

(x

a) to the point P,

i.e.,

f(x) dx.
ix, y').

for

every point
traced

(x, y)

we have

a corresponding

point P'
figure)
is

The curve

called the integral curve

by the point P' (marked / in the and the curve traced by the point P

(marked A in the figure) is called the derivative curve. Evidently, if P and Q are two points on the A-curve and P' and Q' are their corresponding points on the /-curve, the difference of the ordinates of P' and Q' y" y', is a measure of the area under the arc PQ.
',

The
(1)

practical construction of the integral curve consists of the follow-

ing steps (Fig. 1056).

Divide the interval from x to x n into n equal or unequal intervals

,

and erect the ordinates y

y\,

v.

238
(2)

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Measure
the
areas
of the

Chap. IX

A A 1X1 =

J\

A A 2x =
2

y2

XoAqA n x n
or
is

yn

'
.

These areas may be found by means

of a planimeter

by the construction
the

mean

ordinates.
is

equal to the area of a rectangle whose base

Thus, the area x A AiXi x xi and whose altitude

is
is

mean

ordinate Wi within that area.

Similarly, the area XiAiA 2 Xi

is

equal to the area of a rectangle whose base

Xix2

and whose altitude

is

the

mean
,

ordinate
3
,

nil, ni 2

m mn
=

within that area.

Estimate the mean ordinates

within the successive sections.

Then
.
.
. ,

yi

= mi

(*o*i), Ji

yi

+ nn (xix
equal,

2),

y*

y*

+
t

(x2x3),

yn
If

the intervals are

y'

all

i.e.,

Xi

x x2

= y n '^i + m n (x n -ix). = = xn -ix = Ax,

.
.
.

then

= UmAx.

(We

shall later give a

more exact construction

Xi,

for the

mean

ordinate.)
(3)

At

dinates

X1B1,

x 2 X3, x2B 2
,

xn erect
x nB n
',

or-

equal

respectively to yi and y2 yn draw a smooth curve through the points

, ,

Bo,
will

it

2,

Bn
the

This

last

curve

approximate

required

integral

curve.

Example. Construct the integral curve of the straight line y = 1 x between x = o and x = 2. (Fig. 105c.) Divide the interval from x = o to x = 2
Fig. 105c.

into 10 equal parts and erect the ordinates given in the table; here, A.x = 0.2.

Art. 105

GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION

239

Example.
sliding

The following table gives the accelerations a of a body down an inclined plane at various times t, in seconds. To find
any
600
-0.080]

the velocity and distance traversed at

time,

if

the

initial

velocity

and

initial

distance are zero.

200 300
I

100

400
0.080
I

500

700

800

900
0.208]

a I0.320I 0.304I 0.256] 0.176

0.016

0.136I

0.176

0.240

Since v

dt

and

v dt, the time-velocity

curve

is

the integral

curve of the time-acceleration curve, and the time-distance curve is in turn the integral curve of the time-velocity curve. In Fig. io$d, we have plotted / as abscissas and a as ordinates. The units chosen are 1 in. = 100 sec, and 1 in. = 0.16 ft. per sec. per sec.
70,000

60,000

50,000

240

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

In each interval of ioo sec.

Chap. DC

we have estimated

the

mean

acceleration
in-

as the average of the accelerations at the beginning and end of the

terval; thus, in the first interval, a m
is

0.312. 0.304) \ (0.320 equivalent to replacing the arcs of the curve by their chords or to find-

This

by the trapezoidal rule. Since the initial velocity is zero, curve joins / = o, v = o with t = 100, v 31.2, etc. We have drawn the (t, v) curve with a unit of 1 in. = 20 ft. sec. In each interval of 100 sec. we have estimated the mean velocity as the
ing the area

the

(/,

v)

average of the velocities at the beginning and end of the interval; thus in the first interval, vm = \ (o -f- 31.2) = 15.6. Since the initial distance is zero, the (/, s) curve is drawn through the points / = o, s = o, t = 100,
5

1560, etc.

The

unit chosen

is 1 in.

10,000

ft.

The
velocity

tables for v

and

5 give the velocity

and distance at the end of each

t

100 seconds, and

we may

interpolate graphically or numerically for the

and distance at any time between

o and

1000.

In the foregoing discussion the accuracy of the construction of the

integral curve

depends largely upon the construction of the mean ordiIf the intervals are very small, we may get the required degree of accuracy by replacing the arcs by their chords and taking for the mean ordinate the average of the end ordinates. The approximation of the mean ordinate for the arc A Ai (Fig. 1050) is equivalent to finding a point on the arc such that the area is equal under the horizontal CqCx through the area under the axe A A X or such that the to shaded areas A C and A\C\M are equal. By means of a strip of celluloid and with a little oractice the eye will find the position of quite accurately, for the eye is very sensitive to differences in small areas. We may draw the integral curve by a purely graphical process. Let
nates in the successive intervals.

us

first

consider the case

when

the derivative curve

is

the straight line

AB
axis

parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 105/).

left of 0.

venient distance a to the

Choose a Extend AB

fixed point

5 at any

con-

to the point

K on the yFor,
if

and draw SK.

is

Through A'

(the projection of

a line parallel to
oblique line A'B'

SK

cutting the vertical through

points, then

A on the x-axis) draw B in B' Then, the

.

the integral curve of the horizontal line

AB.

and P' are two corresponding

y'
:

A'Q = y

a,

or y'

= - (y X
CI

A'Q)

=-X
ct

(area under

AP).

Similarly, for another horizontal

cal line,

extend

CD

to the point

L on

CD, with C and B in the same vertithe y-axis and draw SL; through B"

draw a

line parallel to

SL

cutting the vertical through

in

C"; then, the

oblique line

B"C"

is

the integral curve of the horizontal

CD.

Finally,

Art. 105

GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION
parallel to

241
line

draw B'C
is

B"C"

or to

SL\ then the broken oblique

A'B'C

the integral curve of the broken horizontal line ABCD. Consider, now, any curve. Divide the interval from ocq to xn into n
,

A u At, parts and erect the ordinates (Fig. lo$g). Through A draw short horizontal lines. Cut the arc A Q Ai by a vertical line making
.
.

Fig. 105/.

the small areas bounded

by

this vertical, the arc,

and the horizontals

Proceed similarly for the succeeding arcs. Then construct the integral curve of the stepped line by the method Choose a point 5 at a convenient distance a to the left explained above. in which the extended of O and join S with the points Co, G, C2
through
Ai, equal.
,

A and

Fig. iosg.

Then, starting at Bo, draw a line through Bo first vertical; through this point draw a line parallel to SCi until it cuts the second vertical, etc. The points where the resulting broken line cuts the ordinates at A A A 2 i.e., the Do'mts Bo, Bu B2, are points on the required integral curve; for at each of the points A A\, A 2 the area under the curve from
horizontals cut the y-axis.
parallel to

SCo

until

it

cuts the

242

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap.

IX

Ao to that point is equal to the area under the stepped line; so that a smooth curve through the points B B\, B 2 will be the required
,
,

integral curve.

Since

y'

y dx, therefore,
is

- =
dx

- y, so that the slope of the a

integral curve at

any point

proportional to the ordinate of the deriva-

tive curve at the corresponding point.

tion, the slopes of the oblique lines
,

Furthermore, by the constructhrough B B\, Bo, are propor,

tional to the ordinates y yi, yz, . so that these oblique lines are tangent lines to the required integral curve at these points. can

We

thus get a more accurate construction of the integral curve

the curve through the points
lines

by drawing

B
is

B\, B2,

tangent to the oblique

through these points.

polar distance
x,

The

SO =

constructed with the same scale unit as

y' is

the abscissa

and the ordinate

y.

measured with the same

scale unit

as the ordinate

Example.
lamp.
is

Determination of the mean spherical candle-power of a mazda In testing a lamp for the m. s. c. p., the intensity of illumination

measured every 15

by means

of a rotating

lamp and a photometer.

The

following table gives such measurements for a particular case:

Angle

Am.

105

GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION

243

AoO

We measure

Ax OD = 33.0
12

base
c-p.

base

Fig. 105/1.

E. L. Clark

Having drawn the m. s. c. p. of any portion

integral

curve

we may immediately
sections.

find

the

of the

lamp between two

Thus,

for 15

244

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

side of the vertical, the m.
s. c.

Chap. IX

on each
to Bf>B7

p. is

found by drawing A

parallel

and reading
x-,Bi

OE =

42.0 c-p on the candle-power scale, since

or

OE
a

XsB-o

OE =

area under

AA =
5

base

m.

s. c.

p.

Similarly the m. s. c. p. of the section above a horizontal plane through the lamp is measured by OF = 37.0 c-p, and the m. s. c. p. of the section below a horizontal plane through the lamp is measured by

OG =
given

29.5 c-p.

106.

Graphical differentiation.

If

the integral curve y'

= f(x)

is

we may

construct the derivative curve y

= ~~ by
ax

using the prin-

ciple that the ordinate of the derivative

curve

at

any point

(x, y) (Fig.

106a)

is

equal to

the slope of the integral curve or of the

tangent line
P'(x,y').

P'T

at the corresponding point

The
(1)

practical construction of the deriva-

tive curve consists of the following steps:

Divide the interval from x

to

xn

(Fig.

1066) into n parts

,

and

erect the ordinates

Vi yi, Jz, y n '. (2) Construct the tangents at Bo, B\, B 2 B n and measure their slopes. (3) At x x n erect ordinates xQA = ;y X\A\ = y it . x n A n = y n where Xi,
,

x*

Fig. 1066.

the v's are proportional to the corresponding slopes, and draw a smooth

curve through the points

A A A2
,

An

This curve

will

ap

oroximate the required derivative curve.

Art. 106

GRAPHICAL DIFFERENTIATION

245

Example.

The

following table gives the pressure

sq. in. of saturated

showing the rate of

dp/dd.

p in pounds per steam at temperature 0 F. Construct the curve change of pressure with respect to the temperature,

246

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap. IX

mately the arc of a parabola, we have a more accurate construction of the tangent; the line joining the middle points and M' of two parallel chords AB and A'B' intersects the curve in P, the point of contact, and the tangent PT is parallel to the chord AB.

We may also draw

The
process
is

the derivative

curve by purely graphical methods.

the reverse of the
for

process described

constructing

the integral curve (Art. 105).

Bo, Bi,

Let
in-

2,

... be

the points of

contact of tangent lines to the

tegral curve (Fig. I05g).
fixed point
Fig. io6d.

Choose a

at a convenient disleft of

tance a to the

the y-axis and

2,
. .
.

draw the
parallel respectively to the tangent lines at

lines SCq,
,

SC u SC
,
.

B u B2
2
,

Project

the points

C
2,
.

C\,

Cz,

horizontally on the ordinates at

B\,

B
A

2,
,

cutting these ordinates in

. .
,

Au A

....

The

points

are then points on the required derivative curve,

since

B0A0

-f-

slope of
,

smooth curve, or we may get now line of horizontals and verticals. greater accuracy by using the stepped and Thus, we draw the horizontals through the points A A u A 2
join the points
,
,

SC = slope of A A u A 2 ... by a

tangent at

etc.

We may

the verticals through the points of intersection of consecutive tangents

to the integral curve.

that the areas bounded are equal.

107.

are now drawn so The arcs AqAi, A\A 2 by each arc, the horizontals, and the vertical,
,

This is an inMechanical integration.* The planimeter. strument for measuring areas. Consider a line PQ of fixed length / moving in any manner whatever in the plane of the paper. Xhejn otion nf the linp at any irmfant may be thought of as amotion of translation co mbined with a motion o f rotation. Suppos e the line PQ sweeps out This may be broken up the elementary area^PQQ' P' = dS (Fig 107^). into a motion of translation of PQ to P"Q' and a motion of rotation from P"Q' to P'Q'. If dn is the perpendicular distance between the parallel positions PQ and P'Q' and d<j> is the angle between P"Q' and
.

dS

dn

/-

(1$.

* For descriptions and discussions of various mechanical integrators see: AbdankAbakanowicz, Les Integraphes (Paris, Gauthier-Villars); Henrici, Report on Planimeten (Brit. Assoc. Ann. Rep., 1894, p. 496); Shaw, Mechanical Integrators (Proc. Inst. Civ. Engs., 1885, p. 75); Instruments and Methods of Calculation (London, G. Bell & Sons); Dyck's Catalogue; Morin's Les Appareils d' Integration.

Art. 107

MECHANICAL INTEGRATION.

THE PLANIMETER

247

Now
axis

\i

PQ

carries a rolling

wheel

W^ called_the

integrating wheel, whose

is

parallel to

PQ

(Fig. 1076), then, while

PQ

moves

to the parallel

P"Q\. any p oint on the circumference displacement dn, and whi le P"Q' rotates to the
position
rg r p;w>g a Higpl^rpm pnt n

ot this

wheel receives a

position P'Q', this po int

df urhpr^ q
)

th e distance

from

to the plane

Fig. 107a.

Fig. 1076.

of the wheel.

So

that, as

PQ

sweeps out the elementary area d S, any

point on thgjcircumference of the wheel receivesTa displacement

Therefore,

= dn + dS = Ids ds
total area

o, dcj>.

ald(j)

l-d<$>.

Hence the

swept out by
I

PQ

S =

ds

al

I d<f>

+\

I-

d<f>.

Fig. 107c.

Now,

if

PQ

comes back to

ts original position

without turning com-

pletely around, tjien_the_t otal angle o f rotation

/(/<

Q,

so that

S =

Is,

w here 5 is
But
if

the total displacement of

any point on th e circumfere nce

of

t he

integrating wheel.

PQ comes

back

to its original position after turning completely

around, then

S =

Is

iral

7rZ

2
.

248

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap. IX

The most common type

(Fig. 107c).

of planimeter

is

the Amsler polar planimeter *

Here, Fig. 107^, by means of a guiding arm OQ, called the Q of the tracer arm PQ is constrained to move in a circle while the other end P is guided around a closed curve c-c-cpolar arm, one end
. .

which bounds the area to be measured. Then the area Q'P'PP"Q"QQ' is swept out twice but in opposite directions and the corresponding displacements of the integrating wheel cancel, so that the final displacement
wheel

.... The circumference of the graduated so that one revolution corresponds to a certain definite number of square units of area.
gives only the required area c-c-cis

P'

Fig. 107c?.

measuring indicator diagrams has wheel is 2.5 in.; hence one revoluThe wheel is graduated into 10 tion corresponds to 4 X 2.5 = 10 sq. in. parts, each of these parts again into 10 parts, and a vernier scale allows us to divide each of the smaller divisions into 10 parts, so that the area can be read to the nearest hundredth of a sq. in. The indicator diagram on p. 228 gives a planimeter reading of 2.55 sq. in., which agrees with the result found by Simpson's rule with 15 ordinates. The polar planimeters used in the work in Naval Architecture usually have a tracer arm of length 8 in., and a wheel of circumference 2.5 in., so that one revolution corresponds to 20 sq. in., thus giving a larger range If the area to be measured is quite large, it may be for the tracing point. split up into parts and the area of each part measured or the area may be re-drawn on a smaller scale and the reading of the wheel multiplied
for
I

The ordinary planimeter used

4
in.

and the circumference

of the

by

the area-scale of the drawing.

was
first

* This instrument t If

put on the market by Amsler in 1854.

is

PQ

(Fig. 107 d) turns completely around, the required area

ir

(OQ) 2

Art. 107
If

MECHANICAL INTEGRATION.

THE PLANIMETER

249

very accurate results are required, account must be taken of several errors. (1) The axis of the integrating wheel may not be parallel to the This error can be partly eliminated by taking the mean tracer arm PQ. to the left of the tracer arm, the other of two readings, one with the pole with the pole to the right* (Fig. 107^). This cannot be done with the ordinary Amsler planimeter because the tracer arm is mounted above the polar arm, but can be done with any of the Coradi or Ott compensation planimeters; one of these instruments is illustrated in Fig. 107/. (2) The integrating wheel may slip; some of this slipping may be due to the irregularities of the paper and has been obviated by the use of disc planimeters, in which the recording wheel works on a revolving disc instead
of

on the surface

of the paper.

Various types of linear planimeters have been constructed. These differ from the polar planimeters in that one end of the tracer arm is

Fig. 107/.

constrained to

move

in

a straight

line instead of in

circle.

Planimeters
in Art.

of the linear type

form part of the integrators described

Various
other

108.

types

of

planimeters

have been constructed, which do not have an integrating wheel. One of the
best
also

known known

of these

is

that of Prytz,

as

the

hatchet

planim-

eter.f

In this form of the instrument

given curve,
*
t

will

(Fig. 107^) the end Q forms a knifeedge so that Q can only move freely along the line PQ. When P traces the describe a curve such that PQ is always tangent to it.
p. 196.

For a proof of this statement, see Instruments and Methods of Calculation, For the theory of this instrument, see F. W. Hill, Phil. Mag., xxxviii, 1894,

p. 265.

250

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap.

IX

Prytz starts the instrument with the point P approximately at the G of the area to be measured, moves P along the radius vector to the curve, completely around the curve, and back along the same radius vector to G. The required area is then given approximately
center of gravity

by l 2 where I is the length PQ and and final positions of the line PQ.
(j>,

<f>

is

the angle between the

practically

initial

108.

Integrators.

The Amsler integrator

/,

is

an extension
the tracer

of the linear planimeter.

In the latter instrument, the end

Q of

arm PQ of constant length is constrained to move in a straight line X'X, If the axis of while the tracing point P describes a circuit of the curve. integrating wheel attached to PQ makes a variable angle ma with the

X'X
ym

(Fig.
I

108a) at each instant, the point

P
will

will

have
I

for ordinate

sin

ma, and the area described by

be
/

sin

ma dx.

On

the other hand, the area described

by

is

equal to

times the displace-

ment
1

of

any

point on the circumference of the integrating wheel; hence

is

sin

ma dx

equal

to the

displacement of a point on the circumference of

an integrating wheel whose axis makes an angle

ma

with

X'X.

Fig. 108a.

Fig. 1086.

Now, given a curve

Area

c-c-c-

(Fig. 1086),

y dx

=
dx
,

sin

adx =
.

sin

a dx.

Moment
about

of area

X'X

.,,

J 2J y - C = I I dx
/

1 n = - CP sin 2J
I

, 2

a dx

P =- C 4J
I

s cos 2 a) dx

/sin (90

2 a) dx

=
the

/sin (90
its

2 a) dx,

since

dx

o,

arm

PQ

returning to

original position

when

makes a complete

circuit of the curve.

Moment
of area

of inertia

about

,_

=-

-y

dx = -

P sin 3 adx = -

I (

- sin a

sin 3

a )dx

- I sin = pf- a dx

p r / sin

4J

12J

a dx.

Art. 108

INTEGRATORS
/

251

Now,
the area,

sin

dx,

j sin

(90

2 a) dx,

and

sin 3

a dx, and hence

moment, and moment of inertia can be measured by three inwhose axes at any instant make angles a, 90 2 a, and 3 a, respectively, with X'X. The Amsler yivheel integrator (Fig. 108c) consists of an arm PQ and The instrument is guided by a carriage 3 integrating wheels A M, and /.
tegrating wheels
,

which

rolls in

a straight groove in a steel bar; this bar

may

be set at a

proper distance from the hinge of the tracer arm by the aid of trams.

The

Fig. 108c.

line

X'X, which passes through the points

is

of the

trams and under the

of inertia are
is

hinge,

the axis about which the

moment and moment

measured.

The

radius of the disk containing the

M-wheel

one-half

the radius, and the radius of the disk containing the /-wheel the radius of the circular disk

is

one-third

to

which they are geared.

Therefore,

the axis of the M-wheel turns through twice, and the axis of the /-wheel
turns through three times the angle through which the tracer
the axis of the

arm

PQ

or

A -wheel

swings from the axis X'X.

integrating wheels are set so that in the initial position, i.e., when on X'X, the axes of the A- and /-wheels are parallel to X'X while the axis of the M-wheel is perpendicular to X'X. Then, when the tracer arm PQ makes an angle a with X'X, the axes of the A-, M-, and /-wheels make angles a, 90 2 a, and 3 a, respectively, with X'X. Further-

The

lies

more, the graduations of the M-wheel are marked so that these graduations move backward while the graduations on the other wheels move

252

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Hence, when

Chap.

IX
are

forward.

P has

completed the

circuit,

and

if

a,

m, and

the displacements of points on the circumferences of the A-, M-, and Iwheels, respectively,

we have
Moment
of Inertia

Area

la;

Moment = - m;
4

= -a
4
12

i.

The wheels are graduated from I to io so that a reading of 5, for example, means 5/10 of a revolution. The constants by which these
readings are multiplied depend upon the length of the tracing
the circumferences of the integrating wheels.

arm and

In the ordinary instru-

ment,

8 in.

and the circumferences

2.5
in.,

of the A-,

M-, and /-wheels are

2.34375
in.

CA =
area,

CM =

2.5 in.,

C,

Thus, to find the

a must be multiplied by 8

X X X

2.5
2.5

= = =

20; 40;
320,

moment,

"

" "
"

"

"

8
3

moment of inertia, a
and
Finally,
if a\,

"

"

"

2.5

4
%

"

"

"

8 X

2.34375

100.

a 2 mi,
,

2,

and

iXt i2

are the initial and final readings of

the A-, M-, and /-wheels,

we have

Area

20

(a 2

ai);

Moment = 40 (m 2 m{) Moment of Inertia = 320 (a 2 a

100

(i2

i L ).

109.

The

integraph.

This
is

is

a machine which draws the integral

curve, y'

= l/OO
is

dx, of the curve

f{x).

The most

familiar type of
in

such machines

the one invented

by Abdank-Abakanowicz

1878.

very simple. A diagram of the machine is given in Fig. 109a. The machine is set to travel along the base line of the curve to be integrated, and two non-slipping wheels, W, ensure that the motion continues along this axis. The scale-bar slides along the main frame as the tracing point P, at the end of the bar, describes the curve y = f( x ) to be integrated. The radial-bar turns about the point Q which is at a constant distance a from the main frame. The motion of the recording pen at Pi is always parallel to the plane of a small, sharp-edged, non-slipping wheel w, and by means of the parallel frame-work ABCD, the plane of the wheel w is maintained parallel to the radial bar [since w is set perpendicular to AB which is parallel and equal to CD throughout the motion, and the radial bar is set perpendicular to CD]. As the point P describes the curve y = f{x), the angle 6 between the radial-bar and the

The theory

of its construction

Art. 109
axis,

THE INTEGRAPH

253

axis, are

and consequently the angle 6 between the plane of the wheel and the constantly changing, and the recording pen at Pi draws a curve
y'

with ordinate

such that

its

slope

dx and
therefore,

f-ljm dx = a X area ORP,

-

so that the curve

drawn by Pi

is

the integral curve of the curve traced

by P.

Fig. 109a.

If

we now set

the machine so that the point

its

P traces the integral curve,

=
2 y dx

then the recording pen Pi will draw

y'
J

integral curve

dx

y dx)dx

We may thus draw the successive integral curves y'

sented by the broken line in the figure.
the shear curve, the bending
deflection curve.
Fig. 109a.

y" y'"
,

....

Fig.

109& gives the integral curves connected with the curve of loads of the The curve of loads is represhaft of a Westinghouse-Rateau Turbine.

By

successive integration

we

get

moment

curve, the slope curve,

is

The

distance

marked "offset"

and the the distance 00\ in

5 D H P <

& p O O
<Sl
I

ffi

ffi

O H <
ffi

(254)

Art. iio

MECHANICAL DIFFERENTIATION
Mechanical
differentiation.

255

iio.

The
y'

Differentiator.

machine which draws the derivative curve

This dy of the curve y = dx

is

f(x).

Since the ordinate of the derivative curve is equal to the slope of the integral curve, it is necessary to construct the tangent lines at a series of
points of the integral curve.

We

use of a strip of celluloid with two black dots on

have already mentioned (Art. 106) the its under side to deter-

Fig.

no.

mine the direction of the tangent. This scheme is used in a differentiating machine constructed by J. E. Murray.* In a differentiating machine

by A. Elmendorf.f a silver mirror is used for determining the tangent. The mirror is placed across the curve so that the curve and its image form a continuous unbroken line, for then the
recently constructed
surface of the mirror will be exactly normal to the curve,
dicular to this at the point of intersection of the mirror

and a perpenand the curve will

give the direction of the tangent

*

line.

If

the surface of the mirror de-

Proc. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh,

May,

1904.
12, 1916.

f Scientific

American Supplement, Feb.

256

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Chap.

IX

viates even slightly from the normal, a break will occur at the point where It is claimed that with a little practice a rethe image and curve join.

markable degree of accuracy can be obtained in setting the mirror. Fig. no gives a diagram illustrating the working of this machine. The tracing point P follows the curve y = f(x) so that the curve and its form a continuous unbroken line; then the arm image in the mirror

MP

PT, which is set perpendicular to the mirror, will take the direction of the tangent line to the curve. The link PR, of fixed length a, is free to move
horizontally in the slot

X'X'

of the carriage C.

The

vertical bar

SU

passes through

R and

is

constrained to

move

horizontally

by heavy

rollers.

The

out along the tangent bar PT and also vertically in the bar SU, carrying with it the bar QP'. If we choose for the x-axis a whose distance from X'X' is equal to QP', then the point P' line
point

slides

XX

will

draw a curve whose ordinate

is

equal to y'

= RQ.

But RQ/a

is

the slope of the tangent

PT,

hence, y'

-, and the curve

drawn

by P' is the derivative curve of the curve traced by P. The machine is especially useful for differentiating curves to obtain velocity-time curves, and by a second
acceleration-time curves.
It
is

deflection-time
differentiation,

also

helpful

in

solving

many

other

problems.

EXERCISES.
Apply the approximate
/1.0
1

rules of integration (Art. 101) to the following examples:

Evaluate

J 0.2 x

dx
,

when

o.

and when h =

0.05,

and compare the

results with

the values obtained by integration.

2.

Evaluate

sin

x dx, when h

Jo

-, and when 6

h=

12

, '

and compare the r

results

with the values obtained by integration.

3.
7T

The

arc of a quadrant of an ellipse whose eccentricity

is

0.5

is

given by

vi

0.25 sin-

4> d<j>.

Evaluate the integral when h

"3

J
5. 3,

vx
3

when

0.5.

The

semi-ordinates in
25.5,

ft.

of the
29.8,

deck plan of a ship are

30,
29.8, 29.5,

16.6,

28.6,
ft.

28.5,

24.2,

6.8;

these measurements are 28

6.

apart.
for

Find the area

of the deck.

Given the following data

v

superheated steam
4
I

6
25.3

10

p
Find the work done.

105

42.7

16.7

13

EXERCISES
7.

257

The
0.40,

length of an indicator diagram

is

3.6 in.

The widths
1. 00,

of the diagram, 0.3 in

apart, are
o,

0.52,

0.63,

0.72,

0.93,

0.99,

1. 00,

1. 00,

1. 00,

0.97,

o.

Find the mean effective pressure.

8.

The
1. 00,

length of an indicator diagram

is

3.2 in.

The widths
0.48,

of the diagram, 0.2 in,

apart, are
1.68,

1.62,

1. 00,

0.64,

0.36,

0.26,

o.

Find the mean effective pressure.

9.

The speed
t

of

a car

is

v miles per

hour at a time

seconds from rest;

258
16.

APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

Apply the formulas
and
find
-'-_

Chap.

IX

for

numerical differentiation
5.31

(p.

235) to table (2) y

results

x3 on

p. 2ii,

and

-7-5

when x =

and x =

5.33.

Check the

by actual

differentiation.
17.

on

p.

Apply the formulas for numerical differentiation (p. 235) to table (8) y dy d~y 212, and find -j- and -7; when x = i 20' and x = i 24'. Check the

log sin

results

by

actual differentiation.
18.

In the following table,

/

s is

the distance in

ft.

which the projectile of a gun travels

along the bore in

sec.

6
t
I

0.0360

0.0490I 0.0598 0.0695

,

0.0785
, ,

0.0871

0-0953

0.1032 0.1109
I

0.1184
5

.,.,. hind the

5
ft.

ds velocity v =-7:

Idt =1 / =-, and the acceleration a dt I ds

in

d?s

-jzr=
dt-

Ifdt\ 3 -j-. / I -7when 2 ds / \ds/

d-t
,

19.

Use the data given

Ex. 6 to find the rate of change of the pressure with

v

re-

spect to the volume, dp/dv,

20.
*

when
in

4 and v

5.

Use the data given

Ex. 9 to find the acceleration, a

dv
-7,

when

10

and

12.

21.

Find the

minimum
y

value of the polynomial which has the values

27

22.

The

following table gives the results of measurements

made on a normal
^1

in-

duction curve for transformer steel;

meability.

is

the

number

of kilolines per sq. cm.;

is

the per-

B
625

EXERCISES
27.
5

259

In the following table

INDEX.
Adiabatic expansion formula, 48 chart for, 33, 49 Alignment or nomographic charts
also

Chart, Grasshoff's formula, 51 Hazen-Williams formula, 60

(see

Charts,

alignment

or

nomo-

horsepower of belting, 54 indicated horsepower of a steam engine, 63

graphic)

fundamental principle of, 44 with curved scales, 106 with four or more parallel scales, 55 with parallel or perpendicular index
lines, 87, 91, 97 with three or more concurrent scales, 104 with three parallel scales, 45 with two intersecting index lines, 68 with two or more intersecting index
lines, 76 with two parallel scales and one inter-

Lame

formula for thick hollow cylin"run-off," formula, 49

of inertia of cylinder, 100

ders, 92

McMath
moment

multiplication and division, 47 prony brake, 70

resistance of riveted steel plate, 103

solution of quadratic
tions, 112
specific

and cubic equa-

speed

of

turbine

and water

wheel, 75

secting scale, 65

storm water run-off formula, 108

tension in belts, 54 tension on bolts, 67
twisting

Approximate differentiation, 224 Approximate integration, 224

Area,

moment

in

a cylindrical shaft,

by approximate integration rules, 227 by planimeter, 246 Armature or field winding formula, 90
chart
for,

78

volume volume

of circular cylinder, 49 of sphere, 49

of scales, for

90

Charts, hexagonal, 40

Chart with network

Bazin formula, 101 chart for, 102, 116

adiabatic expansion, 33

chimney

draft,

38

elastic limit of rivet steel,

Center of gravity, by approximate integration rules, 231

34 equations in three variables, 28

equations in two variables, 20
multiplication and division, 30, 31
solution of cubic equation, 36

Chart, alignment or nomographic, for

adiabatic expansion, 49 armature or field winding, 90 Bazin formula, 102, 116

temperature difference, 39

Chezy formula
chart
chart
for,

for flow of water,

56

Chezy formula

for flow of water, 58

58
38

D'Arcy's formula for flow of steam, 81

deflection of beams, 72, 73, 86

Chimney

draft formula, 37

for,

discharge of gas through an

89 distributed load on a wooden beam, 83 focal length of a lens, 106 Francis formula for a contracted weir,
orifice,

Coefficients in trigonometric series evalu

ated,

109
friction loss in pipes,

94
XI

by six-ordinate scheme, 179 by twelve-ordinate scheme, 181 by twenty-four-ordinate scheme, 185 for even and odd harmonics, 179

Xll

INDEX
Focal length of a lens,
chart
for, 35, 40,

Coefficients in trigonometric series evalu-

ated,
for
for for

106

odd harmonics only, 186 odd harmonics up to the fifth, 187 odd harmonics up to the eleventh,

slide rule for, 15

Fourier's series, 170 Francis formula for a contracted weir,

no

189
for

chart

for,

109

odd harmonics up to the seventeenth,

191

Friction loss in pipes, 94 chart for, 94

graphically, 200

Fundamental

of trigonometric series,

70

mechanically, 203 numerically, 179, 186, 192, 198 Constants in empirical formulas

deter-

Gauss's interpolation formula, 219 Graphical differentiation, 244

mined by method of averages, 124, 126 method of least squares, 124, 127 method of selected points, 124, 125
Coordinate paper, logarithmic, 22
rectangular, 21

Graphical evaluation of coefficients, 200 Graphical integration, 237

Graphical interpolation, 209
Grasshoff's formula, 50

chart

for, 51

semilogarithmic, 24

Harmonic analyzers, 203 Harmonics of trigonometric

Hazen-Williams formula, 57 chart for, 60 Hexagonal charts, 40 Horsepower of belting, 52

series,

170

D'Arcy's formula for flow of steam, 79

chart
chart
for,

81

Deflection of beams, 70, 71, 84

for, 72, 73,

86

Differences, 210
Differentiation, approximate,

224

chart for, 54 Hyperbola, 149 Hyperbolic curves, 128, 135, 137, 140

graphical, 244

mechanical, 255 numerical, 234

Differentiator, 255 Discharge of gas through an
orifice,

Index

line,

44
63

Indicated horsepower of steam engine, 61

chart
for,

89

Integraph, 252
Integration, approximate, 224

chart for, 89 Distributed load on a

chart
for,

wooden beam, So

applications

of,

227

83

Durand's

rule,

226

Elastic limit of rivet steel, 32

chart for, 34 Empirical formulas,

by by by by by
in,

Durand's
Simpson's

rule,

226
233

rectangular rule, 223

rule, 226,

trapezoidal rule, 225

Weddle's

rule,

233

general formula for, 231

124, 125,

determination of constants
173. 174

graphical, 237-^"

mechanical, 246
Integrators, 250

for non-periodic curves, 120 for periodic curves, 170

Interpolation, 209

involving 2 constants, 128

Gauss's formula
graphical, 209
inverse, 219

for,

219

involving 3 constants, 140 involving 4 or more constants, 152

Equations, solutions of
algebraic equations)

(see

Solutions of

Lagrange's formula for, 218 Newton's formula for, 214, 217

Isopleth,

Experimental data, 120, 170 Exponential curves, 131, 142, 151, 153, 156

44

Lagrange's interpolation formula, 218

INDEX
Lame formula
for thick hollow cylinders,

X1U

Rectangular coordinate paper, 21 Rectangular rule, 225

Resistance of riveted steel plate, 101

chart for, 92 Least Squares, method of, 124, 127 Logarithmic coordinate paper, 22 Logarithmic curve, 151

chart
Scale,

for,

103

Logarithmic

scale, 1

definition of,

equation

of,

Maxima and minima by approximate

differentiation formulas, 236

logarithmic, 2

representation
Scale modulus, 2
Scales,

of, I

McMath
chart

"run-off" formula, 48

for,

49

Mean

effective pressure

by approximate

network
sliding, 7

of,

20

integration rules, 228

perpendicular, 20
stationary, 5

Mechanical differentiation, 255 Mechanical integration, 246 Moment, by integrator, 250

Moment

of inertia,
rules,

Semilogarithmic coordinate paper, 24 Simpson's rule, 226, 233

by approximate integration by integrator, 250

230

Slide rule,
circular, 16

Moment
chart

of inertia of cylinder, 99

for electrical resistances, 15 for focal length of lens, 15

for,

100

Multiplication
30, 31, 41,

and
47

division,

charts for,

Lilly's spiral, 18

logarithmic, 9
log-log, 13

Newton's interpolation formula, 214, 217

Sexton's omnimetre, 17 Thacher's cylindrical, 18

Solutions of algebraic equations,

Nomographic or alignment charts (see Alignment or nomographic charts)

Numerical evaluation of
186, 192, 198
coefficients, 179,

Numerical differentiation, 234 Numerical integration, 224 Numerical interpolation, 215

by by by by

means of parabola and circle, 26 means of rectangular chart, 35 means of alignment chart, no method of inverse interpolation, 221
slide rule,
1

on the logarithmic
73 chart
of,

Specific speed of turbine

and water wheel,

Parabola, 145 Parabolic curves, 128, 135, 140 Periodic phenomena, representation

for,

75
108

Storm water run-off formula, 107

chart
for,

170 Planimeter,

Straight line, 122, 125

Amsler polar, 248 compensation, 249

linear,

Tables, construction

of,

213

Temperature
chart
for,

difference, 37

249

39
52

principle of, 246

Tension
chart

in belts,
for,

Polynomial, 159 Pressure and center of pressure, by

54
bolts,

Tension on
chart
for,

66

approximate integration Prony brake, 69

chart
for,

rules,

231

67

70
differ-

Trapezoidal rule, 225 Trigonometric series, 170 determination of constants

in, 173,

174

Rates of change, by approximate

entiation formulas, 235

Twisting
chart

moment
78

in

a cylindrical

shaft, 77

for,

XIV
Velocity,

INDEX
by approximate integration
rules,

Volume
chart

of sphere, 50
for,

229 Volume, by approximate integration 229

49

rules,

Weddle's
of circular cylinder,
for,

rule,

233
integration rules,

Volume
chart

48

Work, by approximate
228

49

Date Dv^

3 O
IAI

uu

<

I-

'

TA151
L7

Lipka, Joseph, 1883-1924. Graphical and mechanical computation 1st ed. New York, John Wiley 1918. 264 p. illus. 24 cm.
103797

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p|oj 'n
hi

SZo = x
seu.

joj
"it

!a|ms Xjimiud
'3|kk XjEiutjd auj,

aqi oj

sn|npoui e

= x

g 'N

sstvos iraoJiMn

N. B.

The primary

scale,

= Vw,
for

has a modulus

SCALES i'CR SQUARE ROOTS m = I in. To get a scale of any

fold along the parallel

to the primary scale;

s. g.,

0.6*

Vu,

modulus, fold along the corresponding parallel through 0.63. For method of construction, see Art. 3.

LOGARITHMIC SCALES
N. B.

The primary

scale,

lolog

parallel to the

primary

scale;

e. g.,

has a modulus m = 10 in. To get a scale ol any modulus, fold along the corresponding For method of construction, see Art. 3. for x = 6 log , fold along the parallel through 6-6.
,