1

Performance Evaluation of an
Industrial Boiler

By
Yasir Nadeem

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Masters Degree
In
Chemical Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore


Research Supervisor:
Dr.-Ing Naveed Ramazan



Yasir Nadeem 2012
2

Performance Evaluation of an
Industrial Boiler


This project is submitted to the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of
Engineering and Technology, Lahore for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
Masters degree in Chemical Engineering.

Approved on: ________________

Examining Committee:

---------------------------------
Internal Examiner
Dr.-Ing Naveed Ramzan

---------------------------------
External Examiner


---------------------------------
Chairman
Prof. Dr. Nadeem Feroze

---------------------------------
Dean
Prof. Dr. Shahid Naveed



Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore

3







And He has subjected to you, as from Him, all that is in the heavens and on
earth: Behold! in that are signs indeed for those who reflect.
(Al-
Jathiya:13)

4

A B S T R A C T

Pakistani Industrial Sector is facing vital energy crisis. There is a need of optimizing
energy consumptions at demand side. Industrial Boilers are considered as highly energy
intensive equipment. In present work, the opportunities to improve efficiency of a three
pass boiler are defined with energy audit of the boiler. Primary objective of the study is to
determine the causes of low efficiencies in industrial boilers. Several measures have been
taken such as, combustion efficiency, optimum excess air, stack gas temperature and
blow down calculations. Overall efficiency of the system has been also determined as
well, as a result of all up mentioned measurements. From calculations, it is found that
boiler combustion and overall efficiencies are 75.7% and 70% respectively. Stack gas
leaves with a lot of energy in it (temp. 319
o
C). Excess oxygen present in stack is also on
higher side (3.5% instead of 2.2%). And also, blow down come up with high potential of
saving opportunities.
While proposing guidelines and recommendations for efficient boiler operation in this
system, saving measures resulted in annual fuel saving of about 8.4 Million PKRs.
Key words: Combustion efficiency, Boiler, Overall efficiency, Blow down, Excess
oxygen, Stack gas, thermal effectiveness
5

C HA P T E R 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. World Energy Scenario:
Energy is the most important prerequisite for the economic development of a country.
Besides industrial and agricultural energy demands, domestic sector applies a great
pressure for energy availability. Also, growing worldwide population and changing life
styles give rise to energy requirement and generation of increasing quantities of waste
which has become another threat to our already degraded environment. Fossil fuels such
as oil, coal and gas, for energy production have become primary energy sources and more
than 80% of total energy supply in the world is obtained by burning fossil fuels (EIA,
2012).

Figure 1.1: Worldwide energy consumption
On the other hand currently proven energy sources will deplete within next 40-50 years
and drive the world to an expected energy crises if alternate energy technologies are not
introduced in the market (Saidur et al., 2011). Moreover burning fossil fuel has damaged
6

the environment more than anything else by emitting an intense amount of green house
gases. However in recent years, zero-waste and energy recovery from waste (waste-to-
energy) technologies have been developed to produce clean energy which are equipped
with the high efficient pollution control equipment to produce least emissions.
A major fraction of fossil fuel burned in the industry is used for steam production which
in turn is used for either heating purposes in various sections of process industry or for
power generation. Typically 57% of total fossil fuel is used for steam generation in food
processing, 81% in pulp and paper, 42% in chemicals, 23% in petroleum refining and
10% in primary metals (Saidur et al. 2010).
Table 1.1: World energy consumption (quadrillion BTU)
Year Liquid Natural gas Coal Nuclear Others Total
2005 170.8 105.1 122.3 27.5 45.4 471.1
2010 173.2 116.7 149.4 27.6 55.2 522.1
2015 187.2 127.3 157.3 33.1 68.5 573.4
2020 195.8 138.5 164.6 38.9 82.2 620.1

The limited reserves of combustible fuels and the damage to the environment by low
efficiency of combustion reaction require more efficient systems that convert the fuel into
useful energy with minimum carbon emission. Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) is major greenhouse
gas (GHG) produced from the combustion of fossil fuels in the boiler. It has most
significant impact on global warming as compared to other green house gases (Ayres &
Walter, 1991). Other GHG emissions from boilers may include water vapors, Nitrous
oxide (N
2
O) and methane (CH
4
). These GHG emissions results severe consequences of
rising temperature, floods, droughts and earths climate change.
Table 1.2: Emission level at various era (CDIAC, 2012)
Gas Preindustrial level Current level Increase since 1750
Carbon dioxide 280 ppm 388 ppm 108 ppm
Methane 700 ppb 1745 ppb 1045 ppb
Nitrous oxide 270 ppb 314 ppb 44 ppb

Both increasing energy cost and greenhouse gas emissions exert pressure on industrial
bottom line and on global climate as well. The two factors causing pressure on user
7

economic growth are directly affected by the boiler efficiency and its ability of steam
generation. An efficient boiler is the one that produce greater steam with minimum fuel
consumption and reduced GHG emissions. Combustion air supplied to the boiler also
effects boiler efficiency.
If combustion air flow rate is too low, concentration of carbon monoxide builds up in flue
gases and in extreme cases smoke (unburned carbon particles) is produced due to
incomplete combustion. If combustion air flow rate is too high (excess air), it results
unneeded air, which carry lot of heat in exhaust and reduces heat available for steam
generation (West, 2002). Recommended excess air for various fuels is shown in table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Excess air used for different fuels
Fuels Excess Air (%)
Coal (Pulverized) 15-30
Coke 20-40
Wood 25-50
Bagasse 25-45
Oil 3-15
Natural Gas 5-10
Refinery Gas 8-15
Blast furnace gas 15-25
Coke-Oven gas 5-10

In order to cater with Increasing energy demand and environmental constraints, it is
required to enhance boiler performance by reducing loses that severely impacts boiler
efficiency. Besides controlling air supply, burner performance is another factor effecting
boiler efficiency. Proper mixing of fuel and air is a key performance factor for fuel
combustion, which in turn affects energy available for steam production. Though burner
performance is not an operating parameter, yet fixing fuel and air proportion within
flammability limits and provision of steady state and continuous combustion by burner
directly affects boiler efficiency.
Modern boilers are capable of maintaining recommended excess air through turndown
ratio of the burner. Continuous operation of burner may cause wear on cams, linkages
and pins that results variation in fuel/air ration and reduces boiler efficiency. A poor
burner causes uncontrolled fuel/air ratio which is responsible for unsmooth and
8

inefficient fuel combustion and results wastage of fuel. For safe and economic operation
of the boiler, control of excess air supply and stack temperature must be maintained at
optimum level which is established through proper tune-up procedure (Ozdemir, 2004).
Pakistani Industrial Sector is facing vital energy crisis. There is a need of optimizing
energy consumptions at demand side. Steam is an integrated part of process industry.
There is an opportunity of about 10 to 30% of thermal energy saving from more efficient
usage of boilers.
1.2. Fuel considerations for Boiler operation:
Most common fuels used in steam boilers include: Coal, oil and gas. Domestic and
industrial wastes are also incinerated for electricity generation and solid waste
management. Choice of fuel for combustion in the boiler depends on the design of
combustor. Most existing boilers have either single fuel firing facility or very limited
flexibility to fire alternative fuels. In latest designs of boiler combustors, application of
alternative fuels is being considered so that boiler can be switched to a different fuel for
future applications.
Natural Gas is the most simple, attractive and traditional fuel which is readily available.
Natural gas is readily mixes with air providing best fuel/air mixture for combustion
purposes. Factors that make natural gas a proffered fuel for combustion purposes include:
1. Low cost for same energy value as compared to oil and coal.
2. Very limited types of equipment are required for monitoring and handling,
typically flow meters, pipelines, knock out drums and control instrumentations.
3. High radiant flame characteristics and high velocities results enhanced heat
transfer and low heat transfer surface area which in turns requires small boiler
size and reduces purchase cost of the boiler.
4. Natural gas is more atmospheric friendly fuel. So cost associated with flue gas
treatment from natural gas fired combustor is less as compared to other fuels.
Liquid Fuels are either distillate fine products or residue from straight run distillation.
They are classified on the basis of physical characteristics and more often graded as No.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and No. 6 fuel oil. Grade 4, 5 are 6 are residual fuels. No. 2 is suitable for
9

industrial and domestic heating purposes. Distillate oils are preferred on residual oils
because it is easier to handle and requires no heating to transport and no temperature
control for viscosity adjustment for atomization and combustion.
For better atomization, fuel/air mixing, ease of handling and efficient boiler operation;
heating value, viscosity, flash point, pour point, sulfur and ash contents are carefully
controlled. Fluctuating market prices of crude oil affects economic trend of steam
generation. On the other side natural gas rate are more stable and cheaper than fuel oil.
Coal is widely used for heating, steam and electricity generation purposes in commercial
and industrial sector. Coal is a solid fuel and has varying quality grades based on non-
carbon contaminations. Though Coal is widely used solid fuel, yet following factors have
negative impacts on its selection as a fuel;
1. Combustion of coal results in the emission of NOx and SOx along with CO
2

which adversely affect the atmosphere if not controlled before emission.
2. Growing environmental limitations necessitate the installation of emission control
equipment that is highly expensive.
3. Coal receiving, storage, transport, preparation and processing requires heavy
machinery that that requires significantly high capital investment.
4. Coal requires road transportation, so political scenarios may affect its
uninterrupted supply.
Though safe and environmental friendly operation of coal combustion demands high
capital cost yet substantial operating cost saving of coal as compared to oil and gas
market prices, coal is likely to escalate in coming days as it significantly justifies a major
portion of investment made on coal feed preparation and post combustion emission
control (Turner & Doty, 2007).
1.3. Boiler Performance Evaluation:
Boilers are highly energy intensive thermal units. A significant amount of energy is
consumed in the boiler for steam generation. More than two-third of fossil fuel is burned
in the boilers, furnaces and other fired heaters. Typically 57% of total fossil fuel, burned
in industry, is used for steam generation in food processing, 81% in pulp and paper, 42%
in chemicals, 23% in petroleum refining and 10% in primary metals (Saidur et al., 2010).
10

Steam generated in the boiler is either used as direct heating purposes or used to rotate
steam turbines for electricity generation. Unlike other electric systems (hydroelectric,
nuclear, geothermal etc.) boilers are considered as inherently energy inefficient systems.
Perfect burning is the first requirement for a system to be efficient that involve energy
production from fossil fuel. Combustion reactions are inherently irreversible processes
and always cause an increase in entropy which is useless for of energy. An ideal system
that can result 100 % combustion efficiency, all of its energy will not be available as
useful energy because of intrinsic nature of combustion process. Energy analysis is a
tradition methodology carried out for performance evaluation of energy conversion
systems (Guoqiang, 2011).
An actual amount of thermal energy can only be achieved by quantitative and qualitative
analysis of energy conversion, transport and distribution (Paredo et al., 2002). Many
studies have been done on the importance of energy analysis for performance evaluation
of thermal systems. They also reveal the misleading concept of energy analysis and
energy efficiency because of its lake of true identification and quantification of potential
losses (Rosen, 2002).
The basic objective of thermoeconomic evaluation is the determination of actual product
cost, provide basis to control expenditures caused by system inefficiencies optimize the
design and operation of systems (Gaggioli, 1983). It is powerful tool to analyze
(Tsatsaronis & Winhold, 1985; Lozano et al. 1993b) diagnose (Lozano, 1994; Arena &
Borchiellini, 1999) and optimize (Lozano, 1996; Spakovsky, 1990) the performance of
energy conversion systems.


11

C HA P T E R 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

First and second law analysis are widely used in industry to check the performance of
energy systems. Especially the introduction of second law analysis is becoming a prime
toll for the identification and quantification of thermal losses at each stage of energy
system. In this way the thermodynamic analysis has changed the perception about
performance evaluation of energy systems.
Various research groups made a great contribution in thermoeconomic analysis of
thermal systems e.g. power plant, energy storage system and other unit operations.
- Flavio et al. (2000) presented thermoeconomic evaluation of gas turbine
cogeneration system. They evaluated power plant on the basis of first and second
law in order to determine the production cost of steam and electricity. He
concluded higher cost of electrical power and lower cost of steam and the product
on exergetic basis due to increase in ratio of product to fixed cost.
- Zhang et al. (2007) presented thermoeconomic analysis of coal fired power plant
to diagnose the operational faults to prevent anomaly progression and reduce
economic loss. They concluded that irreversibilities in many components are not
due to their inefficiencies but they are caused by dysfunctions by other
components.
- Eric Conklin (2010) applied second law analysis on steam boiler and combined
heat and power (CHP) plant in order to determine true losses in the system and
propose different ways to reduce that losses and increase second law efficiency of
the system.
- Dong et al. (2009) studied thermal efficiency of 300MW CFB boiler. They are
studied the effect of boiler load, excess air, air-to-fuel ration, combustion air
temperature and feed water and boiler temperature on first and second law
efficiency. According to their analysis energy efficiency increases with increase
12

in combustion air temperature, feed water and superheated steam temperature
while decreases with increase in excess air.
- Bakhshesh & Amir (2012) performed parametric study of boiler in order to
decrease irreversibilities in various sections of the boiler. They found energy
efficiency of boiler to be 89.21% and 45.48% respectively. Combustion chamber
and steam generator were major source of irreversibilities in the boiler. They also
studied the effect of excess air and stack temperature on energy efficiency.
- Combined pinch and energy analysis (CPEA) has also been applied by Abtin &
ChangKyoo (2010) for efficiency optimization of 325MW steam power plant
using Cycle Tempo. They plotted energy composite curves for minimum
approach temperature to enhance process to process energy transfer and reduce
fuel and utility requirements. They concluded that applying CPEA fuel
consumption reduces while the thermal cycle performance of power plant
increases.
- Chen et al. (2012) carried out extensive study in order to recover thermal energy
from flue gas using condensing boilers. He concluded that using polypropylene as
corrosion resistant material flue gases can be cooled down to 30
o
C recovering
major portion of thermal energy and almost all of its energy at the expense of
increase in heat transfer area.

13

C HA P T E R 3
PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. Boiler Schematic Diagram:
Schematic of process is shown in figure 3.1. Major components of boiler operation
include 1) combustor 2) steam generator 3) steam super-heater and 4) stack to exit flue
gases to the environment.

Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of boiler
Combustion air (stream-1) and fuel (stream-2) enters the combustion section where
combustion reaction takes place and huge amount of heat is released. This heat of
reaction is utilized to convert boiler feed water (stream-4) into superheated steam
(stream-7) in two stages. At first stage of three pass fire tube boiler, combustion products
(stream-3) pass through tube side of steam generator and produce saturated steam
(stream-6) in the shell side of packaged boiler. In the second stage saturated steam from
the shell side of boiler is superheated in shell and tube type super-heater to almost 10
degree Celsius above the saturation point. After recovering major fraction of heat from
combustion products, the flue gas (stream-8) leaves through stack to the environment.
Natural gas enters at 1.045 bar abs pressure and temperature of 15
o
C while combustion
air enters at 1.013 bar abs and 35
o
C respectively. Boiler feed water circulates through
other section of process plant and available at boiler head at a temperature of 140
o
C.
14

Table 3.1: Technical data of the boiler
No. Parameter Unit Natural Gas Boiler
1 Design Capacity tons/hr 8
2 Operating Capacity tons/hr Variable (1-8)
3 Boiler Type .
Packaged type
Three Pass, Fire Tube
4 Heating area m
2
205
5 Draft Type .. FD
6 Design pressure bar abs 30
7 Operating pressure bar abs 25-30
8 Furner type .. Dual (Natural gas & Diesel)
Steam requirement varies with the operation of plant. At shutdown conditions boiler is
operated at 1 ton steam/hr. Other operating conditions at variable capacity are given in
table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Stream data for boiler operation
Capacity
1

2

3

4
P
4
T
6
T
7
T
8

tons/hr Kg/sec Kg/sec Kg/sec Kg/sec bar abs
o
C
o
C
o
C

0.5 0.154 0.009 0.163 0.139 26.5 228 239 256 1.18
1 0.295 0.018 0.313 0.278 28.8 233 241 259 1.16
2 0.609 0.037 0.646 0.556 26.2 229 243 265 1.17
3 0.922 0.056 0.978 0.833 27.3 230 245 266 1.17
4 1.214 0.075 1.289 1.111 29.5 235 253 270 1.15
5 1.527 0.094 1.621 1.389 27.8 231 249 268 1.16
6 1.848 0.111 1.959 1.667 28.7 232 252 273 1.19
7 2.103 0.130 2.233 1.944 28.5 232 255 272 1.15
8 2.478 0.150 2.628 2.222 29.3 234 256 275 1.18
3.2. Assumptions:
1. Boiler and all of its components are considered as working on steady state.
2. Dry ambient air is considered to be composed of 79 vol% Nitrogen and 21 vol%
Oxygen and combustion air is considered as entering the boiler at 35
o
C having
relative humidity of 65%.
3. Reference environment is taken as 25 oC temperature and 1.013 bar pressure and
composition of air is considered as 75.67% N
2
, 20.30% O
2
, 3.12% H
2
O, 0.9% Ar
and 0.03% CO
2
on mol basis (Gaggioli & Petit, 1977).
4. Combustion efficiency of fuel is considered as 100%.
5. Carbon monoxide emission is negligible and no NOx emissions take place.
15

6. Combustion products enter the steam generator and leave the stack at ambient
pressure.
7. Natural gas contains 90% CH
4
, 7% N
2
and 3% CO
2
on mole basis.
8. Kinetic and Potential energy effects are negligible as compared to thermal effects.
9. Transmission pipes are fully insulated and no heat loss takes place in pipes.
3.3. General Balance Equation for boiler:
Boiler is subdivided into combustor, steam generator and steam superheater.
Thermoeconomic evaluation of boiler involves general mass balance, energy and exergy
balance and efficiency equation. These equations help in the determination of energy and
exergy efficiency, energy loss, exergy destruction and efficiency of individual
components and overall boiler as well. Necessary data of boiler operation at different
capacities is given in table 3.2 and thermodynamic properties for first and second law
analysis were taken from H. Perry (1997 & 2008). Chemical reaction occurring in
combustion chamber is given as;
4 2 2 2 2 2 2( 3.76 ) 2 7.5 CH O N CO H O N + + + +
Dincer et al. (2007) and Cengel & Boles (2006) presented first and second law analysis
in detail. General balance for a quantity in a system is written as
Input Output Generation Consumption Accumulation + =
(1)

1
Energy in products Energy loss
Total Energy input Total Energy input
q = =
(2)

Exergy in products Exergy loss + comsumption
= =
Total Exergy input Total Exergy input
(3)

For steady state process there is no accumulation of conserved quantity. So,
General mass balance equation:
i o
i o
m m =

(4)

General energy balance equation:
16

i o
i o
E Q E W + = +

(5)

Neglecting potential and kinetic energy effects, equation can be written as:
i i o o
i o
mh Q m h W + = +

(6)

General exergy balance equation:
1
o
i o
i j o
j
T
Ex Q Ex W I
T
(
+ = + +
(


(7)

For flowing streams exergy flow rate can be written as:
( ) ( )
th chem
i Ex mex mex ex = = +
(8)

Where, specific thermo-chemical and chemical exergies are expressed as:
( )
th
o o ex h h T s s =
(9)

ln
chem chem
o u o i ex ex R T x = +
(10)

Overall energy efficiency of the boiler can be written as:
( ) w s w
B
f
m h h
E
q

=
(11)

Overall energy efficiency of the boiler can be written as:
( ) w s w
B
xf
m ex ex
E

=
(12)

Specific enthalpy, entropy and chemical exergy of various substances used in the analysis
are expressed as:
Table 3.3: Reference thermodynamic properties of selected components (Perry, 2008;
Younglove, 1982 & 1987)
Component h
o
(kJ/mol) s
o
(kJ/mol-K) ex
o
chem
(kJ/mol)
CO
2
(g) 35.861 0.214 19.89
N
2
(g) 8.652 0.171 0.721
O
2
(g) 8.416 0.185 3.970
H
2
O (l) 1.890 0.007 0.884
17

Other boiler performance parameters thermal effectiveness, boiler yield and quality
preservation index can be calculated as;
Thermal effectiveness as defined by Bird et al. (1960);
Energy received by water
Thermal effectiveness=
Energy available at burner
(13)

Tons of steam produced
Boiler yield=
Tons of fuel consumed
(14)
Another basic parameter used for boiler evaluation is termed as quality preservation
index. It is the measure of exergy/energy carry over ratio. It simply divides product
quality delivered to the source quality.
( )
( )
Exergy
transferred by boiler
Energy
Quality preservation index =
Exergy
supplied by fuel
Energy
(15)

Boiler is subdivided into combustor, steam generator and superheater. Each subsystem
can be analyzed separately using mass, energy and exergy balance equation to find out
energy and exergy efficiencies and losses occurring in each component.
3.3.1. Energy and exergy analysis of combustor:
Both fuel and combustion air enters the combustion chamber where combustion reaction
takes place and organic fuel is converted to combustion products (CO
2
and H
2
O). In the
presence of excess air no carbon monoxide produces and also NOx emissions are also
negligible. No work and heat transfer takes place, so at steady state material, energy and
exergy expressions can be written as described by (Aljundi, 2009a; Aljundi, 2009b);
Mass balance:
1 2 3 m m m = +
(17)

Energy balance:
1 1 2 2 3 3 mh m h mh = +
(18)

18

First law efficiency can be written as;
3 3
2 2
comb
m h
m h
q =
(19)

For adiabatic combustor energy efficiency always yields 100%.
Exergy balance:
1 2 3 1 2 3 comb mex m ex m ex I + = +
(20)

Second law efficiency can be written as;
3
2
3
2
comb
m ex
m ex
=
(21)

At ambient conditions specific fuel exergy reduces to chemical exergy (Saidur et al.,
2007)
f f ex h =
(22)

Where, is fuel exergy grade function defined as specific fuel exergy to its heating value.
Table shows ex
f
, and h
f
of some typical hydrocarbon fuels.
Table 3.4: Properties of selected fuel (Saidur et al., 2007; Reistad, 1975)
Fuel
Heating value,
h
f
(kJ/kg)
Chemical Exergy,
ex
f
(kJ/kg)
Exergy grade
function,
Gasoline 47,849 47,349 0.99
Natural Gas 55,448 51,702 0.93
Fuel Oil 47,405 47,101 0.99
Kerosene 46,117 45,897 0.99
3.3.2. Energy and exergy analysis of steam generator:
Steam generator is first heat recovery heat transfer unit after combustor. Its objective is to
recover major fraction of heat from combustion products and convert boiler feed water
into saturated steam. Steam generator contains three passes for flue gases to transfer heat
to boiler feed water in the shell side. As it is only a heat transfer unit so no work involves
in its operation. Although it is well insulated to prevent heat from dissipation, still there is
heat loss that reduces its efficiency. Steam generated don not require mass balance,
19

continuous blow down is too small that it can be ignored, so first and second law analysis
can be written as;
Energy balance:
3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 sg mh m h m h m h Q + = + +
(23)

3 3 5 4 6 4 ( ) ( ) sg m h h m h h Q =
(24)

First law efficiency of steam generator can be written as:
4 6 4
3 3 5
( )
( )
sg
m h h
m h h
q

=

(25)

Exergy balance:
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 sg m ex m ex m ex m ex I + = + +
(26)

3 5 6 4 3 4 ( ) ( ) sg m ex ex m ex ex I =
(27)

Second law efficiency of steam generated can be written similar to first law efficiency:
6 4
3 5
4
3
( )
( )
sg
m ex ex
m ex ex

=
(28)

3.3.3. Energy and exergy analysis of steam superheater:
Objective of superheater is to increase the temperature of steam as much as possible by
using waste heat of flue gas. It increases the degree of superheat of saturated steam
obtained from steam generator. For steady state operation energy and exergy balance can
be applied similar to steam generator.
Energy balance:
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 sh m h m h m h mh Q + = + +
(29)

As,
3 5 8
m m m = = & 7
4 6
m m m = = , so
3 5 8 4 7 6 ( ) ( ) sh m h h m h h Q = (30)
20

First law efficiency of superheater can be written as;
4 7 6
3 5 8
( )
( )
sh
m h h
m h h
q

=

(31)

Exergy balance:
5 6 7 8 5 6 7 8 sh m ex m ex m ex m ex I + = + +
(32)

As,
3 5 8
m m m = = & 7
4 6
m m m = = , so
5 8 7 6 3 4 ( ) ( ) sh m ex ex m ex ex I =
(33)

Second law efficiency of superheater can be determined as;
7 6
5 8
4
3
( )
( )
sh
m ex ex
m ex ex

=
(34)

Energy and exergy analysis of stack:
As no energy transfer takes place in stack, so all of energy at stack is lost to the
environment. Energy loss and exergy destruction in stack can be found out as;
8 8 st m h Q =
(35)

And exergy destruction;
8 8 st m ex I =
(36)

Energy and exergy analysis of overall boiler:
Hence overall first law efficiency of the boiler is:
4 6 4
2 2
( )
B
m h h
m h
q

=
(37)

And energy lost in the boiler:
B sg sh st Q Q Q Q = + +
(38)

Overall second law efficiency of the boiler is:
21

6 4
2
4
2
( )
B
m ex ex
m ex

=
(39)

And exergy destruction in the boiler:
B comb sg sh st I I I I I = + + +
(40)

3.3.4. Economic evaluation of energy saving potential:
Various energy saving measures are suggested in various studies e.g. energy recovery
from flue gases, use of variable speed drive (VSD) in boiler fan and pump, use of
turbulator in combustion chamber, minimization of radiation loss from boiler geometry,
energy recovery from blow down etc. Economic associated to energy saving can be
formulated as;
Cost saved = Annual energy saved * unit price of energy
(41)


22

C HA P T E R 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter covers major findings as a result of thermoeconomic evaluation of three pass
fire tube boiler. To perform thermoeconomic evaluation various operating parameters
against different capacities are selected given in table 3.1. Then various investigations
were performed in order to analyze energy and exergy of boiler and then at various
sections of the boiler to identify the location and the potential energy loss and exergy
destruction.
Table 4.1: Total energy flow for each stream
Capacity E
1
E
2
E
3
E
4
E
5
E
6
E
7
E
8

tons/hr kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW
0.5 1.89 428.19
426.77
67.52 84.44 375.42 380.35 79.13
1 3.61 834.42
832.97
135.08 161.08 751.47 758.89 153.21
2 7.45 1701.77
1703.01
270.07 345.4 1504.31 1528.98 319.17
3 11.29 2591.09
2582.14
404.68 522.17 2251.72 2286.37 484.63
4 14.85 3447.46
3426.35
538.89 709.17 3005.96 3069.92 640.48
5 18.69 4314.81
4290.56
674.83 888.72 3754.05 3833.15 804.56
6 22.61 5105.31
5080.65
809.98 1096.03 4501.37 4607.78 981.08
7 25.73 5972.67
5936.11
944.56 1263.69 5251.9 5392.37 1112.85
8 30.32 6883.94
6845.54
1079.78 1488.69 6006.98 6161.68 1321.58
Table 4.2: Total exergy flow for each stream
Capacity Ex
1
Ex
2
Ex
3
Ex
4
Ex
5
Ex
6
Ex
7
Ex
8

tons/hr kW kW kW kW kW kW kW kW
0.5 1.27 398.22 251.69 10.76 21.26 132.03 134.06 19.04
1 2.43 776.01 504.03 21.57 40.34 267.07 270.15 37.09
2 5.01 1582.65 1019.31 43.01 89.4 528.57 538.64 78.13
3 7.57 2409.71 1522.83 64.53 134.91 794.59 808.97 118.84
4 9.97 3206.14 2055.38 86.31 188.55 1071.62 1098.7 158.54
5 12.54 4012.77 2561.14 107.66 235.1 1328.31 1361.44 198.30
6 15.18 4747.94 3087.71 129.36 295.12 1598.84 1643.61 244.27
7 17.27 5554.58 3619.87 150.81 343.88 1863.94 1923.28 277.12
8 20.35 6402.06 4137.98 172.55 405.14 2139.43 2205.55 331.56
23

Economic loss as a result of inefficiency of the boiler was also explored. Various energy
saving strategies, their economic perspectives and payback period to each energy
conservation measure was also calculated. At first step energy and exergy value of each
stream was calculated then various parameters were evaluated.
4.1. First and Second law analysis:
Energy and exergy value for each stream are presented in table 4.1 & 4.2. Boiler inputs
are energy and exergy of fuel and air where air imparts negligible contribution as
compared to the fuel values while outputs of the boiler are energy and exergy values
carried by superheated steam. Various boiler performance parameters were calculated.
Thermal effectiveness of the boiler is nearly constant at various steam production
capacity value and relatively low due to excessive thermal losses in the boiler (figure
4.1). For an efficient boiler thermal effectiveness should be greater than 0.90. Quality
preservation index refers to the ratio of product quality (exergy/energy of steam) to the
source quality (exergy/energy of fuel). Source quality is equal to fuel exergy grade
function given in table 3.4 while delivered product quality is exergy value of steam to
energy supplied by fuel. Low quality preservation index is due to very low exergy/energy
ratio of steam which is seldom greater than 0.4.

Figure 4.1: Thermal effectiveness and quality preservation Index of boiler
24

It is observed that at very low capacity boiler yield is 16.67 tons steam/ton fuel burned
that decreases to a magnitude of 15 at 37.5% capacity then remains nearly constant at
higher capacity (figure 4.2). At very low capacity more fuel energy is available for steam
production and less energy is lost in steam generator and stack. It is observed that at
higher capacity energy loss increases majorly due to increase in stack temperature. Table
3.2 shows that for each 50% decrease in boiler capacity stack temperature lowers by
almost 5
o
C which results more fuel energy available for steam production.

Figure 4.2: Boiler yield vs capacity
Figure 4.3 shows variation in energy and exergy efficiency of boiler along the capacity.
Energy and exergy efficiency of the boiler are only 73.75% and 31.41% which vary
between 73.06-74.76% and 30.8-31.91% respectively. 26.25% fuel energy and 68.59%
fuel exergy are lost due to inefficiency of the boiler. An efficient boiler must have overall
efficiency more than 90% which is far less than the target value. As in this work
combustion efficiency is considered as 100% in the presence of excess air, so 26.25% of
thermal inefficiency is very high for a boiler running on natural gas.
Figure 4.4 shows energy lost in kW in various sections of boiler. As capacity of boiler
increases total energy lost increases that provides more energy saving potential at higher
capacity. Stack results maximum energy lost followed by steam generator, combustor and
superheater.
25


Figure 4.3: Energy and exergy efficiency vs capacity
Negligible amount of energy is lost in superheater due to its low duty. Ideally there is no
energy lost in combustion chamber as it is considered to be operating adiabatically and all
of energy of combustion reaction is available to raise the temperature of combustion
products.

Figure 4.4: Energy lost in boiler components vs capacity
26

Figure 4.5 shows exergy destruction in kW in various sections of boiler. Unlike energy
loss in the boiler, exergy destruction have different trend along proceeding stages of the
boiler. Maximum exergy destruction has been observed in combustion chamber due to
intrinsic nature of combustion reaction. Steam generator, stack and superheater contribute
next major exergy destroying components. Magnitude of exergy destruction in boiler
increases with increase in capacity.

Figure 4.5: Exergy destruction in boiler components vs capacity
Figure 4.6 shows energy loss and exergy destruction distribution in various sections of
boiler. It is observed that stack results maximum energy loss (72.5 %) because exhaust
gases leaves at very high temperature carrying large amount of energy which is lost in
environment (Barreras at al. 2004). From table 3.2 it is observed that exhaust temperature
increases with capacity. For each 50% decrease in capacity exhaust temperature lowers to
almost 5
o
C. Exhaust gases temperature can be reduced to minimize energy losses. Steam
generator is the second major unit that causes energy loss. Upto 27% energy is lost due to
radiation loss and inefficiency of steam generator. Maximum exergy is destroyed in the
combustion chamber (52.37%) where combustion reaction takes place. Chemical reaction
and heat transfer are responsible for irreversibilities in combustor (Moran & Boehm,
1997; Durmayaz & Yavuz, 2001). In most of physical processes internal thermal energy
27

exchange plays a major role in irreversibilities (Soma & Datta, 2008). By nature
combustion reaction is an irreversible process and exergy loss associated to this intrinsic
irreversibility cannot be avoided. Steam generator and stack contribute to exergy
destruction as 40.3% and 7.2% respectively. Stream to stream heat transfer in steam
generator and exhaust of flue gases at relatively high temperature are major causes of
exergy destruction in steam generator and stack respectively.

Figure 4.6: Energy loss and Exergy destruction distribution in boiler components
Energy and exergy flow diagram (figure 4.7) represents a breakdown of total fuel energy
lost and fuel exergy destruction in individual component of the boiler.

Figure 4.7: Energy loss and exergy destruction flow diagram
28

Stack is the major contributor in fuel energy loss followed by steam generator while
combustor is major contributor in fuel exergy destruction followed by steam generator. In
combustor negligible fuel energy is lost due to adiabatic conditions while 36.03% fuel
exergy is lost due to inherent irreversibilities, excess air and low combustion air
temperature. Steam generator shares 7% and 27.73%, superheater 0.12% and 0.09%,
stack shares 18.73% and 4.96% and overall 26.68% and 68.81% fuel energy loss and
exergy destruction occurs respectively.
Figure 4.8 shows energy and exergy efficiency of individual component and overall
boiler. It is observed that combustor is 99.17% energy and 64.08% exergy efficient,
steam generator is 91.15% and 52.58% and superheater is 93.2% and 90.23% energy and
exergy efficient respectively while overall system is 73.75% energy and 31.41% exergy
efficient.

Figure 4.8: Comparison of energy and exergy efficiency
4.2. Exergy saving potential:
Exergy analysis identified the potential loss in various sections of the boiler and provides
basis for exergy savings. Combustor, steam generator and stack are major contributors of
exergy loss and magnitude of loss increases with increase in boiler capacity. At higher
capacity boiler have more potential of exergy and hence economic saving. Exergy saving
measures can be applied on individual component.
29

4.2.1. Exergy saving potential in combustor:
Combustor results 36.03% fuel exergy destruction and shares 52.37% of total exergy
destruction in the boiler. Intrinsic irreversibility, low combustion air temperature and
fuel/air ratio are major sources of exergy destruction. Irreversibilities due to combustion
reaction are unavoidable.
Yet the magnitude of irreversibility can be minimized by suitably controlling combustion
air temperature and the excess air. Excess air is analyzed by measuring the concentration
of oxygen in flue gases. A minimum percentage of excess air is unavoidable for complete
combustion yet excess air over that causes both energy and exergy loss by carrying
energy through flue gases. Combustion reaction gives maximum adiabatic flame
temperature at stoichiometric amount of air. As the percentage of excess air increases,
adiabatic flames temperature decreases, overall volume of flue gas increases and energy
quality also decreases. Rate of exergetic destruction can be reduced by oxygen
enrichment of air. Also preheating combustion air increases the energy availability for
steam production. Exergy efficiency can be increased by reducing heat conduction due to
internal mixing which can be achieved by controlling temperature gradient in combustion
chamber e.g. air preheating, fuel-air staging and controlling jet velocity. All these
strategies reduce mass flow and the temperature of flue gases, hence increasing energy
and exergy efficiency of the system. Soma et al. (2008) also presented the effect of fuel
inlet pressure on combustion and exergetic efficiency of various light hydrocarbon fuels.
He concluded that with increase in inlet pressure the combustion efficiency decreases
while exergetic efficiency increases.
Figure 4.10 shows effect of combustion air temperature on exergy efficiency of
combustor. In this work combustion air was supplied at 35
o
C which requires a part of
energy available to raise its temperature to reaction temperature. It was observed that by
raising air temperature from 25
o
C to 150
o
C exergy efficiency increased by 4.26%. Also
an increase in air temperature increases available energy in combustion products by
increasing the extent of reaction. Waste heat from exhaust gases can be utilized to preheat
combustion air.
30

4.2.2. Exergy saving potential in steam generator:
Steam generator results 7% and 27.73% fuel energy loss and exergy destruction and
shares 27.01% and 40.3% in total respectively. Heat transfer irreversibilities are
responsible for energy and exergy inefficiency. In steam generator heat transfer
Irreversibilities reduces as approach temperature (minimum temperature difference
between heat transfer streams) decreases (Saidur, 2010). It is observed that average
approach temperature at steam generator outlet is 76
o
C that leaves a wider room for
energy saving.

Figure 4.9: Effect of combustion air temperature on combustor exergy efficiency
Also from the experience it is observed that due to burning of fuel oil in the boiler, an
unburned carbon layer has been deposited inside boiler tubes. It acts as heat insulation
and reduces heat transfer flux. Proper cleaning of boiler tubes will increase heat transfer
rate and will increase boiler yield decreasing steam cost and energy and exergy lost.
Increased energy and exergy efficiency in steam generator and superheater can be
achieved by reducing radiation losses and using high thermal conductivity material for
heat transfer.
Figure 4.11 shows the effect of superheated steam temperature on boiler efficiency. It is
observed that by increasing steam temperature from 235
o
C to 260
o
C energy and exergy
efficiency increases by 2.55% and 1.17% respectively. Also by increasing pressure from
31

25 bar to 30 bar there is negligible effect on exergy efficiency and energy efficiency
decreases due to reduction in steam quality.

Figure 4.10: Effect of superheated steam temperature on exergy efficiency
Figure 4.12 shows increase in exergy efficiency of steam generator as a function of
recovery in thermal losses. It is observed that at full capacity 430MW thermal energy is
lost in steam generator. Radiation losses and heat lost due to carbon deposits inside boiler
tubes are major sources of heat loss. If all heat losses in the steam generator are recovered
by proper insulation and applying maintenance then its exergy efficiency can be
increased by 2.95%.

Table 4.11: Thermal loss recovered in steam generator vs exergy efficiency
32

4.2.3. Exergy saving potential in stack:
Typical flue gases contain 15-40% of fuel heat contents depending upon stack
temperature (Chen et al., 2010). In this study stack results 18.73% fuel energy and 4.96%
fuel exergy loss while 72.5% overall energy loss and 7.2% overall exergy loss due to
very high temperature of exhaust gases leaving in atmosphere. It is observed that stack
temperature ranges between 256
o
C to 275
o
C. Energy from stack can be utilized to
preheat combustion air that in turn increases combustor and overall energy and exergy
efficiency.
Flue gas dew point is a major obstruction in waste heat recovery. Stack temperature can
be reduced to the dew point of exhaust gases with simple heat exchange and even below
the dew point (upto 30
o
C) by using condensing boiler (Riffat et al., 2006, Chen et al.,
2010). Below the flue gas dew point sulphuric acid formation takes place that cause cold
end corrosion in boiler tube and stack lining (Barreras & Barroso, 2004). With natural gas
boiler, thermal efficiency can be increased from 75% to 90% and considerable reduction
in CO
2
emissions using condensing boilers (Weber, 2002). As the temperature of flue
gases decreases overall energy available for air preheating increases yet the quality of
energy decreases with decrease in exhaust temperature. Figure 4.13 shows energy and
exergy recovery potential in stack. It is observed that decreasing stack temperature
energy and exergy saving potential increases. By lowering stack temperature from 275
o
C
to 145
o
C 76.88% exergy destruction and 39.85% energy losses in stack can be avoided.
Boiler energy efficiency increases by 6.56% and exergy efficiency increases by 4.02% as
shown in Figure 4.14.
4.3. Financial saving associated with exergy recovery:
Exergy analysis provides true economic saving potential as a result of exergy recovery in
various sections of the boiler. Overall exergy destroyed and the exergy based fuel saving
has been economically evaluated. For economic analysis following assumptions has been
made:

33

Table 4.3: Assumptions for economic analysis
Parameter Unit Value
Natural gas teriff PKR/MMBTU 507
Unit energy cost PKR/MJ 0.480
Unit exergy cost PKR/MJ 0.516
Annual operating hours hr 7900


Figure 4.12: Energy and exergy recovery potential in stack

Figure 4.13: Effect of stack temperature on overall exergy efficiency
34

Methodology described in section 3.4 is used for economic evaluation. Unit exergy cost
is calculated by considering total fuel exergy consumed (fuel heating value*exergy grade
function) and total fuel cost associated to that exergy consumption. Cost analysis of
boiler at 100% load is determined and results are summarized in table:
Table 4.4: Annual cost balance sheet
Parameter Unit Value
Fuel consumption MNm
3
4.953
Fuel cost MPKR 94.008
Steam production tons 63200
Steam worth MPKR 29.853
Financial loss
Combustor MPKR 33.545
Steam generator MPKR 25.931
Superheater MPKR 0.110
Stack MPKR 4.569
4.3.1. Cost saving potential in Combustor:
Exergy based fuel cost saving potential in combustor has been determined. Exergy saving
potential as a function of combustion air temperature is given in figure 4.14. It is
observed that by raising combustion air temperature upto 150
o
C, 11.924% to financial
loss in combustor due to exergy destruction can be recovered. Annual fuel saving
potential in combustion chamber is found to be 3.99 Million PKR.

Figure 4.14: Annual fuel saving potential in combustor vs combustion air temperature
35

4.3.2. Cost saving potential in Steam generator:
Cost saving potential in steam generator as function of thermal loss recovered is
evaluated. It is found that annually 25.931 Million PKRs are lost due to thermal losses.
Fuel cost saving potential as a function of thermal loss recovered is determined and given
in figure 4.15. It is found that by recovering 80% thermal losses, 2.157 Million PKRs can
be saved.

Figure 4.15: Annual fuel saving potential in steam generator vs thermal loss recovered
4.3.3. Cost saving potential in stack:
Cost saving potential in stack as a function of reduction in exhaust gases temperature is
determined and results are shown in figure 4.16. It is found that by lowering stack
temperature upto 145
o
C, 3.742 Million PKRs can be saved.
So total fuel saving as a result of exergy saving measures is given in table 4.5:
Table 4.5: Annual fuel saving
Component Unit Saving
Combustor MPKRs 3.99
Steam generator MPKRs 2.17
Stack MPKRs 3.74
Total MPKRs 9.90

36



Figure 4.16: Annual fuel saving potential in stack vs stack temperature

37

C HA P T E R 5
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

After detailed first and second law analysis of fire tube industrial boiler, following
conclusions has been prepared:
- Second law (exergy) analysis provides true basis for thermal and economic
evaluation of industrial boiler and power plants. Sometime first law (energy)
analysis misleads in performance evaluation, also it does not have a capability to
identify and quantify the potential losses at various sections of the boiler. Exergy
analysis gives quantitative and qualitative insight of energy storage and
conversion systems. Also it helps in the design, diagnose and optimize energy
conversion systems.
- Thermoeconomic evaluation is a good tool for the determination of economic
perspectives of different operating variables in the boiler. Effect of combustion air
temperature, steam generator temperature & pressure, heat recovery from steam
generator and superheater, flue gases exhaust temperature excess air on annual
cost saving and their optimization can be better analyzed using thermoeconomic
methodology.
- First law analysis of the boiler revealed that boiler is only 73.75% thermally
efficient. Whereas steam generator and superheater are 91.15% and 93.2%
efficient respectively. Rest of the heat is lost to the environment from different
sections of the boiler. It is observed that out of 854.94kW of fuel energy
221.08kW s lost per ton steam production. Stack is major source of energy loss
that results 18.73% fuel energy and 72.5% of total energy lost. While steam
generator causes 7% of fuel energy and 27.01% of total energy lost. Superheater
and combustor result negligible heat loss due to very low heat duty in superheater
and adiabatic combustion in combustion chamber.
- Second law analysis revealed very low exergy efficiency. Exergy efficiency of the
boiler is 31.41% while combustor, steam generator and superheater are 64.08%,
38

52.58% and 90.23% efficient respectively. In the boiler out of 795.15kW of fuel
exergy 547.11kW exergy is destroyed per ton steam production. Combustor is a
major source of exergy destruction that results 36.03% of fuel exergy and 52.37%
of total exergy destruction. Steam generator and stack results 27.73% and 4.96%
of fuel exergy whereas 40.3% and 7.2% of total exergy destruction respectively.
Superheater results negligible exergy destruction due to very low exergy duty.
- Economic analysis of the boiler shows that per ton steam costs 1478 PKRs on
exergy basis. Actual fuel cost per ton steam production is just 461 PKRs while
1017PKRs are lost due to irreversibilities of the boiler. Combustor, steam
generator and superheater shares individual loss of 533, 410 and 73 PKRs. A part
of this economic loss can be recovered by applying conservation measure, while a
part is unavoidable due to some intrinsic irreversibilities e.g. combustion reaction.
- Stack causes 18.73 % fuel energy loss and 4.96% fuel exergy destruction.
Analysis of results provided that if flue gas exhaust temperature is lowered to 145
o
C then 39.84% energy loss and 76.88% exergy destruction in the boiler can be
recovered. Also this recovery improves boiler energy efficiency from 73.75% to
80.31% by 6.56% and boiler exergy efficiency from 31.41% to 35.43% by a
factor of 4.02%. Exhaust can be lowered to further extent by using condensing
coils but unit exergy recovery below 145
o
C is not so cheaper.
- Steam generator as another major source of exergy destruction. 220.48 kW of
exergy is destroyed in steam generator per ton steam production. It causes 7% of
fuel energy loss and 27.73% of fuel exergy destruction. Thermal losses in steam
generator are a result of radiation losses and carbon deposit inside the boiler tubes
due which produces due to the burning of heavy fuel oil as a replacement of
natural gas. If thermal losses are recovered by proper insulation and internal
cleaning of boiler tubes then exergy efficiency of steam generator is increased
from 52.58% to 55.53% by a factor of 2.95%.
- Combustion chamber is the biggest source of exergy destruction. 286.52 kW of
fuel exergy is destroyed per ton steam production due to combustion and transport
irreversibilities. Temperature gradient between feed streams and combustion
product is an avoidable while combustion is an unavoidable source of
39

irreversibilities. If combustion air is preheated to 150
o
C then its exergy efficiency
can be increased from 64.08% to 68.34% by a factor of 4.28%. Combustion air
can be preheated by utilizing waste energy from flue gases.
- In order to save exergy from stack it is required to pinch flue gas heat with
combustion air. It will reduce the irreversibilities both in stack and combustor as
well.
- Periodic cleaning and maintenance of fireside of boiler tubes will increase heat
transfer between combustion products and boiler feed water and reduces steam
generator irreversibilities.
- It is recommended that sootblowers be installed in order to remove the deposits
formed inside firetubes due to burning heavy fuel.
- More studies are required to distinguish the irreversibilities caused by combustion
reaction, excess air and air temperature. It will help in more exergy saving in
combustor.
40

NOMENCLATURE:

I Destroyed irreversibility (kW)
E Energy flow (kW)
Ex Exergy flow (kW)
q
First law efficiency
Q Heat transfer (kW)
m Mass flow rate (kg/s)

Second law efficiency

ex Specific exergy (kJ/kg)
W Work done (kW)
Subscripts & Superscripts:
a air
B boiler
--chem chemical
comb combustor
f fuel
g gas
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
i inlet
o outlet
s steam
sg steam generator
sh superheater
st stack
T Temperature (
o
C)
--th thermal
w water

41

APPENDIX:

Table A1: Boiler performance Evaluation
Capacity
(%)
Thermal
Effectiveness
Quality
preservation index
Boiler
yield
Energy
efficiency (%)
Exergy
efficiency (%)
6.3 0.73 0.42 16.67 73.06 30.86
12.5 0.75 0.43 16.67 74.76 31.93
25.0 0.74 0.42 15.38 73.98 31.22
37.5 0.73 0.43 15.01 72.62 30.80
50.0 0.73 0.43 14.81 73.42 31.48
62.5 0.73 0.43 14.71 73.21 31.15
75.0 0.74 0.43 15.06 74.39 31.79
87.5 0.74 0.43 14.89 74.47 31.81
100 0.74 0.43 14.81 73.82 31.65


Table A2: Fuel energy loss and exergy destruction in boiler components
Component Fuel energy loss (%) Fuel exergy destruction (%)
Combustor 0.83 36.03
Steam Generator 7.01 27.73
Superheater 0.12 0.09
Stack 18.73 4.96
Overall 26.68 68.81


Table A3: Energy and exergy efficiency in boiler components
Component Energy efficiency (%) Exergy efficiency (%)
Combustor 99.17 64.08
Steam Generator 91.15 52.58
Superheater 93.20 90.23
Overall 73.75 31.41


42

Table A4: Energy and exergy efficiency in boiler components
Capacity
comb

sg

sh

B

comb

sg

sh

B

% % % % % % % % %
6.3 99.23 89.94 92.84 73.06 63.02 52.63 91.44 30.86
12.5 99.40 91.74 94.28 74.76 64.75 52.94 94.77 31.93
25.0 99.64 90.91 94.05 73.98 64.20 52.22 89.35 31.22
37.5 99.22 89.66 92.30 72.62 63.01 52.61 89.48 30.81
50.0 98.96 90.80 93.11 73.42 63.91 52.78 90.24 31.48
62.5 99.01 90.52 93.99 73.20 63.63 52.48 90.03 31.15
75.0 99.08 92.64 92.57 74.39 64.83 52.62 88.04 31.79
87.5 98.96 92.19 93.13 74.47 64.97 52.29 88.89 31.81
100 99.01 91.98 92.57 73.82 64.43 52.69 89.86 31.65


Table A5: Exergy destruction causes and saving measure
Component Causes Mitigation
Combustor Temperature gradient Preheat combustion air
Excess air Use of VSD
Reaction irreversibilities Unavoidable
Steam generator Radiation losses Insulation
Carbon deposits Cleaning
Stack High Temperature Energy pinch