Mysticism and Ethics: Radhakrishnan and Schweitzer Author(s): Milton D.

Hunnex Reviewed work(s): Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 8, No. 3/4 (Oct., 1958 - Jan., 1959), pp. 121-136 Published by: University of Hawai'i Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397447 . Accessed: 21/01/2013 06:21
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MILTON D. HUNNEX

and Ethics: Mysticism

IT WOULD
BE DIFFICULT to

and Radliakrishnan Schweitzer

discover two individuals more thanS. Radhakrishof to and qualified speakto thesubject mysticism ethics nan and AlbertSchweitzer. addressa singleproblem:modernman They a thatcan lead him through darkness the mustdiscover common principle of his age. Both believethatmysticism holdsthe key. But mysticism, morethan no and otherphilosophies, of no uniformity interpretation, thecommon enjoys thatbindsthespirits Radhakrishnan Schweitzer challenged of concern and is the overtones a culturaland philosophical of clash. On the one hand, by thereare the characteristic activism voluntaristic and of emphasis theWest the other,the characteristic and spiritualism India. of and, on quietism thinker whollycharacteristic his cultural is of the Though neither origin, strains there.More significant, are dominant is thefactthatmore however, Radhakrishnan Schweitzer moved thanmost their of and have contemporaries, towardan accordwhichtranscends interthe and intra-cultural differences thatengulf them. The issueis notsolelyHindu vs. Christian Indianvs. or Westernbut one deriving fromproblems interpretation are deepthat of seatedin the individual traditions bothIndianand Western of philosophy. ChrisThese differences deeperthanthe merepolemicof Schweitzer's are Eastern and of Religions tianity theReligions the Worldor Radhakrishnan's and WesternThought. Yet, theyresolvethemselves a mannerwhich in areasof Western of and Indian opensthe way to a rapprochement certain their own admission, bothunderstand their to thought. By problem be one of diverging of thanoneofdiverging understanding theworldand liferather for and purpose.Bothwouldagree, example, that"thefuture civiliof spirit zationdepends of awareness thehearts minds to and uponthereturn spiritual of men."1
xSarvepalli Radhakrishnan, in Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore, eds., A Source Book in Indian Philosophy (hereafter SBIP) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), p. xxix.

121

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Radhakrishnan's absoluteidealismstresses organicunity man and the of his world.2 Idealismblends withmysticism the tradition Sarikara's in of AdvaitaVedainta, efforts reconcile ethicalreligions theworld and to the of characterize turnof his thought. Yet Radhakrishnan's concern no is every shallowsyncretism. carries It ethicalimperatives. inclination His is strong toward bhakti.Brightman him characterized as "profoundly ethical" clearly and maintained "in his exposition themostnondualistic that of his thought central interest UnlikeSchweitzer, Radhakrishnan derives ethics."3 [remains] his ethics froma formof identity "The supporters pure of mysticism. he monism," says:
a intellect We have to sinkourselves in recognise higher powerthanabstract ... the universal consciousness makeourselves and with co-extensive all thatis. We do
not thenso much thinkreality live it,do not so much know it as become it.4 as

The sole spiritual vocation man consists thediscovery reality, notwhat in of of and our serves temporal ends.5 Hindu thought looksuponman as thevictim ignorance, of whichgivesrise avidya, to selfish The Upanisads to us of the agonyof finite creatures desire, speak kdma. in time, world karma, agony feeling of of the the thatwe are at themercy of living time.... The reality moksa liberation of or us withhopethat cantriumph we inspires overtime." than is ... to [Man,however,] mighter hiskarma... The lawofkarma hasnothing do withthespiritual him. The infinite manhelpshimto transcend limitations in in the of thefinite.7

For Radhakrishnan, man towarda self-fulfillment therefore, mayprogress thatcarries him beyond bondageof lifeas he finds This conviction the it. is fundamental his ethics, it is forthetraditions Western to as of idealism and theUpanisads. The spiritual forRadhakrishnan nothing do withtheempirical self has to nor is it personality the popular sense; forpersonality in self, however,
2Radhakrishnan calls this intuition an "integral experience." See S. Radhakrishnan, An Idealist View of Life (hereafter IVL) (2nd ed., rev., London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1932), pp. 59, 72, 82, 89, 103, 114, 124, 153; Eastern Religions and Western Thought (hereafter ERWT) (London: Oxford University Press, 1939), pp. 82, 85, et passim; The Hindu View of Life (hereafter HVL) London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1947), pp. 31, 79, 124; Religion and Society (hereafter RS) (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1956), p. 103; S. Radhakrishnan, trans., Bhagavadgita (New York: Harper & Bros., 1948), p. 13, et passim. For excellent studies of Radhakrishnan's philosophy, see P. A. Schilpp, ed., The Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (New York: Tudor Publishing Co., 1952), and SBIP, pp. 610-637. 3E. S. Brightman,"Radhakrishnan and Mysticism," in Schilpp, ed., op. cit., p. 396. 4S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy (hereafter IP), Vol. I (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1923), p. 37. "Ibid., Vol. II, p. 655. 6S. Radhakrishnan,"Fragments of a Confession," in Schilpp, ed., op cit., p. 48. 7IP, Vol. I, p. 246.

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is or The worldit constructs projects myay.It is is lost in masquerade.8 to a shadowworldof a shadowselfsubject karmaand nottheobjectof but thanan essentially real It understanding. is a dependently rather spiritual of an expression theAbsolute real world. "The worldis derived being.... AbsoluteBebetween markthe distinction and not the Absoluteitself.To being we call the lattermaya."' Yet, "forthe Hindu ing and dependent worldexists.It is not [mere]illusion." "Humanexthe thinkers, objective 0 real "is Radhakrishnan ultimately norcompletely believes, neither perience," hla of a playof theAbsolute, illusory.""It is,instead, product thecreative disof doctrine mayaby Radhakrishnan of This interpretation arihkara's the between real is that the dichotomy courages suggestion there an absolute and the in and the unrealand is a crucialfactor overcoming mostcommon in the criticism Hindu ethics, chargethatit lacksinterest of mosteffective mostimportant the world. For this reason,it is one of Radhakrishnan's "the to contributions ethical theory.12Radhakrishnan clearlyinterprets [to object-world be] dependent. .... but... not a [mere] mentalfiction. not abhava (non-existent) . [and] .... nevertheless . not ultimate ...
reality."13

existence.We of mystery intelligible Maya has to do withthe ultimate senseof the cannotanswer question:What is therelationship theempirical shouldengagein ilt worldand ultimate reality? Why Brahman perceived our is beyond grasp. is empirical we that We know there theabsolute that is world, reality, know there the ourknowledge.14
but worldrests theAbsolute, thehowof it is beyond on we knowthattheempirical

of Nor can we answerthe question:What is the relationship theempirical knowthat and the real self? We simply
the which whenwe breakthrough ringof smokeroundtheself, the unwrap sheaths of the coverit,we achievehereand now in theflesh destiny ourbeing.The "I," the of the self, (sat), atman, universal infinitely simple. . a trinity transcendent reality andfreedom awareness (inanda). 5 (cit),
'Cf. ERWT, pp. 27 ff. and 95. Cf. also C. G. Jung's conception of the personae in H. G. and C. F. Baynes, trans., Two Essays in Analytical Psychology (London: Balliere, Tindall and Cox, 1928), p. 165. 'S. Radhakrishnan, "Reply to Critics," in Schilpp, ed. op. Lit., p. 800. See also Bhagavadgita, pp. 38, 41, et passim; RS, p. 103. 10ERWT, p. 31. "Ibid., p. 86. See also Bhagavadgita, p. 38; IP, Vol. II, chap. 8. 12SBIP, pp. 610-637. lslbid., p. 507. "4HVL, pp. 66-67. "1ERWT, p. 28. See also pp. 3 5, 83.

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of Escape frommiyi is therefore escape fromthe distorted understanding and bondageto the world-not the worldas such."'
of The process theworldis [nota] perpetual recurrence [and therefore meaningless) forthecosmic in Mankind engaged a pursuit tends that a is towards definite process. goal."
... governedby a law of cyclicmotion ... thereis an historical fulfilment destiny and

affairs his ceaseless strivRadhakrishnan's role in contemporary own and of conflicts harbors suggestion no foramelioration social and cultural ing the to of a passivesubmission whatever future maybring.Mayadoes not for man in thehopelesstangleof ignorance enmesh (avidya), he says,
as there someobject.Thatis whyforSarhkara, for is even [in] erroneous perception whiletrue are as there no mereerrors. there no absolute are truths, Only, Bradley, of as to ideasanswer ourneedsand fitintoour conception reality a systematic whole, and is to ideasrefuse do so. The world, erroneous seen,felt, tasted, touched, as real and The mindwithitscategories, as thebeingof manwhosees,feels, tastes, touches. on on theone side,and theworldwhichit construes them, theother, hang through together.18

in "is "The destiny man," says Radhakrishnan, to know himself" this of understanding:
of whichis characteristic Hindu thought, If there one doctrine morethananother is in to thatthere an interior is it is thebelief soul,which, itsessence, depth thehuman and and is uncreated deathless absolutely real."1

that he affirm theworldis mayaq," concludes that "When theIndianthinkers

is which notobjecof affirm reality spirit the the us to circumvent timeprocess, they which not (merely)existent.20 is tive,
... that we can escape fromit, that it is possible for it is not real, though existent,

II of of The mysticism Radhakrishnan in general, mostof and, and of has by appraisal Schweitzer other Hinduism, beenthesubject a critical calls whatSchweitzer toward who see in it a tendency Western philosophers While Schweitzer for a lackofconcern ethics.21 and and world- life-negation
'This is because "the world is not essential being . . . nor . . . mere non-being." It is becoming. "Change is the essence of existence." Bhagavadgita, p. 38; S. Radhakrishnan, "Fragments of a Confession," in Schilpp, ed., op. cit., p. 27. "1ERWT, p. 89 (paraphrased). "sIP, Vol. II, p. 497-498. O"ERWT, p. 83. See also pp. 28, 35. 20S.Radhakrishnan,"Fragments of a Confession," in Schilpp, ed., op. cit., p. 57. 21Albert Schweitzer, Christianity and the Religions of the World (hereafter CRW), Johanna Powers, trans. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1923), p. 38-53; Indian Thought and Its Development (hereafter ITD), Mrs. Charles E. B. Russell, trans. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1936),

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in the of worldand life-affirmation the recognizes presence whathe terms of the of tradition the Upanisadsand throughout generaldevelopment Inhe thatit is not the dominant themeand that, dian thought, is convinced "worldand lifenegation Only instead, occupiesa predominant position."22 he "after long struggle a againstworldand lifenegation," says,is "ethical he The struggle, notes, worldand lifeaffirmation to [beginning prevail]."23 in in and is first intensified Riimanuja, reaches dramatized theBhagavad-Gita, its climaxin the thought a modernIndian like Gandhiforwhom the of doctrine ahithsa "is freed[itself]from principle non-activity of the of ... fullcompassion.... [in] service and becomesa commandment exercise to from Yet freehimself of worldand lifeaffirmation."24 Gandhicannot fully his world- life-negation, Schweitzer, must and and says carry "cave"withhim so thathe is not of the worldbut onlyin theworld.25 The kindof ethical which in Schweitzer worldand life-affirmation Tagore finds theUpanisads, he that does not find.The worldand life-affirmation is actually practiced, is is half ... says, thatwhich allowed"theBrahmin [in] thefirst ofhislife"" as he livesthrough four necesthe (aiframas).In short, stages onlypractical Schweitzer concedes the ideal of world-and life-negation. sitycompromises that"Aurobindo to Ghose,likeTagore, mysticism attempts explainBrahminic in the senseof [an] ethicalworldand lifeaffirmation,"does also Radhaas influenced Tagore,"yethe concludes krishnan, who,he says,"is strongly by of thatthe "mysticism identity, whether Indianor European, not ethical is in either originor in nature and cannotbecomeso,"27 and it is clearly this form mysticism characterizes bulkofIndianthought. of that the Schweitzer's are of who by apprehensions encouraged thepronouncementsIndianthinkers of Radhakrishnan's as, interpretation marya e.g., may not share precisely that'Advaitalooksupon bhakti(devotion) Professor Wadia who observed or inferior jfUina moksa,whichis the to and karma (action) as definitely of all Indian thought."28 ultimate goal
chaps. 1, 2, 15, et passim; Henri Bergson, The Two Sources of Morality and Religion, H. A. Audra and C. Brereton, trans. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1935); Rudolf Otto, Mysticism East and West, Bertha L. Bracey and Richenda C. Payne, trans. (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1932). For a presentation of this thesis and in particular a study of the mysticism and ethics of Radhakrishnan and Schweitzer, see William F. Goodwin, "Mysticism and Ethics: An Examination of Radhakrishnan's Reply to Schweitzer's Critique of Indian Thought," Ethics, LXVII (October, 1956), 25-41. 23Ibid.,p. 17. =ITD, p. 3. Ulbid., pp. 229-230. See also pp. 181, 198. "Ibid., pp. 249, 262, et passim. sA. R. Wadia, "The Philosophical Outlook in India and Europe," in Radhakrishnan: Comparative Studies in Philosophy, W. R. Inge, et al., eds. (New York: Harper & Bros., 1950), p. 97. himself encouraged this emphasis through his interpretationof the Gitd. Cf. Otto, op. cit., afrimkara pp. 173, 207.

lIbid.,pp. 23 5-236.

"Ibid., pp. 39, 243.

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In thefaceofSchweitzer's conclusion of the clear concerning nature Indian Radhakrishnan in himout as thesubjectof a rebuttal one of ethics, singles his Oxford lectures SpaldingProfessor. notesthat"hisaccount as He brings in form chief the criticisms together a convenient urged[generally] against Hindu thought."29 Schweitzer's for To chargethatethicsare not primary ethical behind Hindus,Radhakrishnan practices pleadsguilty: "The motive is thatof purging soul of selfish to the so thatit maybe fitted reimpulses ceivethebeatific for not Butwe must be misledbythisconfession, vision."30 Radhakrishnan notesthat "thereis no reasonwhywe shouldregardselfas a speciesof inactivity."31 and "Innerperfection outerconduct perfecting are twosidesofone life."32 thesisare, to a greatextent, Radhakrishnan's to objections Schweitzer's Schweitzer the tendsto oversimplify Hinduposition.He failsto justifiable. note adequately richinsights Hindu thought. the in Nor does he give adthere.Perthatis to be found to equate recognition all theethical potential on his mostserious is his almosttotalreliance European haps shortcoming to rather in thanIndianscholarship. One searches vainforreferences Indian and Its in authorities. totalreference Radhakrishnan IndianThought His to Denkder from Die Weltanschauung indischen Development(as translated for example,consists the one briefsentence:"S. Radhakrishnan in er), the and influenced Tagore,""33 thisnotwithstanding (b. 1888) is strongly by Radhis had factthatby 1935, when Schweitzer completed manuscript, hakrishnan had alreadypublishedThe Reign of Religionin Philosophy The HinduViewofLife (1927), An IdealistViewofLife (1932), (1920), IndianPhilosophy as well as hismonumental two-volume (1923 and study, alters the whichradically all of whichreinterpret in a manner 1927), maya status ethics. of the tendsto minimize Indian theistic also that Schweitzer One suspects of of the schoolswhichsuggest possibility a doctrine an ethicaldivinewill Otto observes that"themostfamous man as a personal spirit. confronting and . theism . . are suchmen as the greatRdiminuja of pioneers a personal school... of Sankara.... The to Madhva..... evenwithregard theclassical The Gita is itself rests Brahman herealso on a theistic basis."34 impersonal
"SIbid.
29ERWT, p. 65. 3"Ibid., p. 105 Cf. SBIP, pp. xv-xxix.

2"Ibid.,p. 108. "By the practice of ethical virtues and by the pursuit of devotion and knowledge we reach the goal of self-realization(moksa)," SBIP, p. 507. "ITD, p. 249. "Otto, op. cit., p. 103. Otto discusses the case for "a common theistic foundation," pp. 103-136.

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a greataffirmation Indiantheistic of In the piety.35 it maybe found grounds forbeliefin an ethicaldivinewill. Thereis theteaching thatone surrenders to thewill of I9varain thespirit bhakti. of The teachings theGiti arenotstrange Schweitzer. non-attachment of Its to is in Schweizer's refusal allow any degreeof successor failure to in either of of himfrom path the knowledge theworldor theresults actionto swerve of moralobedience reverence life. Schweitzer to for drawsnearto and becomes identified withthe spirit Jesusas prapatti-"in activity and of rest in rest, The an and activity." pointis thatno clearcase for impersonal purely abstract can with identity mysticism be madein connection Indianphilosophy, this notevenforVedinta.In Sarimkara maybe donebutonlythrough interan which Radhakrishnan rejected. One may accept has pretationof Schweitzer'smny as absoluteidealism a proper misgivings concerning philosophical basis forethics, his arguments Brahmanism Hinduism but that and are as compared Christianity, to whichis per se pessimistic-monistic-pantheistic is an obviousoversimplification borneout by not optimistic-dualistic-theistic, the facts.He says, example, hisearlier for in and somewhat morepolemical as lecture and of published Christianity theReligions the World:"The battle betweenBrahmanism and Buddhism the one side and Christianity on on the otheris a battlebetween spiritual the and theethical.""36 1935, his By in and had position IndianThought ItsDevelopment notmaterially changed, he to though notesthathe was "compelled admit[now) thefactthatworld and life affirmation been] presentat the back of [Indian] thought [had from very the dawnofitshistory."" on Radhakrishnan, theotherhand,failsto takeadequatenoteof Schweitzer's rather as specialuse of suchterms Christianity, optimism, pessimism, nordoeshe in anyportion hisalso somewhat of monism, dualism, etc., polemical ChapterIII of Eastern that Religionsand Western Thoughtrecognize Schweitzer fully critical certain is as of of traditional expressions Christianity which appropriated otherworldliness the Hellenic mystery the of cults or Greekphilosophy. Radhakrishnan tends identify to Schweitzer's clearly own unorthodox versionof Christianity with historic as a whole. Christianity Schweitzer of deploresthe world-and life-negation primitive Christianity no less thanhe does the allegedpessimism Hinduism.Radhakrishnan of is not alwaysclearas to whichinterpretation Christianity has in mindin of he relation his critique Schweitzer. to of Thereare random references thisor to thatform Christianity forexample, asceticism St. Jerome, of the of who as, is citedas an exampleof Christian world- life-negation. leaving and In much
"SSBIP, pp. 101-102. 36CRW, p. 47. 37ITD, p. vii.

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to be desiredin his treatment Christianity, Radhakrishnan weakenshis of in withSchweitzer that own position response Schweitzer. recognizes to He and and Hinduismare "both world-affirming world-denying," Christianity has but,sinceSchweitzer alreadyfoundthisto be the case, therecognition as suchadds littleto theargument. The real issueis notso muchwho is or is not world-and life-affirmingnegating how ethicscan be or but,rather, made to enjoythe status to thatbothwould ascribe it. Schweitzer to whenhe places in opposition Hinduthe sharpens contrast ism a form Christian in of and at once ethics thatis deontological emphasis and optimistic. and definitely, he says, "must, groundless clearly Christianity, menthenecessity a choicebetween and of put before logicalreligion ethical and it mustinsist thefactthattheethicalis thehighest on religion, typeof The concernthatis so centralto Schweitzer spirituality."38 deontological and Christian ethicsgenerally muchless livelyin Radhakrishnan. is The voluntaristic elementis not so clear. Radhakrishnan's interest primarily is not to teleological.The end is self-realization, obedience ethicaldivinewill. and Sarikara leave an unmistakable mark. For Schweitzer, the on Bradley otherhand,Jesus of commits and thenKant are hispoints departure. Jesus himself to to will and tragically an obedience theethical divine categorically of his Fatherin heaven. Kant establishes world-view by knowledge his not of theworldbutbya practical reason thatleads to "ethics, .. thefundaas. Radhakrishnan's in mentalfactof spiritual and mentallife."39 confidence is is notfoundin Schweitzer. Schweitzer, there no knowledge For ontology thatcan be derived aboutthe worldthat from worldor from the thought or can support identifiable scheme providence, of worldunfolding, Being. any He arguesthat with into the knows about individual ableto enter connection being reality nothing manifests in thetotality Being.As it knows no Being of of that itself except which of of those one of so theexistence individual except beings, alsoit knows norelations there to If individual toanother. mysticism, intends be honest, is nothing then, being thatit can do and forit to do butcast from theusualabstractions to admit it of rational the with imaginary essence Being.40 nothing in thatwe are wills-to-live a worldof wills-to-live. We can know,however, thesewillsto and to promote We can knowthatwe muststrive preserve of in to to-live obedience thecommand theethicaldivinewill within.The in is thatwe are capable of acquiring moral,not metaphysical, knowledge
39aTD, p. 264. aSCRW, p. 84. *'Albert Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization, Part II, Civilization and Ethics (hereafter CE), C. T. Campion, trans. (first American ed., New York: The Macmillan Co., 1951), p. 305.

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and must essence. Lifeis the basic reality, moralresponsibility relateitself manifestations. to itin all itsparticular manifestations. It is of infinite in infinite but There no Essence Being, only is Being ofBeing, only and those which enter I the through with only through manifestations of The with intercourse infinite that has into relations, mybeing any Being. devotion of to devotion mybeing all themanifestations of means to infinite Being mybeing Being41.... and Man cannotescapeitsdemands. This devotion categorical limitless. is insists.Insteadof Schweitzer He cannotescape the "wheel of existence," on seekingrelease,he should-in the spiritof Jesus-throwhimself the its to it wheelin theeffort redirect and,ifneedbe,to suffer crushing weight. is assumesthatthislifeand itsmultifarious Schweitzer potential of highest to intrinsic . value,per se. "Mysticism .. mustneverbe thought existfor itsown sake,"he says."It is nota flower onlythecalyxofa flower. Ethics but that Ethical mysticism teachesa spirituality is the gift are the flower."42 thanthepurpose morality.43 of rather For Schweitzer, ethicaldivinewill thatencounters the man is theJudeois Christian whosereality his deedsand "livingGod" who actsand works, a itself.This creativity charreflects voluntaristic whoseessenceis creativity acter thatcontrasts withtheplayof iila ofBrahman." Schweitzer's it mysticism is morenearly thatof a Paul, Eckhart, Luther-a "mysticism the or of of surrender the personalwill to the active[and ethically divine]will" of not of God in the interest greater, less,activity.45 Ethicalmysticism will is mysticism. on and Radhakrishnan, the otherhand,sees ethicsas the instrument rewardof spirituality: Whentheindividual to wisdom, doesnotescape rises from To be ridofthe he life. we he from say egois notto be ridoflife.Negatively may that is released hamperhe his and with united positively hasrealised spiritual ingegoism; destiny hasbecome of universe.46 the spirit the The freedom spiritual of self-realization the higher is goal, and "self-consciousness an obstacle.The liberated is is individual lifted the beyond ethical distinctions good and evil."47To transcend of theselimitations to achieve is the truemorality self-realization. of is more spiritual insight, finally Ji]~na,
"'Ibid, p. 305.
4"CRW, p. 47 et passim.

"Radhakrishnan quoted in A. N. Marlow, Radhaklrishnan, An Anthology (London: Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1952), p. 101. 47ERWT, p. 102.

p. ISlbid., 208.

"Otto, op. cit., p. 207. George

lIbid.,p. 304.

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than progressof action, importantthan ethics,perfectionof understanding although--one must hasten to add-Radhakrishnan does not repudiateprogress. "The spiritof man can change the directionof the march," he says."s But he arguesfortheprimacy self-perfection: of is whatshallI do to be saved?butin what The question not, shallI do? Detachspirit mentof spirit and notrenunciation theworldis whatis demanded of from The us. of knowers Brahman remake world....4 the The Christiancommand to love one's neighboras oneself is extendedto: "You shalllove yourneighbor yourselves In as becauseyouareyourneighbour." the in wordsof theBhagavadgita: who knows "He himself everything everything and in will himself himself." himself notinjure by 50

For Radhakrishnan, doctrine mrny, the of impliesa goal forlifethattranscendsit:

It Hindu religion, is like all truereligions, essentially the "otherworldly."pictures and for in worldas a merevestibule training alonelifeis real, ground another which and abiding.... 51Onlya philosophy whichaffirms [our ideals]are rooted that rich, of can in theuniversal nature things give depthand fervour morallife....52 A to flow ethical idealmustbe transcendent theimmediate of events.53 to meaningful

is as Ethics therefore outcome spirituality well as themeansof achievthe of is it,butspiritualitythecore: ing

that there nothing can,strictly is be eternity speaking, calledhuman[or Apartfrom
ethical]54 ....

of fruit abhaya spiritual of fularms eventhelowest forms animal or is life, thenatural life."5 "The Gita asks us to live in the world and to save it," he continues.56Radhakrishnaninsiststhat it is not true to contend that the experience of the

Ahiizsa or fellow feelingfor all living things,enfoldingin its merci-

timeless perfect, in and for breeds us contempt themore purerealmofbeing, familiar worldofexistence." of the findthe meaning lifewithin meaningof the universe.""58 ethics No
he can be won fromknowledge of the universe, says."9Ethicsmust establish Schweitzerentertainsno confidencein the possibilityof a clear support for ethics beyondethics itself. He findsa "hopelessnessof [any] attemptto

as of itself an affirmation the will-to-live such. Radhakrishnan, the on on

to will-to-live attachment the world,as mayi, as otherhand, sees Schweitzer's
48IVL, p. 50. Solbid., p. 102. 52Ibid.,p. 82. 54Ibid.,p. 81. p. 56Bhagavadgita, 67. 49ERWT, p. 101. 511bid.,p. 75. 81. 53Ibid., p. 551bid., 46. p. 57ERWT, pp. 105-114. 59Ibid.,cf. also p. 76.

58CE, 273. p.

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and strives transcend hold.For Schweitzer, its to however, declineof the any tendsto jeopardizeethics. Ethicsmustrid itconcernforthis will-to-live selfof dependence or interest metaphysical on in in to support order ensure underany and all circumstances. an autonomy survival and "To Although from worldby beingin God ... is thelonging have within the be freed we determined."60 be] ethically us,"Schweitzer admits, "Living spirituality [must
The .
.

toliving relationship for are of is the Abstraction death ethics, ethics a living life.6' To seekmoksais therefore seekliberation to from ethicalas well as the the evil. Radhakrishnan to this that"ethics appears admit whenhe notes presuptheseparatist viewof life. When we transcend we getbeyond ethical pose it, laws."62 Hence, for Schweitzer, mystic the bond thatbindsmen mustbe thatof lifeto lifealone as thatwhichis livedin theworldof theparticulars of phenomena-notthatof lifeto lifeas partof lifeas an abstract whole. TheEssence Being, Absolute, Spirit the of the of Universe, allsimilar the and expressions denote in but conceived abstractions for which that actual, something nothing reason alsoabsolutely is which The is manifests unimaginable. only reality theBeing itself [particular] in phenomena.63 to reduceto (1) Schweitzer's objections the ethicsof identity mysticism theprimary is spiritual not self-realization, ethics se,and (2) thedocgoal per trineof mayatendsto makeof ethicalactiona relative and notan intrinsic
good.64

. mysticism identity] leads into the supraethical becauseit is abstract. [of

Radhakrishnan's is of self-realization also rejoinder thathisethics spiritual makes activistic ethicsessential.The spiritual cannotbe achievedby the ethical nor it. without Forhim, Schweitzer's alone,he says, can itbe achieved efforts reduce "theseparatist to viewof life," "viewwhichregards the multias ultimate is deceptive [and which] also, plicity (miiy) ...."65 It suggests, theinstinctive deceptive oflife, citta. but love of It is apparent thatRadhakrishnan the term"separatist uses viewof life" in two senses. When applied to the distinction betweenappearanceand it the of reality, mayaandatman, reflects desirable understanding thespiritual When appliedto the distinction thinker. between one and themany, the it the of characterizes attitude avidyi. In theformer senseit relates a "revto
6BCRW, p. 80.

and in CharlesA. Moore,"Metaphysics Ethicsin Radhakrishnan's ed., Philosophy," Schilpp, B4Cf. op. cit.,pp. 281-312. to "ERWT, pp. 94, 103-104. Cf. Goodwin, cit., on Radhakrishnan's op. objections Schweitzer's charges.

B2ERWT, pp. 103-104.

"'CE, p. 304. s"CE, p. 304.

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erenceforlife,"butthedivineor spiritual life. In Indianthought, Beingis oftenreferred as "divinelife.""66 to as Onlywhenatmanis regarded excluilluand theempirical and itsworldas exclusively self real,however, sively for So standin genuinedanger. long as sorydoes concern ethics necessarily theselfrelates whatis notwholly to realor wholly concern being for unreal, and for ethicswill relate to each otheras inseparable.Radhakrishnan's doctrine maya rendersthis understanding of reinterpreted possible.It is to note thatbothRadhakrishnan Schweitzer and avoid the exinteresting of tremes Platonic on existentialism, essentialism, theone hand,and atheistic on the other. Neitherbeingnor becoming real to the exclusionof the is of other.The ethicalproblems theworldof mayapointto a realization of do not thereby their own veryreal and commanding lose atman, signifyet icancefortheworldof mrny. SchweitRadhakrishnan of advancesan interpretation dharmato counter world- life-negation. and cannot free itself from that Indianethics zer'scharge bothethics and Dharma is theconcept a practical that of morality embraces the it relates subject of The significance dharmais that, though mysticism. content. The only "it to finally the Absolute, has no absoluteand timeless is eternalabout morality man's [continual]desireforthe better."67 thing worldand Schweitzer objectsthatthe stagesof dharmaare onlyinitially and subordinated worldis to and thatthisaffirmationfinally life-affirming for content ethicsis the he life-negation. Moreover, feels that a specific of has concern. Content beentheperennial immediate problem moralphilosthe initially Gita ophersof bothIndia and the West,he notes. He accepts he for of doctrine non-attachment, it is thedoorto ethics, believes.But,havwhat he asks,shouldengageour achievednon-attachment, specific acts, ing and should be invoked? Reverencefor life,he attention, what criterion for the believes, provides answerbecauseit suppliesa content all ethical man'slonging for for Reverence lifealso satisfies actsin specific situations. for unionwithBeing: "Reverence lifemeansto be in thegraspof the inWill finite, inexplicable, forward-urging in whichall Beingis grounded.""68 and does notcarry emotional urgent Radhakrishnan's the qualmysticism of thosewho bear the markof pain." The of Schweitzer's ity "fellowship and nor is it so moving.Unconditional ethicalburdenis not so personal, command.Indeed,Radhakrishis notthecategorical limitless responsibility nan warnsthat
'Otto, op. cit., pp. 38-39. 67RS,p. 114. See also IP, Vol. II, p. 768. "sCE, p. 283.

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ifthe soulis a part God, of Godmust the feel painofthe also.... It follows soul that ofGod aremuch thesufferings than of souls, greater those theindividual andit is for better us to remain self-enclosed with individuals limited than sufferings riseto thelevel Godandtake of of the world.69 uponourselves burden thewhole Yet thisis precisely whatSchweitzer wouldhaveus do. He invites toshare us the suffering all lifeabout us. Radhakrishnan, of would relieve however, us ofthiscrushing He that Schweitzer's moralurgency arises obligation. feels froma characteristically distorted and arguesthatthese Jewishinfluence, of and have morein com"conceptions prophetic world-affirming religion mon with neo-paganfaithsthan with ... [Jesus]whose symbolis the Cross."70 But Radhakrishnan at thispoint. Jesuswas the epitome errs of and moralzeal. The simplefactis thatthe Jewish mindis thought Jewish concerned withmoralobedience thangnosis. The moving rather primarily character Schweitzer's of own lifeis a direct ethicof parallelof the tragic It is doubtful thatRadhakrishnan thisfact. Jesushimself. fully appreciates Schweitzer's is concern for an absoluteethicindependent and priorto of thattranscends ethical. Radhakrishnan, the otherhand, the on knowledge revealsa strong "Actiondistracts from trueself," us our gnostic preference. he says."Man in affirming himself his actionsthinks himself be the to by the of agent. Such actiontendsto be an escapefrom deeperreality his own
nature.71

III These and other differences shouldnotbe allowedto obscure somefundamental areas of agreement.Notwithstanding negativeevaluationof his Schweitzer-more than mostWesterners-reflects muchof the Hinduism, of Hinduismhimself.Professor Marlow notesthat spirit
it cannotescapenoticehow near [the] "Nameless Faith"[of Radhakrishnan] comes to Schweitzer's for that are 'Reverence Life.'whichalso recognizes no ethics percepworld we perceive andyetthat needfor as it the ethics grounded is tiblein theoutward

in man's whither inmost alonethephilosopher turn needturn can and for being, of the basis allhisspeculations.72

For Schweitzer, inmost this for the beingis thewill-to-live, Radhakrishnan, withthe identification a comthemselves of spiritualztman.Both concern mon spiritual thatcan serve bindall lifetogether. Schweitzer, to For ground the searchis accompanied the strong overtones Western of by agnosticism and voluntarism. Radhakrishnan, For British idealism joins withSarhikara.
nIbid.,p. 102. "oERWT, p. 66. 72A. N. Marlow, "Spiritual Religion and the Philosophy of Radhakrishnau," in Schilpp, ed., op. cit., p. 364. 'IP., Vol. II, p. 544.

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this that underBothseekspiritual Radhakrishnan believes understanding. that in standingmustderivefroma metaphysical understanding flowers the character fullworldethics.In him,the doctrine ahimszs of of acquires and life-affirmation. on hand,seekswhathe calls "an Schweitzer, theother of This leads him to devotionto his will-to-live experience inwardness." and to all wills-to-live confront that him. The ethicalmysticism deriving from thisdevotion lifeis itsown reward, through meaning life for to it, for, is attained. in Both agreethatspirituality the and alone is notethics, bothfind ethics doorto spirituality. cosmic Radhakrishnan that ethics believes support. enjoys from reverother thanthatderiving Schweitzer wouldfreeit of all support and the possibility ence forlife itself.Both affirm reality freedom the of of spiritual Radhakrishnan notesthat progress. in It and [of [thel happens through discord confusion mayl]liesprogress. [merelyl the in of thesub-human it is willed thehuman. spirit mancanchange The level; of direction themarch.73 Schweitzer and adds that agrees, of truth its on life thepower spiritual casts light thenatural ofmanandleadsitto flower itsown into profound spiritual significance.74 for Both notonlyacceptthe idea of spiritual but progress strive it in every will enable the foreach realizesthatonly spiritual progress possibleway, notes that "the life and world to survive.Radhakrishnan contemporary asceticism are an workof Dr. Schweitzer themselves exampleof disciplined are at a timewhen both purposeand discipline lackingin the world.""7 he "is of "What we need to-day," continues, increase depthand powerof In this,Schweitzer would concur. life."76 thatall differences are to Yet, we cannotallow ourselves be persuaded of concernfor the priority resolved. Certainissues remain. Schweitzer's in mustbe resolved the ethics unique. His beliefthattheethical is problem sound. Nothing of life is fundamentally arena of the concrete particulars will suffice cope withpuzzlingmoral to less than a clear ethicalprinciple must not be allowed to in issues. Our interest metaphysical explanation is detractus from our moral duty. The mystic experienceof identity too rather thancentral.It is an experience rareto answer epiphenomenal of moral decisions life. Only an ethical and pressing to the continuing of who bearthemarkofpain" This mysticism "those will mysticism suffice.
"3IVL, p. 50. 7"ERWT, p. 109.
74CE, p. 283. 7"Ibid., p. 110.

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thatof St. Francis his "Song of Brother in is morenearly than Sun,"rather thatof Eckhart Sarixkara.77 relieson whatSchweitzer or It calls thewidento Though not foreign Indianmysticism, ing "senseof ethicalsolidarity." it is morenearlyakin to Naturethan to spiritual Schweitzer's mysticism. is high regardforthe Chinesemystics well known. Since cosmicsupportcannotbe invokedto buttress ethics;ethicsmust Even if of resolvethe moral problems life in termsof its own resources. as thereis no sureway that thereis an Absolute, Radhakrishnan believes, men mayfathom mystery itsdialectic, thoselikeHegel who join the of and theirethicsto its unfolding liable to surrender and personal freedom are forprogress, indeedtheyare not obligedto obscure if ethical responsibility distinctions themselves. is of instrument automatic History no self-redeeming but the actionsof individuals withvarying and groupsstriving progress of degreesof successto realize theirown particular conception the good life. Progress anyparticular at anyparticular of sort timehas been thesole of dedicated individuals whoseconception civilization proof was product found and ethicaland whose moral criterion reverence for approximated life. Schweitzer's conclusion clear: ethicsmustfindits sanction is within the experience life itself.Though one may agree with Radhakrishnan of thatthe worldof maya notthatin whichBeing as suchresides, must is one hold that it is in and through this world that ethicsmust findits way. Bernard that Phillipsobserves if it be pessimism refuse to to in ofthe and finally acquiesce thesatisfactions finite, to continually on in thesearch thelifeofthespirit] then Radhakrishnan [for press
of It ... wouldhaveto own up to thecharge pessimism. is notthat[Radhakrishnan is to perfection thegoal of life... Ethicsis thusinstrumental thebeatific vision;it is not an end in itself.... What ultimately constitutes goodness an act is that the of
it makesman more fitforthe finalvision.78 but . finds] life unsatisfactory, that [he fails] to find it finally satisfactory. ... Self-

Radhakrishnan of thatthought pessimistic "ifit stifles is insists, course, only all hope and declares'to live on earthis weariness thereis no blissbeand believesthought be pessimistic it cannotconto "if Schweitzer yond.' ",7 ceive the forces workin the worldof sense as the expression divine at of goodnessand perfection [and] therefore... looks beyondintothe world of pure,spiritual being."'80 "A religion optimistic," states, it represents conviction is he "if the that
145. 77"Otto, cit., pp. 73-76. op. Phillips, "Radhakrishnan's Critique of Naturalism," in Schilpp, ed., op. cit., pp. 14478"Bernard Vol. 1, p. 365. 791P, "'CRW, p. 36.

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at the forces workin the naturalworld[can lead] ... all things towards a that dependence through naturaldevelopment,"8' is, without perfection thatan ethical however, upon releasefromthe world. He does not deny, be the fruit sucha conviction. of mysticism may in ethicaland RadThe essential difference the character Schweitzer's of hakrishnan's is not so muchthe alleged ethicalconcern identity mysticism of the former the nonethical for and concern the latter, thiscannotbe of of shown to be the case. Radhakrishnan's of interpretation the doctrine whicheach bringsto bear on assuresthis. It is, rather, support the miyai on behalf hisethics.Schweitzer of ethics anydependence an wouldrelieve of of understanding a worldotherthan thatof life foundin the world. He the natureof ethicaldecisionand its need to recognizes essentially urgent establish of itself itsown resources. The problem ethical mysticism through with is identity than identity withparticular rather beingsas wills-to-live of universal refers metaphysical the problem Being Being. Ethical mysticism to theconcrete oflife. concerns theethical of problem

"Ibid., pp. 35-36.

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