EFFECTS OF ROADAXIS PARAMETERS ON TRAFFIC SAFETY

Alojzij Juvanc, Ph.D., C.E. University of Ljubljana Faculty of civil and geodetic engineering Jamova cesta 2 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia ajuvanc@fgg.uni-lj.si Uro Mari, Cand. C.E. University of Ljubljana Faculty of civil and geodetic engineering Oljna pot 11 6280 Ankaran Slovenia uros.marsic@gmail.com

Abstract Unbalanced speeds are the main cause of emerging traffic crashes on two-way rural highways. It was already shown that inconsistent design of roadway elements can lead in sudden changes of driving speed, which endanger the driver safety. In the following paper, two of the most current models to predict hazardous spots are presented. The speed-profile based on the model proposed by Juvanc in 1991 is used to analyze the effect of main roadway parameters. The analysis is done on the composition of three successive curve radii. Appropriate safety dependant graphs are presented as executing by changing of the parameters values in different allowed intervals. Key words: traffic safety, roadway elements, driving dynamic analysis, driving-dynamic characteristic

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Determination of dangerous spots on roads

Unbalanced and changeable speeds are one of the main causes of traffic crashes on two-way rural highways. The analysis of traffic crashes in Slovenia showed that the unbalanced speed is the leading cause of fatal road crashes. Almost 78% of all crashes, between 1999 and 2005 happened on twoway rural roads network. Salamon [1] was the first who in 1964 undoubtedly showed that changes in driving speed affect the roadway safety. Later researches more-or-less confirmed that speed is the leading cause when predicting road safety. Nonetheless there is little known how the roadway geometric parameters effect the perception of the road. It was since 1965 when Switzerland's [2] researches claimed that the driving speeds are roadway dependant. Later empirical researches held by many authors showed that there is a strong empirical connection between some of the geometric parameters and operating speed V85%. The most affective parameters recognized were curve radius, length of curve and transition curve, rate of horizontal curvature and grade value. In minor part there were also important the crossfall rate, sight distance and vertical curvature. The majority of speed prediction equations and methods are based on the empirical studies of driving speeds, which were the basis for regression analysis. It was undoubtedly showed before that variation in driving speed causes the dynamics effects on roadway pavement structure, which must provide an adequate response [3,4]. This response is mainly presented only by the skid resistance. Its value depends mainly by the mechanical properties of the used stone aggregate of pavement structure and by the driving speed. The research held by PIARC in 1981 [1] showed that maximum possible skid resistance coefficient is reversely proportioned with growing speed. If the value of demanded skid resistance exceeds the permissible skid resistance it is very likely that slippery road condition occurs. Such situations are mainly the outcome of inappropriate drivers behavior but also of misperception of the road itself. Changes in drivers behavior and motivation are very difficult to reach. The only possible measure left is to design the road elements in such way that resulting driving dynamics effects are balanced with the response of the pavement structure. Many of the current road standards are based to provide as maximum safety as possible. The parameters of roadway elements are calculated using the constant value of design speed. The measures of operating speeds had shown the highest values of the design speed. This fact actually poses a question whether the use of design speed dependant parameters are actually providing an adequate consistency and road safety. 2

To determine the possible dangerous spots on the road, many of the new developed models use the principle of interaction between the real driving dynamic parameters and the skid resistance response of pavement structure. Lamm [3] in 1998 proposed a model which is mostly based on assumption that geometric consistency of road axis elements can be evaluated by the resulting differences between driving dynamic parameters. Knowing the values of design speed, operating speed and demanded coefficient of friction it is possible to predict the expected design consistency by distributing the curves and tangents in 3 levels: good, fair and poor. The proposed model by Lamm is relatively good approach when predicting the design consistency but lacks the ability to determine the actual spot when and where the dangerous situation occurs. The model prepared by Juvanc [5] in 1991 deals with the assumption that there exists an appropriate length to accommodate the speed changes between the successive curves or tangents where the speed is constant but different V85%. When a driver is facing the curve where operating speed is expecting to be lower from the speed used at a moment, he is forced to lower it till the entering point of the curve. The maneuver begins approximately 90 meters before the curve, as researched by Damianoff (Karlsruhe). The braking phase is divided in two steps where two different impacts influence on the driver. The first one is visual and the second physical (side acceleration). At the beginning of the first step the driver tends to break only by using the braking force of the engine. The second step begins if and when the side acceleration exceeds the value acceptable by a driver when driving along the transition curve. The acceptable value is calculated on the base of the expected highest speed in the entering curve (V85%). It means that this second step can appear or not. In case the speed has not been lowered enough, the driver uses the brakes to obtain the acceleration on the acceptable height. The needed intensity of breaking (transversal acceleration) is influenced by the grade of nivelete and air resistance. Joined with side acceleration and crossfall rate the force of this resulting acceleration needs to be reacted by the sufficient force of friction to prevent the slipping off the roadway. The demanded coefficient of friction is the result of the actual dynamics effects (eq. 1).

(1) Where

ft,dem demanded coefficient of friction (-) vR predicted operating speed V85% (ms-1) R radius of curve (m) q crossfall rate (%) s grade (%) az active breaking rate (ms-2) g acceleration of gravity (ms-2) The maximum permissible coefficient of friction is determined by the equation of PIARC (eq. 2): (2) Where ft,max maximum permissible coefficient of friction (-) V speed (km h-1) The proposed measure of design consistency (traffic safety) is defined as the driving dynamic characteristic (VDK) of the road and is calculated by eq. 3, where constant 1,1 means the enlargement of the coefficient of friction owing the deformation of tires by breaking. VDK calculated with the equation 3 is appropriate when dealing with the pavement structure based on carbonate stone aggregate (the most frequent case). (3) Where VDK driving dynamic characteristic (%) If the number of VDK exceeds 100 it means that this length of the road will become dangerous when coefficient of friction lowers to the permissible value. The use of silicate stone aggregates can significantly improve the friction coefficient rate. To assess the use of eruptive stone materials it is appropriate to use the value of 50 percentile coefficient of friction ft,50% in the diagram of experimental obtain values by PIARC. In this case the value of driving dynamic characteristic (VDKM) is higher and calculated as shown in eq. 4. (4) Where VDKM driving dynamics characteristic by ft,50% Based on the calculated values of VDK and VDKM it is possible to predict the expected safety and additionally determine the geometric consistency of successive roadway elements: If VDK < 100, geometric consistency of road parameters are well balanced If 100 < VDK < VDKM, it means that there should be done some changes in geometric 3

consistency of road axis elements or pavement improved by using a silicate stone aggregate If VDKM > 100%, geometric consistency is inappropriate. Changes should be done to provide.

The origin of the model by Juvanc is appropriate to be computerized to get a quick answer about the consistency of road axis elements. The operating speeds V85% in curves are used to be calculated by Koeppel method which determines the speed relating the curvature of 400 m long section considering the influenced parameters as radii of the circle, width of the lane and grade of nivelete. The computerized form of the Koeppel method automatically shows the values of the operating speeds in single curves. Using these speeds in the model by Juvanc the speed changes between two following circles correspond the most possible actual driving. So an accurate speed profile forward and backward along the road is done, where the sections of acceleration and deceleration (braking by engine and by brakes) are given by length and intensity. Following the procedure (relations between ftdem and ffmaxor ft50% ) the resulting graphs of VDK and VDKM are computerized where safe and unsafe sections of the road are shown.

DRIVING DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF ROAD AXIS PARAMETERS

As for the purpose of this paper, the computerized form of model was widened to be able to analyze the relationship between VDK and different driveway parameters: driveway width, crossfall rate, grade of nivelete, length of curve and transition curve parameter. All the parameters were varied and for each value the appropriate speed profile and VDK graph was automatically calculated. For analyzing the test example of three successive radii of 350m, 180m, 270m (Table I) was taken. The basic values of tested varied parameters were: grade of 0%, driveway width of 6,0 m, Amin of 90 m (according to the Slovenian standards) and length of the circle as given in the table I. The values of radii were held constant. The basic example is shown in Figure 1. The figure 2 shows the results of the basic example. In the figure there are lines for curvature (ukrivljenost), speed (hitrost) and VDK, VDKM, VDK=100%. It is noticed that braking maneuver appears between circles with radii 350m and 180m

which is seen in Figure 2, where the value of VDK exceeds 100%It is also seen that also the improvement of the pavement by using a silicate stone aggregate (line of VDKM) could be sufficient. Table I: Composition of basic roadway elements for test example.
element tangent parameter (m) 0 length (m) 100.00 grade (%) 0 q (%) 2.5 Voper (km/h)

A1 R1 A2 A3 R2 A4 A5 R3 A6 tangent

150 350 90 90 180 90 90 270 150 0

64.29 180.00 23.14 45.00 180.00 45.00 30.00 180.00 83.33 100.04

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 4.5 0 0 6.5 0 0 5.0 0 2.5

92

83

91

Figure 1: Fly view of the composition of roadway elements for test example

Figure 2: Curvature, speed profile view (middle) and graphs of VDK, VDKM for basic test example

2.1

Effect of curve length the length of successive curves has only the minor effect. The values of VDK are significantly higher than 100% and also significantly higher than VDKM in all cases. The curves longer than 80 m have no effects on VDK at all. This is mainly because of the method used to predict the operating speeds in curves (Koeppel).

For the analysis of the effect of curve length, both the lengths of radii of 350m and of 180m were varied. The minimum length of curve was set to be defined by the minimum possible driving time throughout the element. Slovenian standard predicts that this value should not be less than 1,5 s [6]. The upper margin of length was set to be 200m. All the possible combinations of values were tested as shown on graph in Figure 3. As shown it can be concluded that for the current composition of radii 4

Figure 3: The effect of curve length on VDK

Figure 5: Effect of driveway width on VDK

2.2

Effect of crossfall rate

2.4

Effect of grade of nivelete

It is expected as Krammes stated that crossfall rate has an effect on road safety. Higher values of crossfall rates tend to minimize the resulting side forces and as such have a favorable effect on skid resistance value. For the purpose of the analysis the crossfall rate in the curve of radius 180 m was varied. The values were derived from the interval between 3% (minimum possible) and 8% (maximum possible) [6]. Figure 4 shows that the effect of crossfall rate has a minor effect on VDK, as the values are significantly higher than VDKM at all.

As mentioned before, grade of nivelete values have significant effect when defining operating speeds. Both, steep upgrades and downgrades minimize the speed. This has a significant effect when analyzing the braking maneuvers between radius 350m and 180m in the example. The values were derived from the interval between -9% (downgrades) and 9% (upgrades). Because the rate of grade has an influence on speed and acceleration as well, it is very difficult to make a precise statement how the grade affects on VDK. For the current composition of roadway elements (Figure 6) it is possible to conclude that the combination of the road axis elements can be assess as correct by upgrades of more than 4%.

Figure 4: Effect of crossfall rate on VDK

2.3

Effect of driveway width

Driveway width has a significant effect on operating speed. Higher widths are more comfortable but on the other hand they allow the driver to flatten the curve and drive faster. The values of driveway width were varied between the interval of 5,5m and 8m, following the Slovenian standard. Figure 5 shows that the driveway width has a minor effect on VDK for the current composition of curve radius.

Figure 6: Effect of grade on VDK

2.5

Effect of transition curve parameter

In the model by Juvanc in 1991, the transition curve (clothoid) is the element of road axis where the speed changes between successive curves have to be done when necessary. 5

For the purpose of the analysis the values of the parameter A of the transition curve (clothoid) to the circle of radius 180m were chosen in the interval between A=90m and A=180m. The parameter A 90m is the minimum possible Amin as defined by Slovenian standard [6], the maximum allowed parameter Amax is 180m (A=R) and the recommended value Aprip is given to be A=115m. From Figure 6 for the examined composition of radii can be seen that the length of transition curve (parameter A of clothoid) is the most effecting parameter in the whole experiment executed. It is seen that the parameters Amin, Aprip and Amax are not appropriate if we wish to build a road safe. The appropriate value can be found somewhere between. In the examined case the values between A=135 and A=176 for a carbonate pavement and additionally between A=135 and A=100 for a silicate pavement were found as safe.

The main finding is that the same composition of successive curves with different lengths of clothoid between the curves results very different values of VDK and road safety. The margin values of the parameter A (clothoid), given by the official state papers all over the world, are found as not justified (although they are declared as such) when the difference in speeds in two successive curves exceeds a safe value. The computerized method enables to prove the combination of successive curves and to improve the harmony of the elements of road axis. The designing of two-way rural highways should be based on the predicted operating speeds (V85%) and on proving the harmony of the elements of road axis by computer to achieve significant decrease of car crashes. Despite that, there is a need to make new researches of operating speed and to calibrate the existing models to be able to sustain a homogenous computer system.

LITERATURE

[1]

Trb special report: Managing speed Rewiev current practice for setting and enforcing speed limit,
Transportation research board, National research council, National academy press: 425 pgs., Washington D.C., 1998. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/sr/sr2 54.pdf (15.3.2007) Kppel, G., Entwiklung einer

Figure 7: Effect of parameter of transition curve on VDK

[2]

CONCLUSIONS

bemessung von kurvenradius, kurvenquerneigung und haltesichtweite in abhngigkeit von der fahrbahngeometrie,
[3] Bundesminister fr Verkehr: 127 pgs, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, 1984 Lamm, R., Psarianos, B., Choueiri, E., Soilemezoglou, G., A practical safety

The method, which defines VDK, is confirmed as a successful one because: it imitates a real driving manouvres along the road in dependence of geometrical elements of road axis and consideres the changes of the parameters of these elements when assessing the road safety through the value VDK. The research has shown that only the grade of nivelete and the parameter of transition curve (clothoid) are the parameters which should be observed when defining the quality of the composition of the elements of road axis from the road safety point of view. All others have minor or no influence on VDK but should be also handled with precaution.

approach to highway geometric design International case studies: Germany, Greece, Lebanon and The United States. International
symposium on highway geometric design practices, Boston, Massachusetts, 30. Avgust 1995 1. September 1995, Transportation research record: pgs. 9-1 9-10. Washington, D.C., 1998.
6

http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circu lars/ec003/ (20.1.2007) [4] Krammes, R., Voigt, A., An

operational and safety evaluation of alternative horizontal curve design approaches on rural twolane highways. International Symposium on highway geometric design practices.
Boston, Massachusetts, 30. Avgust 1995 1. September 1995, Transportation research record: pgs. 111 11-10., Washington, D.C., 1998. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/circ ulars/ec003/ (20.1.2007) [5] Juvanc, A., Voznodinamina

karakteristika cestne trase kot osnova za definiranje neustreznih elementov in oceno voznodinamine kvalitete ceste.
Dissertation. Ljubljana, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za arhitekturo, gradbenitvo in geodezijo, 166 f., Ljubljana, 1991. [6] Pravilnik o projektiranju cest, UL RS t.91/05: 3896, Ljubljana, 2005