Q. 1. What are conductors, insulators and semiconductors? Ans.

Any material that allows the free movement of electric charges, such as electrons, to provide an electric current is known as conductors. So conducting materials are good conductors of electricity. Examples of good conductors are copper, silver, aluminium etc. A material that does not allow conductor to flow when voltage is applied, because of its high resistance is known as insulator. Examples of insulators are porcelain, glass, quartz, rubber, bakelite etc. There is another group of materials, such as germanium and silicon. These are neither good conductors nor good insulators. At room temperature these materials have conductivities considerably lower than that of conductors, but much higher than that of insulators. It is for this reason that these materials are known as semiconductors. Q. 3. Explain the difference in metals, insulators and semi-conductors using the energy band diagram. Ans. The free electrons that exist in conduction band move randomly inside a solid can carry charge from one point to another, when an external field is applied. The free electrons thus work as charge carriers. A metal such as copper or silver contains a large number of free electrons at room temperature. Infact there is no forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction band. The two bands actually overlap as shown in diagram. The valence band energies are the same as the conduction band energies in the metal. It is very easy for a valence electron to become a conduction (free) electron. Therefore, without supplying any additional energy such as heat or light, a metal already contains a large number of free electrons and that is why it works as a good conductor. An insulating nateria1 has an energy band diagram with a very wide forbidden energy gap (5eV or more). Because of this, it is practically impossible for an electron in the valence band to jump the gap, to reach the conduction band. Only at very high temperatures or under very stressed conditions, can an electron jump the gap. At room temperature, an insulator does not conduct because there are no conduction electrons in it. In semi conductors, the forbidden energy gap is not wide. It is of the order of 1eV. The energy provided by the heat at room temperature is sufficient to lift electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Some electrons might jump the gap and go to the conduction band. Therefore, at room temperature, semi conductors are capable of conducting some electric current. Q. 6. Why semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance? Ans. At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons of intrinsic semiconductor are tightly held by their atoms and it behaves as an insulator. When material is heated, break away from their atoms and move from the valence to conduction band. This produces holes in the valence band and free in the conduction band. Conduction can then occur by movement and by hole transfer. With increase in temperature the rate of generation of hole pairs is increased. This in turn increases the rate of combination. Thus with increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases. As more charge carriers are made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases with the increase in temperature. Hence, resistivity decreases with increase of temperature in pure semiconductor. Thus, there is negative temperature coefficient of resistance for pure semiconductor.

Q. 8. What are extrinsic semiconductors ? Ans. Intrinsic semiconductor has little significance as it has little current conduction capability. However, the electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased many times by adding very small amount of impurity to it in the process of crystallization. This process is called doping and doped material thus formed is called the impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. Q. 18. Explain p-n junction as a diode. Explain its forward and reverse biasing. Ans. The essential electrical characteristic of a p-n junction is that it constitutes a diode which permits the easy flow of current in one direction but restrains the flow in the opposite direction. The diode can be forward or reverse biased p-n junction in forward biasing When an external field, with p-region connected to positive terminal and n-region to negative terminal of the battery, is applied across the junction is known to be forward biased. The holes on p-side being positively charged particles are repelled from the positive bias terminal and driven towards junction p-n junction is reverse biasing : If an external bias voltage is applied with positive terminal to n-side and negative terminal to the p-side of a p-n junction. The junction then is reverse biased. In this arrangement from n-side are attracted to the positive bias terminal and holes from p-side are attracted to negative bias terminal. Thus holes from impurity atoms on the p-side of the junction are attracted away from the junction and the are attracted from the atoms on the n-side of the junction Q. 20. What is a diode ? Ans. The diode is a true electrode device. A semiconductor diode is simply a p-n junction with connecting leads or terminals on the two sides of the p-n junction. p-n junction is also called crystal diode because p-n junction is grown out of crystal. A diode is unidirectional device permitting the easy flow of current in one direction but opposes the flow in opposite direction. The circuit symbol and symbol of a diode are as shown. The p-side is positive terminal for forward bias and is called anode, while n-side is negative terminal when device is forward biased also known as cathode. Q. 27. What is a rectifier? Ans. Rectifier is a device which converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into either positive or negative pulsating dc. P-N junction diode, which conducts when forward biased and practically does not conduct when reverse biased, can be used for rectification i.e for conversion of ac into dc The rectifier typically needs one, two or four diodes Rectifiers may be either half-wave or full wave (centre tap or bridge) type.

Q. 28. Explain with diagram half wave rectifier and also its working giving input and output waveforms. Ans. The figure shows the half wave rectifier. Transformer is at the input which allows to step the voltage up or down. The primary of the

transformer is connected to the power mains. An ac voltage is induced across the secondary of the transformer. This voltage may be less than or equal to or greater than primary voltage depending upon the turns ratio of transformer. Voltage across secondary is The following figure shows this voltage variation with time. It has alternate positive and negative half cycles. is peak value of ac voltage. During positive half cycle of the I/P voltage, the polarity of voltage across the secondary is shown. This polarity makes the diode forward biased, because it tries to push the current in the direction of the diode arrow. The diode conducts and current L flows through the load resistor RL. Since a forward biased diode offers a very low resistance, the voltage drop across it is very small (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7V for Si). Therefore, the voltage appearing across the load terminals is practically the same as the voltage at every instant. During negative half cycle of input voltage, the polarity gets reversed. The voltage v tries to send current against the direction of diode arrow. The diode is now reverse biased i.e. diode is non conducting. Practically no current flows through the circuit. Hence, almost no voltage is developed across the diode itself. So, the voltage is though not a perfect dc, is atleast unidirectional.

Q. 30. Determine the PIV, output dc voltage, ripple factor and rectifier efficiency for half wave rectifier. Ans. The peak inverse voltage, PIV for half wave rectifier, PIV = cycle. Output DC Voltage: i.e. voltage across diode during negative half

RMS value of current : The rms or effective value of the current flowing through load is given as Q 25. State and explain the difference among ROM, RAM. ANS: ROM : Read only memory (ROM) is the type of memory from which data can be repeatedly read out. We cant write data in this memory. It is a non-volatile memory i.e. it can hold data even if power is turned off. RAM : Random Access Memory (RAM) is the memory that can be used for read as well as written operation. Here access time is same for each location. RAM is a volatile memory so it loses the stored data when power is turned off. RAM is of two types SRAM and DRAM. Q 8. What is EEPROM? Ans. EEPROM : Electrically Erasable PROM or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This memory stores a bit by charging the floating gate of an FET. Thus, the memory is similar to EPROM except that the information can be altered by using electrical signals at the register level .rather than erasing all the information i.e. It can be erased information byte to byte.

Q. 31. Explain with waveforms, the working of a full wave rectifier (centre tap). Ans. In full wave rectifier we utilize both the half cycles of input The circuit of centre tap rectifier is shown. It uses two

diode

and

During the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, the diode is forward biased and is reverse biased. The current flows through the diode , load resistor and the upper half of the winding. During negative half cycle diode becomes forward biased and is reverse biased. Now conducts and becomes open. The current flows through diode , load resistance and lower half of the winding. The direction of load current remains same in both cases. The figure shows the output waveform. Q. 41. What is a Zener diode? Explain its working and draw its characteristics. Ans. Zener diode, also known as breakdown diode is a p-n junction diode specially designed for operation in the breakdown region in reverse bias condition. The diode may use either breakdown mechanism or avalanche breakdown mechanism. Si is preferred for breakdown diode because of higher operating temperature and current capability. The symbol of zener diode and its watt-ampere characteristics are given. When the reverse bias on a diode is increased, a point is reached when the junction breakdown and a reverse current increases abruptly. The breakdown region is the knee of the reverse characteristics, so, the breakdown voltage is called zener voltage and zener current . The forward characteristics of zener are same as that of ordinary p-n junction diode. In reverse bias, it does not burn out For zener diodes with breakdown voltage of less than 5V, temperature coefficient is negative. For voltages above 6V, it is positive. And between 5 to 6V, it varies from negative to positive value. Q. 1. What is a junction transistor? Draw npn and pnp transistors. Ans. Transistor is a solid state devices. It consists of Si or Ge Crystal in which a layer of n-type (or p-type) is sandwiched between two layers of p-type (or n-type) material. It is pnp (or npn) transistor. Each of this transistor has two p-n junctions. Transistor has three terminals one side section supplying free charges is called emitter other side section collecting these charges is called collector. Middle section which is formed between emitter and collector is called base.

Q. 2. Explain the working of transistor (pnp and npn). Ans. Transistors of both types (pnp and npn) behave exactly in the same way except change in biasing and majority carriers. When no battery is connected between the different terminals of a transistor, the transistor is said to be unbiased or in an open circuit state. The doping of semiconductor into n and p type, creates excess holes and . A layer of positive ions on n side and layer of negative ions on p side creates potential barrier. Operation of npn transistor The process of applying dc voltages across different terminals of a transistor is called biasing. For normal operation emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction always reverse biased as shown in diagram. Q. 1. Explain FET and its advantages over a conventional transistor. Ans. The field effect transistor is a semiconductor device which depends for its operation on the control of current by an electric field. There are two types of FETs: Junction FETs or JFETs and metal oxide semiconductor FETs on MOSFETs. FET enjoys many advantages or a conventional transistor. (1) Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers only. It is therefore a unipolar device. Conventional transistor is bipolar device. (2) It is relatively immune to radiation. (3) It exhibits high input resistance, typically many mega ohms. (4) It is less noisy than a tube and a bipolar transistor. (5) It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current, and hence makes an excellent signal chapper. (6) It has Thermal Stability. The main disadvantage of FET is its relatively small gain bandwidth product in comparison with that which can be obtained with a conventional transistor. Q. 10. What is MOSFET? Explain its construction. Ans. MOSFET is metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor also known as insulated gate FET. The n channel MOSFET consists of a lightly doped p-type substrate into which two highly doped regions. are diffused as shown. These sections, which will act as the source and drain are separated by about 1 mile distance. A thin layer of insulating silicon diode is grown over the surface of structure and holes are cut into the oxide layer, allowing contact with the source and drain. Then the gate metal area is overlaid on the oxide, covering the entire channel region. Simultaneously, metal contacts are made to the drain and source. The contact to the metal over the channel area is the gate terminal. The metal area of the gate, in conjunction with the insulating dielectric oxide layer and the semiconductor channel, forms a parallel plate capacitor. The insulating layer of is the reason why this device is called insulating gate FET. This layer results in an extremely high input resistance for MOSFET. Q. 2. Explain the construction of JFET and its operation. Ans. The structure of n-channel FET is shown. But it can be pchannel type also. Only difference is p-type is replaced by n-type and vice versa in n-channel type. For n-channel JFET, there is a n-type Si-bar. This bar behaves like a resistor between its two terminals called source and drain. Then a p-type material is heavily doped on either side of the bar. These p-regions are called gates. Usually the two are connected together. The gate terminal is analogous to the base of BJT. This is used to control the current flow from source to drain. Thus source and drain are analogous

to emitter and collector terminals respectively. The circuit symbol is also shown above. The arrow is put in the gate terminal and it points into the JFET for n-channel and opposite for p-channel. Operation : Normally to operate an n-channel JFET a positive voltage to the drain with respect to the source is applied. Due to this voltage, the majority carriers in the bar start flowing from source to drain. It makes the drain current . It is analogous to in BJT. The in the bar have to pass through the space between two pregions. The width of this space can be controlled by varying the gate voltage. That is why this space is called channel. TO REMBERED:

Logic gates most commonly used are AND, OR. NOT. NAND, NOR, XOR. XNOR. NAND and NOR are universal gates. Output of AND gate is low even if one input is low (Y = A.B) where A and B are inputs and Y is the output. Output of OR gate is high if any one input is high (Y = A + B) In NOT gate, when a high is applied as input, a low appears at output and vice versa. NAND gate has output high when any one of its input is low. The output of NOR gate is high when any input is low. Output of XOR gate is high if one an only one input is high. The output of XNOR gate is high when all inputs are high. NAND and NOR can be used to realize any gate.

Q 15. With the help of a neat diagram explain parallel A/D converter. Ans. Parallel A/D is used is much more due to its high speed. The only disadvantage is that its hardware (no. of comparators) increase with the no. of bits. Va is analog, voltage and VR is reference voltage. A 3-bit parallel-comparator AID converter is shown in fig. Va is the analog voltage is be converted into digital form. The voltage corresponding to full scale is V from which the reference voltages VR1, VR2. (See Fig.) are generated using the resistor network. The voltage Va is compared simultaneously with the reference voltages by using comparators A 7-bit output obtained from the comparators which is stored in latches This 7-bit digital signal is convert to a 3-bit output by using a decoder circuit The comparator outputs and the 3-bit digit output for each interval of the analog voltage are given in Table (A) The principle of parallel-comparator AID conversion is the simplest in concept and fasts Its main disadvantages are rapid increase in the number of comparators with the number bits [ comparators are required for an N-bit converter] and the corresponding complications of the decoder circuit Table (A) Comparator outputs and digital output of parallelcomparator AID converter

Q 6. What is a non-volatile memory? Ans. Non-volatile memory: The memory in which the data stored or information present once does not change even after the power is switched off is called as non-volatile memory. ROM i.e. Read only memory is the example of non-volatile memory. Because such memories hold the data or information even if power is switched off. Q 7. What are the advantages of static RAM over Dynamic RAM? Ans. Advantages of static RAM over Dynamic RAM: 1. Access time of SRAM is less and thus these memories are faster memories. 2. As SRAM is consists of flip-flops thus, refreshing is not required. 3. Less number of memory cells are required in SRAM for unit area.

8085 - POINTS TO REMEMBER Microprocessor : It is an electronic machine which process or manipulate the data. Microprocessor is consists of CPU (Central Processing Unit), input devices, output devices and memory. 8085, 8086, Pentium 4, Celeron, Athion, Dual core, Core 2 Duo are the general examples of CPU. It is design for multitasking operation. On the other hand it perform many tasks simultaneously. Central Processing Unit: (a) Fetch an instruction from main memory. (b) Perform arithmetic and logical operations. (C) Decode it and generate appropriate timing arid control signals. (d) Control the entire computer operations. Clock frequency: The processing speed of microprocessor depends upon clock frequency. BUS: It is a bundle of wires, which give single purpose (either data, address). These wire give data, address and acts as control lines. Address Bus: The address bus also a set of parallel connected lines. The address bus consist of 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel lines. Address bus carries the address of the memory or I/O location to be read or written from. Data Bus: The data bus consists of 8, 16 or 32 parallel lines. .The data bus is a bidirectional bus. The data bus can transfer the data from CPU to memory or vice versa. The data bus also connects the I/O ports and microprocessor. ALU (Arithmetic/logic unit): ALU stands (Arithmetic/logic unit). This units can perform arithmetic operations (like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and logical operations like (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, Rotating etc.) 8085 (Microprocessor) 1, It is an 8-bit microprocessor. It can accept or provide 8 bit data simultaneously. 2. It has 8 bit ALU that can perform 8 bit operations. 3. It is based on NMOS technology. 4. It provides 16 address lines, hence it can access 216 = 64 Kb of memory. 5. It generates 8 bit I/O address; hence it can access 28 = 256 I/O ports. 6. It has 8-bit internal data bus and registers. 7. It provides 5 level interrupts. 8. It provides two serial i/O lines. 9. 8085 was the first processor that required only single +5V power Supply. 10. It has an on-chip clock generator. Memory: It is a digital processing system which can store the data. Now days we used Semiconductor memories like RAM, ROM, EPROM etc. Semiconductor memory is small size, high speed, better reliability, low cost. Q 1. List the functions of ALU. Ans. Functions of ALU: (a) It performs arithmetic operations like ; addition, subtraction, increment, multiplication etc. (b) It performs logical operations like ; AND ing, OR ing, X-OR ing, NOT etc. (c) it accepts operands from accumulator and temporary register. (d) It store the result in accumulator or temporary register. (e) It provides states of result to the flag register. (f) It looks after the branching decisions. Q. 2. List the basic features of 885 microprocessors. Ans.

IGBT: The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch, that combines the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor(MOSFET) gate driving characteristics with the high current and low saturation voltage of bipolar transistor. It acts as a high frequency, high current switch which is used in AC/DC Inverter, motor control and in switching mode power supplies applications.The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs with the high-current and low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors by combining an isolated gate FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies, traction motor control and induction heating

Silicon Control Rectifier: (Thyristors) : Thyristor is a switching device based on internal regenerative feedback of 2 transistors. They are basically a PNPN structure. They are very reliable and have current ratings up to a few thousands amperes and voltage ratings up to 5000V. The power of this device is that it is able to switch hundreds of watts of load by just supplying a few microwatts pulses onto the Gate of the device. This device can be turned on in about 1us and turn off in about 15us. This characteristic has enabled it to solve many industrial switching control applications where the switching can go up to a few kHz. It is turned on by making a gate positive with respect to the cathode. When the gate voltage reaches the threshold voltage and the current reaches the threshold current, the device will turn on and the load current will flow from anode to cathode. As shown in the figure above, the equivalent circuit of the device consists of 2 transistors, 1 NPN and 1 PNP. By the structure, the Collector of PNP is connected to the base of NPN and hence a Gate is formed. Once the SCR gate is triggered ON, each transistor will hold the other one ON. The characteristic is shown in the figure below. The maximum reverse breakdown voltage must not be exceeded or else the device will be damaged beyond recovery. This device is a unilateral device in that it conduct in one direction only. Once it turned on, the internal resistance will drop to a low value and caused the device to go into saturation. TRIAC: Silicon controlled Rectifier or SCR is a unilateral device where the control of the supply to the load is only half waveform. In order to achieve full waveform control, a triac with bilateral control is used. It consists of two SCR connected in inverse parallel where the gates are connected together. The connections are labelled as MT1 (Main Terminal 1), MT2 (Main Terminal 2) and G(Gate). Current can flow in either direction between MT1 and MT2 terminals when a small gate current is applied between MT1 and the gate terminal. It is turned ON by triggering a positive or negative current between MT1 and the gate. The holding current is the minimum current required to hold it on. As with SCR, the control of large load current can be triggered by milli ampere gate current, hence making it a convenient switch for AC circuits. It can also do phase control where a certain percentage of power from the mains is supplied to the load. It is used in applications such as light dimmers and other motor control devices.