Running head: PACKAGING TO LAST

Packaging to Last Daphne A. Fiske Simmons College

Authors Note Daphne A. Fiske, B.A. Marketing, Simmons College. This research was conduced for an MBA class in the Simmons College School of Management, Sustainability in the Supply Chain. Simmons College 300 The Fenway Boston, MA 02120. Daphne.Fiske@Simmons.edu

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It is not possible to repeat too often that waste is not something which comes after the fact. . . picking up and reclaiming scrap left over after production is a public service, but planning so that there will be no scrap is a higher public service, Henry Ford, 1924 (2).

Abstract In this research report that was conducted, I will discuss sustainable packaging in the supply chain. I will begin with the materials that are typically used in packaging, what companies and governments are doing to improve their impact on the environment such as renewable resources, recycling programs and self assessment tools. I will discuss the consumer impact on product packaging and why sustainable packaging is hard to implement. Lastly, I will introduce why sustainable packing is important for our environment and how it can greatly benefit our future.

PACKAGING TO LAST Packaging to Last

Companies need to keep their product at its peak selling, many consumers prefer ease and convenience over better good for the environment, although a sad truth, those typically sell most for products and packaging can play a key marketing role. The problem with that is that many current packagings can be detrimental to the environment, so a company needs to either find a balance between convenience and environmentally friendly, or cut one out. Sustainable packaging is product packaging that is sourced, manufactured and recycled using renewable, clean manufacturing. Current Packaging, its Issues and Benefits In order to protect and promote products before they are purchased and opened by a consumer, the right manufacturing and design is thoroughly looked into to meet the needs of for the products and consumers safety and convenience. For many companies, sustainability is an after thought when designing the packaging for their product because there are many other considerations to make when designing it. Many consumers prefer ease and convenience when choosing a product and packaging can play a huge role in this. When choosing a microwavable dinner, for example, having the brand include a microwavable packaging for their dinner can make the difference when choosing a product. Many consumers believe that throwing away a small amount of packaging materials cannot make a huge impact, since they only make up one household. This is not true, in fact packaging materials make up around 30% of the MSW (municipal solid waste) however compared to non-packaging sources such as newsprint and telephone books that make up about twice that amount this can seem rather small, (Marsh, Bugusu, 4, n.d). The MSW consists of items that are commonly thrown away, such as packaging, food scraps, yard trimmings and even electronics such as computers, cell phones and

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refrigerators (Marsh, 5, 2007). Although recycling these materials may seem like a simple task, it is also part of a companies duties to ensure that whatever can be made from recyclable materials or made into recyclable materials is, and is properly labeled for the ease of consumers. Manufacturing and Transporting Packaging can also contain certain chemicals that can result in unintended leaching or release at anytime throughout its lifecycle, becoming harmful to the consumer or the product itself (2, 2011). Transporting supplies and products can also use a lot of energy and fuel that contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental Impact Greenhouse gases result from human activities and trap heat making the earth hotter. They stem from the burning of fossil fuels to produce heat, electricity and transportation (13, n.d). Fossil fuels, implemented from energy used to produce packaging are a growing concern for the future of the environment. Such large amounts are in contribution to concerning environmental issues pertinent on our globe today such as climate change, acidification, mercury deposition, photochemical ozone and particulates, (2, 2011). According to the PMEL Carbon Program, ocean acidification is when carbon dioxide is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce pH, carbonate and ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. . . Calcium carbonate miners are the building blocks for skeletons and shells of many marine organisms. In areas where most life now congregates in the ocean, the seawater is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate minerals, (14, n.d). (See Appendix A). Transportation of products and supplies is a large source of fossil fuel consumption and uses large amounts of water, energy and other materials in order to produce, (2, 2011).

PACKAGING TO LAST The environmental impact of packaging does not always end in landfills, many consumers litter these materials and they end up in streams, rivers and oceans becoming

detrimental to marine life. This waste pollutes our air, water and soil in negative ways, (10, n.d). Types of Packaging Having protective packaging ensures that external influences, such as chemical, biological and physical harms are not able to effect the product. Chemical factors are changes triggered by environmental factors such as exposure to gas, moisture gain or loss and to light. Glass and metal packaging provide a barrier from these possible threats. Biological threats make a protection from insects, rodents, disease and spoilage necessary for the health of the product, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Glass Glass has been believed to be used to package food dating back to around 3000 B.C. (Marsh, 5, 2007). Glass is a major protectant against gasses and vapors, maintaining a products freshness and providing a longer shelf life. It acts as a good protective barrier against most external influences and keeps the product in tact despite outside odors or liquids. Glass is also able to withstand high temperatures, allowing it to be able to be sterilized, which is beneficial for food packaging that needs to be sterilized before reuse. In terms of the marketing aspect of glass packaging, glass can be molded into several different shapes, and its transparency provides the consumer with a visual of the product, which can often be a determining factor in the purchasing decision, (Marsh, 5, 2007). According to the MSW, glass takes up only about 4.6% of waste among materials (See Appendix B), (6, n.d). Plastic

PACKAGING TO LAST Plastic is also very moldable. It can be made into different forms and designs and is lightweight and inexpensive. Plastic is easy to work with both in manufacturing as well as design, however is rather permeable to light, gases and vapors allowing it to be not suitable for many food and high risk products. Although these risks can effect food products, it is very

inexpensive and can provide consumer benefits like convenience (microwavability, easy disposal and various sizes), resulting in a popular material both for the consumer and the manufacturer, (Marsh, 5, 2007). According to the MSW, plastic takes up only about 12.4% of waste among materials, (6, n.d). Metal Metal is most often used for its durability. It provides excellent physical protection yet can also be formed and decorated easily for aesthetic appeal. In product packaging, aluminum and aluminum foil are the most commonly used metals. Aluminum is lightweight yet highly resistant to breakage. Aluminum also provides protection from moisture, airs, odors and light. Aluminum however can be costly. Aluminum foil on the other hand, similar to aluminum yet thinner can be available in a wide range of thickness and still provides the same protection, yet it is slightly harder to recycle. According to the MSW, metal takes up only about 1.3% (3.2 million tons) of waste among materials, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Paper Paper is most commonly used in packaging for boxes, milk cartons, bags, wrapping paper, paper plates and cups. Ordinary paper cannot protect food on its own because it provides very little protective barrier. It must be treated, coated, laminated and with protective substances such as waxes, resins or lacquers in order to be protective enough against external factors.

PACKAGING TO LAST Paperboard is more commonly used for shipping purposes rather than food protection because its heavy weight would not be economically feasible for a company to invest in unless

necessary. According to the MSW, paper and paperboard account for 34.2% (84 million tons) of materials in the MSW, higher than glass, plastic and metal (Marsh, 5, 2007). Often times, multiple materials are combined to enhance each materials function or aesthetic benefits. All of these materials can be recycled. Packaging for Perishable Items Food Packaging Ideally, food packaging would be able to involve materials that would maintain the quality and safety of food, be attractive and convenient, involve all useful and required information for consumers, made from renewable resources generating no waste and be inexpensive, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Although ideal, this is not a practical in the food industry because many of these factors can be conflicting. Protection and Durability Packaging for food is entirely different than non perishable items. There are many regulations and considerations that need to be examined to determine what the best materials would be for its content because food can parish or be tampered with. Protection must be the initial concern for the food or beverage company where energy, material costs, social and environmental issues must also be considered (Marsh, 5, 2007). Packaging must allow for safety for long distance traveling as well as balancing food protection with other influences such as energy and material costs, environmental consciousness, and regulations of pollutants and disposal, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Packaging must protect the food from external influences while providing an aesthetic appeal as well as ingredient and nutritional information as required by the

PACKAGING TO LAST government. Along side with all of these considerations, a company must also strive to make little environmental impact, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Food packaging takes up about two-thirds of the total packaging waste by volume because it is the only product-class that is typically consumed three times a day by most every human, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Food packaging must be able to extend a products life in order to be cost efficient by not having to replace the product too soon. Product quality and freshness are determined by the materials and technologies implemented to make the packaging for the product, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Consumer Appeal Simple yet innovative marketing ideas such as oven-safe trays, boil in bags and microwavable packaging allows consumers to cook their meals with little to no preparation and additional materials. Convenience packaging such as microwavable material can require additional packaging continually contributing to the amount of waste that will be generated, so consumers need to take that into account when weighing the benefits of simplicity versus environmental harm, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Materials Typically, glass, metals (aluminum, foils, laminates, etc), paper and plastic are mainly used for packaging materials because they are most durable and protective yet aesthetically sound materials for the product class, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Biodegradable packaging is not suitable for food packaging because of its possible interaction between the package and food, (Pongracz, 11, 1998). Glass can be very advantageous for food packaging because it protects against gases and vapors allowing the product to maintain a healthy, fresh shelf life.

PACKAGING TO LAST Measures and Regulations Types of Disposal Recycling Nature cannot effectively recover man-made materials, so recycling is a process of

reprocessing material used in a product into a new product through engineered recovery systems, (2, 2011). It is sorted, processed, manufactured, sold and produced. Recyclable material is sold for a profit to many companies in a wide range of industries all over the world. The EPA determines what can be recycled and sold for recycled materials, almost all packaging materials fall under the EPA designated recyclable materials, (See Appendix C). The costs of materials are based upon the material itself, hoe difficult it is to recover, how much it weighs and by demand, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Many materials that are recyclable are safe enough to use on food products and high risk products so the government can ban non-recyclable materials from being used where a national standard is developed outlining what materials can be used for which products, (10, n.d). Different forms of recycling can also be agreed upon which will make recycling easier and more regulated, such as Curbside or Single-Stream recycling, (10, n.d). Recycling can also be made easier if companies provide clearly marked recycling symbols on all of their products, allowing consumers to easily be able to identify recyclable materials from non-recyclable materials, (Cross, 1, 2007). Using recycled materials also encourages waste reduction which allowing the cradle to cradle system to be active, (2, 2011). Composting Ruling it as a form of recycling, composting burns waste in a controlled area that is suitable for composting. With its positive environmental impact, composting is becoming an

PACKAGING TO LAST increasingly popular against other waste management initiatives. Compost turns organic materials like food and yard wastes into soil that can act as a natural fertilizer. These organic materials that would otherwise be thrown away can reduce the MSW by about 25% a year

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(Marsh, 5, 2007). Although composting is one of the best alternatives for waste, it can be costly in both resources and time. Combustion and Incineration Another alternative for waste, combustion and incineration is the process of burning waste that cannot be recycled or composted. There are several different types, and many of these can turn waste into steam that produces heat or generates electricity, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Landfilling Unfortunately, some materials must be thrown away. This creates an open circle where the products materials end their life in the landfill rather than being recycled and reused. Although they are governmentally regulated and controlled, landfills and littering are the worst yet very common types of disposal. There is some hope, however for recycling, although waste has increased steadily for the past 50 years, so has recycling. The EPA recognizes that, in 2005, a total of 79 million tones (32.1%) of MSW were recovered by recycling and the rest . . . by composting, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Methods Pay-As-You-Throw Pay-as-you-throw is a EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) approach implemented to motivate behavioral changes with recycling. In this system, residents are charged by the amount of trash they throw away, creating an incentive to purchase less, and recycle more. On average,

PACKAGING TO LAST Pay-as-you-throw systems have reduced waste by around 14% to 27% each year, (Marsh, 5, 2007). WasteWise Another EPA system designed to reduce waste is the WasteWise system which helps federal agencies and organizations purchase materials and products with reduced effects on

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environmental and human health concerns. With this system in action, pollution prevention is the main focus looking towards waste reduction, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Bottle Bills Bottle Bills are kiosks or pay back systems implemented in 11 States that allow for consumers to receive a small deposit per bottle they have returned. With this system in play, recycling is encouraged and litter is reduced, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Take Back Programs Take Back Programs are designed to give companies responsibility for recycling products. Consumers can send their shipping materials back to the company who owns the product and the company then becomes responsible for recycling the materials properly or reusing them. These programs are in effect in several European counties, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Green Dot System The Green Dot System is a fee-based program that charges companies based for using packaging materials based on the material, effect on environment and country regulations,(Marsh, 5, 2007). Source Reduction Source reduction is waste prevention by reducing the amount of toxicity of waste by changing the design, manufacturing or materials of a product. Source reduction stems from many

PACKAGING TO LAST factors, but it is typically implemented by using less packaging materials, more reusable materials or designing the product to last longer, and therefore less need to be thrown away. Lightweighting

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One way many companies are ensuring source reduction is through lightweighting, which is by using thinner and therefore lighter packaging materials by reducing the amount or using alternative materials. The weight of glass, and aluminum have gone down over the past decade by nearly 50% and 26%, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Companies like Anheuser-Busch are lightweighting their materials to reduce their impact saving millions of pounds of materials by this method alone. Economical bulk packs that one can find in large department stores such as Costco and B.J.s are actually beneficial for the environment as well as the consumer because they need less packaging material per unit of the product and also are convenient for the consumer allowing for less trips to the store, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Another way of looking at the bulk packaging method is that consumers throw away more material if products are packaged individually, such as snack size foods. Reusable and Refillable Containers Another way to implement source reduction is through reusable and refillable containers. Many containers, especially made from glass can by reused after washing and sterilizing, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Consumers should use reusable containers as often as possible rather than disposable products such as bottled water and will see a great reduction in material waste and purchasing costs. Some companies have even provided refillable product packaging such as disposable razor heads with reusable razor body which also gives the consumer incentive to continue buying their product.

PACKAGING TO LAST Alternative Methods Alternative Transportation

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Many companies are considering or implementing the use of alternative fuels. Companies are using hybrid vehicles for transportation of their products or supplies and also using innovative technologies that use less fossil fuels and energy to manufacture their product materials, (Leahy, Polman, 3, 2008). Less Packaging Some companies are looking to reduce the weight of their products which would in turn slightly lower their CO2 emissions, however if packaging becomes too fragile it could inadvertently cause more waste, (2, 2011). Alternative Materials Some companies are also ensuring that all the materials used to make their packaging such as additives, inks, adhesive and coatings are safe for the environment and human use throughout the entire life cycle. This is because many packaging contains certain chemicals that can come into contact with the product or human or even seep out once the materials have been tossed. While keeping environmental and waste concerns in mind when designing a products packaging, a company must also keep marketing a product and costs as a key stakeholder for the design of a package. Food packaging, as mentioned earlier requires many different regulations than non perishable products, (Marsh, 5, 2007). However, although alternative materials are beneficial in the long run, the cost and energy required to ship these products could be just as detrimental to the environment as using recyclable materials, especially if oil prices continue to rise, (Marsh, 5, 2007). Metrics

PACKAGING TO LAST Metrics are important for the future of the environment because they provide a simple guide for companies to follow. A lot of research goes into determining what is sustainable and how to act upon sustainability that many companies do not have the time or resources to look into. Metrics and guidelines provide this information to companies that can then design and manufacture based on well sought ideas and suggestions. Organizations can understand where they are, where they are going and how much further their company needs to go to become

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sustainable in based on what is suitable for their company based on the product, political views and resources. Packaging materials need to be clearly marked and transparent in order for consumers to properly dispose or recycle the packaging after it has been purchased, or for them to see what the product is made of before deciding to purchase the product. If there was more transparency of the dangers of materials it is possible that they wouldnt be purchased initially. Packaging can positively contribute to sustainability if it is: made from responsibly sourced materials able to meet market criteria for performance and cost manufactured using clean production technologies sourced, manufactured, transported and recycled using renewable energy however this can be impractical in many situations, (Leahy, Polman, 3, 2008). The difficulty of implementing a good system for companies to follow for making sustainable packaging stems mostly from not having a common and reasonable metrics for determining what is sustainable. As mentioned earlier with food packaging, it is difficult to have such a structured metrics because many packaging calls for different types of materials, some that are just not able to be completely sustainable.

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Many companies use other assessments created by outside organizations in order to guide companies into more sustainable fitting materials for their products. Life cycle assessment helps companies measure their sustainability based on the product class, the materials the company uses and the companies goals for sustainability, (Leahy, Polman, 3, 2008). Packaging Impact Quick Evaluation Tool PIQET (Packaging Impact Quick Evaluation Tool) is a system that allows businesses to evaluate the sustainability of their packaging based on research and social ideas of what makes a low impact on the environment. PIQET considers all levels of packaging, the functional performance (safety of a product, the environment and human) and social issues (litter and consumer convenience), (Sonneveld, James, Fitzpatrick, Lewis, 12, 2005). PIQET provides businesses with ease and information through several different categories. This tool looks at the inbound raw materials as well as outbound product packaging to assess companies on their sustainability in the supply chain through the life cycle assessment, (Sonneveld, James, Fitzpatrick, Lewis, 12, 2005). Companies can measure their current performance and determine where the gaps in their development and procurement are based on this tool and even become involved in a training to become more knowledgable on how to develop sustainable packaging for their products, (3, 2008). PIQET evaluates the company based on how their current design impacts climate change, water and solid waste use, and provides a packaging to product ratio and percent of recycled content allowing companies to evaluate their impact on the environment, (3, 2008). Although these online assessments can be useful, they can also be costly in both time and money for a company so the company must determine if implementing these sustainable processes is suitable for their company.

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In theory, the government can also set regulations for a minimum standard for sustainable packaging outlining clean manufacturing, sustainable materials and design that companies have to follow, however none has been set, (10, n.d). Walmarts 7 Rs of Packaging Walmart, a leading company for innovative initiatives implemented their own policy in order to ensure their suppliers produced sustainable packaging that would be created based on the thoughts of remove, reduce, reuse, recycle, renew, revenue and read. This idea is an online assessment each supplier fills follows when designing the packaging for the products distributed to Walmart to ensure that their greenhouse emissions will not grow to be any larger. This includes efficient package design and lower fuel costs for transportation through alternative fuels. Walmart hopes to lower their environmental impact through this guideline by at least 5% by 2013, (Ogando, 8, n.d) According to Front Line, 65% of companies who participated in their survey claimed that had some type of sustainable packaging policy, while 28% are working towards developing a policy, (13, n.d). Minimizing the Need Many packaging materials are useless in terms of protection of a product and are there for atheistic or convenience. Although a useful marketing tool, companies can cut back on materials that are unnecessary to ensure a safe product life and rather only use necessary materials cutting out the excess, (10, n.d) (See Appendix D). Why packaging is hard to diminish Packaging must be able to protect, promote, provide information, be appealing to the consumer, and many are concerned that reusable materials will not be able to hold up to these

PACKAGING TO LAST standards as well as new, man-made materials can. These concerns are also included with high costs, High Costs of Sustainable Designs

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Transitioning to new packaging materials can be costly because it involves researching a new system, finding new suppliers and sometimes added costs of better materials, (2, 2011). Biodegradable plastics, for example, are costly and can degrade over time, not being suitable for food packaging, (Pongracz, 11, 1998). Concern for Quality There is a concern among many of the quality of reusable materials because of the cycle the materials have been through. Companies and consumers are concerned about contamination, appearance and physical performance, (2, 2008). Plastic is a popular packaging material because it is sturdy, lightweight and does not have a lot of product weight. Although using a a fossil fueled source to make the material, it only contributes to 2-4% of overall oil and natural gas consumption which compared to many other factors, is a relatively small percentage, (Pongracz, 11, 1998). High risk products such as automotive parts need to be protected properly during shipment because the cost of replacing these products in case of damage is a higher risk than using sustainable products that may not be durable enough to withstand shipment. Responsibility in the Others Hand The tainted idea that recycling is in either the consumer or companies responsibility is a growing concern for the future of recycling. While some consumers believe its the companys duty to design products that can easily be recycled in a single system or design products that only have recyclable material, some companies, believe it is the responsibility of the consumer to recycle the packaging.

PACKAGING TO LAST Why a company should do it Although there are some negative factors, implementing sustainable packaging design can come with many benefits as well that arguably can override the negative effects. Improved package design as well as resource optimization are among some of the various benefits of a sustainable package design. Reduction in Costs

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Contrasting to the concerns of sustainable packaging, there can also be beneficial costs of using sustainable packaging, such as cutting liability and energy costs and labor hours involved in making the packaging, (Cross, 1, 2007). Liability costs include reduced environmental management costs and regulatory and tipping fees, (2, 2011). Reduced Environmental Impacts Over the past thirty years, according to Victoria Environment, Australia has doubled the amount of natural resources used, such as aluminum, tin, steel, sand (for glass) and trees, (for paper and cardboard), (10, n.d). A large amount of these are used in making packaging materials for products. Plastic is derived from oil which is a rare commodity and is often thrown away after one use, completely ending the life and wasting the resource, (10, n.d). By using analysis tools or researching data to evaluate an environmental impact, companies are finding hot spots in their packaging that can be addressed and reduce future costs due to concerns such as regulations (Leahy, Polman, 3, 2008). Using recycled or renewable materials can decrease waste and enhance the use of renewable resources, therefore using less of nonrenewable resources. Using these efficient resources will reduce the risks of materials or chemicals that could be detrimental to the environment or humans, (2, 2011). Marketing a Sustainable Product

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Marketing plays a significant role in the procurement of packaging. Companies typically compete against several other brand products and need to differentiate themselves from the similar products available in order to be successful, (2, 2011). Having sustainable packaging opens up a companys target market to a wider range of consumers who are environmentally conscious, or those would like to be. When a consumer is looking at two products that are virtually the same, yet one packaging is advertised as sustainable and the other is not, a consumer will be more likely to buy the sustainable one for fear of the harmful effects of the other product, or the internal praise given for choosing one that has a better life cycle. Packaging also allows companies to educate consumers on the effects of packaging materials, which makes consumers more aware and the company seem as though their company is making an impact, (2, 2011). Improved consumer perception is a large benefit for a company who is trying to be more innovative and up to date with trends and consumer concerns. A company that takes the time and resources to become more sustainable will benefit in the long run as a socially conscious company trying to make less of an negative impact, although they will have to follow the path of sustainability throughout all of their companys future initiatives, (10, n.d). Conclusion There are many ways that we can reduce the negative impacts of the environment, and waste is just one way. Reducing waste and replacing it with active recycling could greatly reduce the amount of waste we have in our landfills which would create a cradle to cradle closed loop system. Reducing the amount of packaging before it gets to consumers, using renewable energy and clean manufacturing will help lower the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that we produce. Unfortunately, this is not only a problem in the United States, however it is just a

PACKAGING TO LAST problem made by humans, so if consumers work together with companies we can replace

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convenience products with sustainable ones, greatly reducing our waste and energy consumption. The consumer ultimately determines how packaging is designed by their demand, if convenience packaging with many materials is no longer demanded, it will not be produced. Similarly, if a consumer demands sustainable products, more will be made. If EPA guidelines are followed, conscious materials are selected and extensive research is done, we could greatly reduce our impact.

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1. Cross, Candi. "Sustainable Packaging for Rent." Industrial Engineer 1 (2007): 6.EBSCO Host. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. 2. "Definition Of Sustainable Packaging."Sustainable Packaging Coalition 2 (2011): 9. Print. 3. Leahy, Terry, and Paul Polman. "A Global Language For Packaging and Sustainability." The Consumer Goods Forum 1 (2008): 23. VICS.org. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. 4. Marsh, Kenneth, and Betty Bugusu. "Food Packaging Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues." IFT 1 (16): n. pag. IFT. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. 5. Marsh, Kennith. "Food Packaging and Its Environmental Impact." IFT 1 (2007): 3.IFT. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. 6. "Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA." US Environmental Protection Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm>. 1. "Municipal Solid Waste | Wastes | US EPA." US Environmental Protection Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm>. 2. Ogando, Joseph. Green Designs. Engineering Green Packaging. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://www.designnews.com/document.asp?doc_id=226971>. 9. "PIQET." Sustainable Packaging Alliance 1 (2010): n. pag. SPA. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. 10. "Packaging | Environment Victoria."Green action stories | Environment Victoria. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://environmentvictoria.org.au/content/packaging-0>. 11. Pongracz, Eva. "The Effects of Packaging on the Environment." Tempere University1 (1998): n. pag. Tampere University of Technology. Web. 9 Dec. 2012. 12. Sonneveld, Kees, Karli James, Leanne Fitzpatrick, and Heken Lewis. "Sustainable Packaging: How do we Define and Measure it?." Victoria University 1 (2005): 9. Print. 13. "Sources | Climate Change | US EPA." US Environmental Protection Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources.html>. 14. "What is Ocean Acidification?."NOAA/PMEL is a leader in developing ocean observational systems. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2012. <http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F>.

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Appendix Appendix A: Effects of Acidification

Appendix B: The Makeup of the MSW

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Appendix C: Life Cycle Assessment

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Appendix D: What Can Be Recycled

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Appendix E: Closing the Loop of Recovering Material Value