LEMON SHARK

ORDER
Carcharhiniformes
FAMILY
Carcharhinidae
GROUP 4: FISH
GENUS Ex SPECIES
Negaprion brevirostris
The lemon shark is named for its light yellowish brown color.
This dangerous fish has a broad, rounded snout and two dorsal fins
situated far back along its body.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 11 ft. in the wild.
8-8
1
/2 ft. in captivity.
Weight: Up to 400 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Not known.
Mating: Late spring and early
summer.
Gestation: About 9 months.
No. of young: Up to 10 pups.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Young fish gather in small
schools. Adult fish are solitary.
Diet: Mullet, ladyfish, small
groupers in inshore waters.
Mackerel, bonito, and squid in
offshore waters.
Lifespan: Not known.
RELATED SPECIES
The sicklefin lemon shark,
Negaprion acutidens, is common
in the Red Sea and in the Pacific
and Indian oceans.
Range of the lemon shark.
DISTRIBUTION
In shallow waters around the east coasts of North and
South America, along the west coasts of Central and South
America, and down the west coast of Africa.
CONSERVATION
Appears to thrive both in t he wild and in captivity.
Increasing chemical pollution, especially in shallow water,
threatens its future.
THE LEMON SHARK AND ITS RELATIVES
. 41
~
One of the smallest members of the shark
family is the pygmy shark, which rarely
reaches more than eight inches in length.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
The lemon shark (above) measures 11 feet, the
length of a small family car, and is a fearsome hunter.
The largest shark. the 65-foot-long, 70-ton whale shark
(below), is a gentle giant. feeding only on plankton .
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200311 PACKET 31
The lemon shark has distinctive upright and
symmetrical teeth. The sharp pointed teeth in
its lower jaw catch and hold its prey firmly
while the serrated teeth in the upper jaw
cut away at the flesh.
~ HABITAT
The lemon shark inhabits wa- tral and South America, and
ters along the east coasts of down the west coast of
North and South America Africa. It prefers shallow and
from New Jersey to Brazil, medium-depth bay water to
along the west coasts of Cen- the deep open sea.
~ LEMON SHARK & MAN
A mature lemon shark in cap-
tivity can be dangerous, sud-
denly turning violent. In the
wild, many large fish have
been known to attack people
in shallow water.
Their large size and prefer-
ence for shallow water make
them particularly dangerous;
they easily come into contact
with human beings.
Scientists have conducted
numerous experiments with
the lemon shark. It is at-
tracted by the bright colors of
orange and yellow wet suits
and life raft equipment. It also
responds to low-frequency
sound waves produced by in-
jured fish or people.
DID YOU KNOW?
The lemon shark's habits
are learned from those in
captivity. Lemon sharks are
easy to keep.
United States scientists have
tested anesthetics, cardiac re-
sponses, adaptation to dark-
ness, and eye movements on
this species.
Lemon sharks have been
bred in captivity. Dr. Eugene
Clarke hand-raised a litter of
lemon sharks at the Cape
Haze marine laboratory in
Florida until a newly intro-
duced male lemon shark ate
the pups.
Helicopter engine noise
over shipwrecks is believed to
attract sharks. The pulsating
beat of the rotor blades sends
out the right sound frequen-
cies for sharks to hear.
Like other sharks, lemon
sharks are easily provoked by
splashing in the water.
~ FOOD I'< HUNTING
The lemon shark hunts and
eats any good-sized fish. In-
shore, it eats mullet, ladyfish,
and small groupers. In deeper
water, it feeds on mackerel,
bonito, and squid. Juvenile
lemon sharks, called pups,
band together to hunt in shal-
low water. Mature lemon
sharks hunt alone, but they
form large groups where huge
shoals of fish occur.
Cannibalism (a species eat-
ing another of its own kind) is
very common among lemon
sharks. This is why pups stay
in safer shallow waters, out of
reach of the larger fish, until
they mature.
Left: An adult
lemon shark
hunts alone,
using its highly
developed
senses of smell
and hearing to
detect prey.
Right: Young
sharks band
together in the
warm shallow
coastal waters
to hunt small
fish and avoid
larger shark
predators.
~ -B-RE-E-O-IN- C--------------------------------------------
There is more known about
the lemon shark's breeding in
captivity than in the wild. Like
most male sharks, the domi-
nant male lemon shark can
bite and injure the female
during mating.
The females give birth to up
to 10 young in late spring and
early summer in shallow wa-
ter. Each newborn pup stays
on the seabed for a short time
before swimming away to
break the umbilical cord.
From birth, the pups must
fend for themselves. They form
small schools with other young
sharks to hunt inshore fish like
mullet and mangrove jack.
Below: After giving birth a female
trails the afterbirth behind her.
HAGFISH
ORDER
Myxini
FAMILY
Myxinidae
GROUP 4: FISH
GENUS & SPECIES
Myxine glutinosa
The North Atlantic hagfish lives on the seabed of the
northern oceans. It emerges from the mud to feed
on both dead and living fish.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Usually about 1 ft .
Occasionally up to 2 ft.
BREEDING
Mati ng season: Spring and
summer.
No. of eggs: About 30 oval eggs,
each 1 in. long.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary; lives in burrows on
the muddy ocean floor.
Diet: Dead fish, bottom-living
crustaceans, and worms.
Lifespan: Unknown.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 32 species of hagfish in
the order Myxiniformes. They are
often grouped with the lampreys
(40 species) in the class Agnatha
(jawless fishes), but their true
relationship is uncertain.
Prey: Usually dead fish.
Sometimes injured, diseased,
or dying fish or fish caught
in nets.
Range of the North Atlantic hagfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in European coastal waters from Norway to Corsica
and in North America from northern Canada to North
Carolina.
CONSERVATION
Although threatened by marine pollution, like all sea
creatures, the hagfish is not fished commercially and is in
no immediate danger.
Feeding: Bores into prey using
sucking mouth and rasplike tongue.
Sometimes twists its slimy, eel-like
body into knots, which it presses
against prey for leverage.
The muscular, jawless mouth and
single nostril are surrounded by
sensitive barbels (feelers) .
The slimy and boneless North Atlantic hagfish
is one of the most successful scavengers in
the cold-water oceans/ in spite of the
fact that the fish is almost totally blind/
has no jaw or teeth/ and does not
have a true heart.
CHARACTERISTICS
The slimy, eyeless, jawless,
boneless, and wormlike hagfish
has no known living relatives. But
it does share many features with
another group of eel-like fish
called lampreys.
Lampreys and hagfish are
considered to be less highly
evolved than other fish. The
hagfish's spine, for example, is
a flexible rod of gristle, rather
than the chain of vertebrae
found in nearly all other fish .
The hagfish has no bones at
all, and this gristly spine
provides the only reinforce-
ment for its muscular body.
Below: A hagfish is coiled near the
cold, sunless floor of the ocean.
The hagfish's jawless mouth
is no more than a small,
muscular slit surrounded by
sensitive barbels (feelers). It
gnaws its food with a raspy
tongue. A layer of skin covers
the hagfish's tiny eyes, making
it unable to see anything but
light and dark.
The hagfish's most unusual
feature is slime, which oozes
from glands in rows down its
sides. The slime lubricates its
skin as the hagfish gnaws its
way into its prey. The hagfish
produces so much slime that it
must frequently scrape off the
excess by knotting its body
and sliding through the coils.
FOOD & FEEDI NG
The North Atlantic hagfish is a
predator as well as a scavenger: it
feeds on both live and dead fish.
It also eats small crustaceans and
bottom-living worms. Sometimes
the hagfish attacks fish that are
trapped in nets and cannot escape.
The hagfish's limited sense of
smell allows it to detect prey only
at close range. Once it finds prey,

Little is known about the North
Atlantic hagfish's breeding
behavior. Each hagfish grows
an internal ovary or testis
(female or male reproduction
organ), but it has no visible
organs. This suggests that eggs
are probably fertilized exter-
nally by sperm that the male
sheds as he swims over the
egg cluster.
No more than 30 inch-long
eggs are laid at a time. The
eggs have tufts of sticky fibers
such as a dead fish, the hagfish
begins to cut away at its skin
with its raspy, toothed tongue.
Within minutes it has bored into
the fish's body and begins to
suck its flesh out.
When the prey's skin is
especially tough, the hagfish
knots its eel-like body and pushes
against the fish for leverage.
at each end that fasten them
together and to the seabed.
This protects them from being
swept into open waters, where
they would be eaten by other
fish .
Unlike most fish, which hatch
as larvae, the hagfish emerges
from its egg fully formed.
Within hours of hatching, each
young fish begins to search for
the scent of its first meal.
Right: Sticky fibers fasten the eggs
to one another and to the seabed.
DID YOU KNOW?
Instead of a heart, the hag-
fish has a series of pumps that
push blood from one part of
its body to the next.
A single North Atlantic hag-
fish will turn the entire con-
tents of a bucket of seawater
into slime.
A hagfish's single nostril
'----
frequently becomes clogged
with slime. The fish simply
sneezes to clear it.
A hagfish's wound heals
cleanly and quickly. Scientists
believe that the protective
coating of slime around the
fish's body has antiseptic
qualities that prevent infection.
Left: The
hagfish can
swim on either
its abdomen or
its back by
making
muscular side-
to-side
contractions
with its long
body. It
extends its
barbels, or
feelers, to
search the
water for prey,
but it probably
cannot detect
scent beyond
two feet.
CARD 24 ]
PARROTFISH
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
GROUP 4: FI SH
~
ORDER
Perciformes
FAMILY
Scaridae
GENUS
Scams
The parrotfish grazes the coral reefs of tropical oceans,
cropping seaweed with its tough, beaklike teeth. It even
bites through coral to get at the food within.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Varies from 8 in.-3 ft.
Some reach 6 ft. or longer.
~ BREEDING
Mating season: Early summer.
Eggs: Spherical or oval. Released
in large numbers into open
water.
Hatching time: Within 24 hours.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Feeds in coral reefs.
Diet: Reef-living algae (seaweed
and plankton), and coral polyps.
lifespan: 5 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The parrotfish belongs to the
order of perchlike fish, which
includes some 8,000 species. Its
closest relatives are the wrasses,
which are also reef fish.
Range of the parrotfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Parrotfish live in the tropical Atlantic and Indo-Pacific oceans,
wherever there are coral reefs to provide suitable feeding
and breeding sites.
CONSERVATION
The survival of the parrotfish depends upon the future of
their coral reef habitats. Although not endangered, they live
in areas increasingly disturbed by man.
PARROTFISH AND THEIR SPAWNING GROUNDS
The females' eggs are fertilized by a
few males, often in huge numbers, at
the spawning ground near a reef .
Tidal currents wash the eggs away
from predators in the reef and out to
sea, where they hatch. Tides sweep
the newly hatched parrotfish larvae
back to the lagoon to mature-
usually into females.
Immature female (1)
grows and becomes a
breeding female
(2) that
produces eggs.
MCMXCIIMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Tidal currents
Spawning ground
Breeding female changes
into a primary male (3)
that grows
and becomes
a breeding
male (4) that
fertilizes eggs.
0160200231 PACKET 23
Parrotfish are sociable by day,
swimming in large schools as they
forage for food in the coral reef. But by
night each fish retires to a private refuge
and seals itself into a cocoon of mucus
that keeps it safe from predators.
~ HABITS
As the tide rises over the coral
reef, schools of parrotfish
graze on the algae that grows
upon the coral. The big males
are much more vibrant in col-
or than the smaller, drab fe-
males. Normally they propel
themselves through the water
by rowing forward slowly
with their small pectoral fins,
but if a predator appears-a
shark or grouper, for in-
stance-they flick their tails
and scatter in all directions.
Some parrotfish spend the
night in an unusual way. After
a day of feeding, each fish
retreats to a favorite coral
cave or crevice and secretes a
film of mucus from glands in
its skin. Within half an hour
the film builds into a giant
bubble of mucus that encap-
sulates the sleeping fish. The
bubble has openings in the
front and rear that allow wa-
ter through for respiration.
The clear mucus is only visible
because of scraps of weed
and sand that stick to it.
The mucus bubble proba-
bly acts as a barrier to scent.
Moray eels and other night
predators track their prey by
smell, so a fish that spends
the night in a scent-proof
capsule has a good chance
of survival.
~ BREEDING
Parrotfish undergo a remark-
able sex change during their
lifecycle. Most parrotfish are
functioning females when they
become sexually mature.
During their first reproductive
season they lay eggs. As they
grow older, however, they
change into males.
The transition is marked by a
color change. One species, for
example, is drab olive green in
the female phase and bright
electric blue and emerald
green when it becomes a
male. Older males in many
Left: Parrotfish are immune to the
stinging cells of coral polyps.
species also develop bulging
foreheads.
Many fish die young, so
males are often scarce. When
the fish spawn, a few males
fertilize the eggs of many
females. The floating eggs are
released over the reef during
an afternoon ebb tide, which
carries them out to sea, away
from reef predators.
The larvae develop within a
day of hatchi,ng and feed on
plankton, Currents carry them
back to the reef lagoon where
they grow to maturity.
Right: A mucus sac protects the
fish from nighttime predators.
Above:
Parrotfish
swim with the
tide in schools
of up to 40
while grazing
the coral reefs.
I DID YOU KNOW?
Parrotfish are noisy
feeders, often audible to
divers swimming over a reef.
Parrotfish use the sun's
position to find their way.
On sunless days their navi-
gation is much less efficient.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The parrotfish is named after
the way its front teeth are
fused into a powerful parrot-
like beak. This is an ideal tool
for scraping algae from the
dead coral rock between the
living coral colonies.
Left: The
parrotfish's
beaklike front
teeth chip away
at coral.
Far left: The
parrotfish both
scrapes the
coral and bites
off whole
chunks.
Feeding parrotfish can
raise a "dust cloud" as
they scrape at the reef.
Regular feeding routes
are marked by heaps of
coral dust excreted by
parrotfish.
A parrotfish feeds by swim-
ming head down and bump-
ing the rock surface with its
mouth, scraping off a mouth-
ful of algae at each bump.
The algae grows back each
day, replenishing the food
supply.
A parrotfish also bites off
whole chunks of live coral,
but whether this is to get at
the animals that live in the
coral or the algae on its
surface is uncertain. Using
flattened teeth in its throat,
the fish grinds up the coral
and swallows the fragments,
digesting the edible parts and
excreting the rest.
EUROPEAN FLOUNDER
ORDER
Pleuronectiformes
FAMILY
Pleuronectidae
GROUP 4: FISH
GENUS & SPECIES
Platichthys flesus
The European flounder's flattened body and ability to
change color to blend in with its surroundings make it
well adapted for a predatory existence in coastal waters.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: 20 in.
Weight: 6-7 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 3-4 years.
Breeding season: February to
May, depending on the tempera-
ture.
No. of eggs: Up to 2 million per
female.
Incubation: 11 days.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Does not form schools, but
gathers in large numbers at the
spawning grounds.
Diet: Bivalve mollusks, shrimp,
marine worms, and similar species.
RELATED SPECIES
Closely related flatfishes include
commercial food fish such as
summer flounder, Paralichthys
dentatus, and halibut, Hippoglossus
hippoglossus.
FEATURES OF THE
EUROPEAN FLOUNDER
Camouflage: Upper side darkens in
adulthood to mimic colors of surround-
ings. Within two or three days it blends in
Range of the European flounder.
DISTRIBUTION
Found on all the coasts of Europe and the Mediterranean
from the tide line down to 175 f eet, as well. as river systems
and lakes accessible from t he sea.
CONSERVATION
The European flounder is a popular fish with sport fishermen,
but it has no commercial value and is in no danger of
extinction from overfishing.
to new surroundings. - - ---------------':M.."...+1'

Eyes: The left eye shifts across the young
flounder's snout to the right side by the time the
fish reaches adulthood.
IDMCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Fins: Run
the length of
the body to help the flounder
move with tidal flow.
PRINTED IN USA. 0160200171 PACKET 17
The European flounder is hatched
in the surface waters of the sea but may spend
much of its life in fresh water. Barely able to swim,
the fish travels upstream on the tide to feed on small
aquatic animals that live near the shore.
HABITAT
The European flounder is one
of the most adaptable and
widespread of all flatfish. Al-
though native to European
coastal waters, it can tolerate
a wide range of temperatures:
it has been caught as far north
as the Arctic coast of Norway
and as far south as North
Africa.
The flounder also has the
unusual ability to survive in
both salt and fresh water. The
flounder is especially common
in brackish river mouths. It
often moves upriver at high
tide to feed in the tidal river
waters. When the tide ebbs,
the flounder lies stationary on
the bottom of the river and
waits for the returning tide,
which then carries it still
further inland.
Unlike the flounder, most
fish cannot live in both salt
and fresh water. Aquatic
animals must maintain a
balance between salt con-
centrations in their body
fluids and the saltiness of the
water they live in. Because of
this, freshwater fish are un-
able to survive in salt water
and saltwater fish cannot
survive in freshwater. The
flounder is one of the few
fish that can survive in both.
Below: The flounder relies on the
rising or falling tides to help it
swim.

The flounder spends most of its
life on the bottoms of the
ocean and rivers. It lies on its
flattened side in the sand or
mud. In the adult flounder, the
eye that would normally be on
the side of its body that is flush
with the ground is repositioned
on the side facing upward.
Other parts of the flounder's
anatomy remain in the posi-
tions that are customary for
most fish. Its pectoral fins, for
example, are on opposite sides
of its body. The gill covers are
also on each side of the
flounder's body; one opens
upward and the other opens
downward. When the fish is
lying half-buried on the
bottom, the expelled water
from the lower gill is usually
pumped out through the
upper gill. The flounder can
&: FEEDING
The flounder has powerful
crushing teeth in its throat
that crack open the hard-
shelled mollusks that make
up much of its diet. It mainly
eats cockles, shrimp, and
marine worms.
At low tide these animals
lie buried in sandy or muddy
beaches, but at high tide
they emerge to feed on in-
shore plankton. The aquatic
animals are easy prey for the
flounder as it glides over the
flooded beach.
Flounders that swim up-
river have a more varied diet,
and many feed on the
swarms of tiny, threadlike
elvers (young eels) that they
follow upstream from the sea
each year.
escape from predators by
gulping water and ejecting it
through the lower gill, which
allows it to rise vertically from
the seabed.
The flounder's main defense
is its chameleon like ability to
change color to blend in with
its surroundings. Its top side
becomes pale when the fish is
on sand, dark when it is on
mud, and mottled when it is

Although a flounder can live
and feed in fresh water, it
must return to the sea to
breed.
It spawns (produces eggs)
on the ocean floor in water
80 to 1 30 feet deep, but the
eggs are buoyant and they
float to the surface. When the
hatchlings emerge, they stay
in the surface waters and feed
on tiny floating organisms
Right: The
adult floun-
der's left eye
has shifted to
join the right
eye, and the
once straight
mouth has
twisted
vertically.
on gravel. Because the
change in coloration takes
several days to complete, the
and then gradually move
toward shallow water.
A newly hatched flounder
has an eye on each side of its
snout. As the fish matures,
the left eye usually shifts
right, next to the other eye.
The side with the two eyes
changes to a darker color.
The fish then sinks to the
bottom and lies on its left
side, with its eyes facing up.
flounder disguises itself by
digging into the bottom and
covering itself with sand or
gravel.
The flounder rarely swims;
instead, it moves with the
current. It can swim if it must
by undulating its body up
and down. Its frill-like dorsal
and anal fins provide extra
momentum.
DID YOU KNOW?
Sometimes a flounder's
ri ght eye shifts to its left side.
Thi s fish lies on its right side.
Adults often migrate long
distances to the spawning
grounds and may lose up to
one-tenth of t heir body
weight in the process.
The sole has a characteristic
not found in its relative, the
flounder. Not only does one
of the sole's eyes shift to join
the other on its top side, but
its mouth shifts to its bottom
side.
The flounder can blend in
with almost any background.
When it is placed on a
chessboard, for example, it
adopts a roughly checkered
pattern.
SIAMESE FIGHTING FISH
.. ORDER
~ Perciformes
FAMILY
Belontiidae
.. GENUS &: SPECIES
~ Betta splendens
The Siamese fighting fish is notorious for its aggressive
behavior toward rivals, but it also displays remarkably
gentle behavior, caring for its young from birth.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Wild fish grow up to
21/2 in .
BREEDING
Eggs: Tiny, spherical, and transpar-
ent. Laid in 3-7 batches of several
hundred.
Hatching period: 24-30 hours.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, territorial.
Diet: Small insect larvae, particu-
larly mosquitoes; also aquatic
crustaceans and other animal
matter.
Lifespan: About 2 years.
RELATED SPECIES
Siamese fighting fish belong to
the order of perch like fishes,
Perciformes, the largest order of
fishes in the world. The 7 species of
fighting fish are closely related to
the gouramis and mudskippers.
Range of the Siamese fighting fish.
~ = = ~ = = = = = = = = = =
DISTRIBUTION
Siamese fighting fish inhabit Southeast Asia from Thailand
to Borneo. Cultivated varieties are bred in aquariums
around the world.
CONSERVATION
The brightly colored aquarium varieties are selectively bred
from cultivated stocks. Wild populations are not threatened.
HOW THE SIAMESE FIGHTING FISH BREEDS
1 Before
mating the
male builds a
nest. He blows
mucus bubbles
that stick
together to
form a raftlike
construction.
catches the
sinking eggs in
his mouth and
then blows them
into the nest.
MCMXCI IMP BVI IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM
2 The male
wraps himself
around the
female and turns
her on her back.
She releases her
eggs and the
male fertilizes
them.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
4 The eggs
stick to the
nest. The
male stands
guard over
them until
they hatch.
0160200331 PACKET 33
Easily roused to jealous fury
by the presence of a rivat the male also
displays gentleness as he courts a female
with a graceful dance and cares for her eggs.
He protects the eggs from the female,
who may eat them after spawning.

Wild fighting fish live in calm
waters of small lakes, ponds,
slow rivers, and irrigation
ditches. They prefer shallow,
clear water with submerged
plants under which they can
hide from predatory birds. In
still waters fighting fish often
swim near the surface to
Right: Dur-
ing courtship
the male
nibbles at
the female's
scales and
may even
bite at her
fins.
breathe. They will suffocate
if submerged too long.
The fighting fish feeds on
plants, small worms, and
fragments of dead animals.
A voracious eater, the fish
grows quickly and may com-
plete its entire lifecycle in just
over two years.
-

The male fish fights to defend
its territory or mating rights
during breeding season. The
male is most ferocious when
attacking a rival suitor.
When he becomes angry, the
male begins to glow, its flanks
and fins illuminated in vibrant
shades of metallic green and
red. The heightened colors
warn the intruder, sometimes
intimidating the weaker fish
into retreating.
In a fight, one fish advances
Left: The brightly colored aquar-
ium varieties are selectively bred
for their beauty.
DID YOU KNOW?
The male fighting fish is an
oddity among fish species
because he takes care of the
eggs. He chases the female
away from the nest after
mating because she is likely
to eat the unhatched eggs as
he attempts to fasten them
fiercely, ramming the other
in the flank, scattering scales
or slitting a fin with its narrow
teeth. The other instantly
retaliates, and before long
both fish may be badly in-
jured. In uneven matches, the
weaker fish normally flees after
only a few minutes with
damaged fins.
Captive fish are bred for
their ferocity. Unable to flee,
they may battle for hours until
one of the fish dies.
Right: Flaunting himselt the
male fish courts the female until
they intertwine and breed.
securely to the raft.
Fighting fish with long fins
are more vulnerable than
the short-finned varieties
and are almost always de-
feated because they can-
not move as fast with their
long fins.
FIGHTING FISH &: MAN
In Thailand the fighting fish
has been selectively bred for
centuries to enhance its ap-
pearance and ferocity. The
resulting fish is very different
from its wild ancestors.
More colorful than the dull
gray or green wild fish, the

The male's courtship display
both intimidates rivals and
attracts females. If he is un-
sure of the other fish's sex,
the male waits for it to re-
spond; if it is a female, she
folds her fins to indicate
interest, whereas if it is a
male, he attacks.
Before courting, the male
builds a nest for the eggs by
blowing sticky mucus
bubbles that bind together
and form a raft. The eggs
Left: The male blows mucus
bubbles that bind together to
form a nest.
captive-bred species have
long, flowing, iridescent fins.
Known for their aggression,
the fish will fight to the death.
People traditionally placed
large bets and pitted the fish
against each other like game-
cocks in a cockfight.
stick to the underside of the
raft, safe from predators and
close to oxygen.
After the male performs this
display, he leads the female
under the nest. He entwines
himself around her and turns
her on her back. She releases
eggs into the water, which he
then fertilizes.
The eggs are laid in small
batches, and as they are
released, they sink down
through the water. The male
catches them in his mouth
and blows them up into the
sticky nest. He guards the nest
until the eggs hatch.
CARDINALFISH
ORDER
Perciformes
FAMILY
Apogonidae
GROUP 4: FISH
GENUS
Apogon and other genera
Cardinalfish are small, brightly colored fish that
live mainly in temperate seas and in the warm, tropical
waters around coral reefs.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 7 in., depending
on species.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Not known.
Spawning season: Throughout
the summer. Exact time depends
on location.
No. of eggs: 150-22,000,
depending on species.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Many species form large
schools, while others are solitary,
living on a host and coming out at
night to feed.
Diet: Tiny marine animals, larvae,
fish eggs, and crustaceans.
Lifespan: Not known.
RELATED SPECIES
Cardinalfish are related to more than
8,000 other species of the order
Perciformes, which also includes
mackerel, t una, and swordfish.
FEATURES OF CARDINALFI SH
Body:
Genera"y
short and
deep in a"
Range of cardinalfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in tropical seas throughout the world and in the
Mediterranean. A few species live in freshwater streams on
tropical islands.
CONSERVATION
The population seems to be stable, but it may become
depleted because cardinalfish are becoming increasingly
popular in home aquariums.
Color: Often red or patterned with
red. Some species are black, silver,
or yellow with stripes, wide bands,
or spots.
same size and shape as the anal
fin, which has two spiny rays:
Head: Large
with prominent
eyes and large
mouth con-
taining sma" ,
pointed teeth.
Cardinalfish are usually bright red or marked
with red patterns, but they can also be black,
silver, or yellow. Several species produce
an artificial light called bioluminescence.
These fish are popular in home aquariums.
Cardinalfish are shy. Many
species hide during the day
and come out at night to
feed. Other species, however,
form large, active schools.
Several species have a close
relationship with other sea
animals. An example is the
tiny Astrapogon stellatus cardi-
nalfish, found in the Caribbe-
an and along Florida's coasts.
During the day it hides in the
shell of a giant conch or in
the inner cavities of a sponge
to avoid predators. This re-
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Cardinalfish feed on tiny ma-
rine animals and fish eggs.
Some species eat small crus-
taceans such as shrimp.
Cardinalfish that have a
lationship is not considered
symbiotic (mutually beneficial
to each species) because the
conch or sponge does not
appear to benefit from it.
By contrast, the Siphamia
versicolor, an Indian Ocean
species, has a symbiotic rela-
tionship with long-spined sea
urchins. It swims between the
spines to clean the urchin's
skin. At the first sign of dan-
ger, the urchin spreads its
spines so the cardinalfish can
hide among them.
symbiotic relationship with a
host such as a sea urchin may
supplement their diet with
parasites that they remove
from the host.
~ BREEDING
Cardinalfish breed in summer,
and most species are mouth-
breeders-they carry their eggs
in their mouths. The female
lays her eggs in a single mass,
and the male takes them into
his mouth until they are ready
to hatch. He then spits them
into the water.
In one species the eggs are
fertilized by the female. She
inserts her genital organ into
the male and removes the
sperm for fertilization. In this
species the male alone looks
after the eggs. Cardinalfish
that are not mouth breeders lay
their eggs in abandoned shells.
Left: A school of cardina/fish
shelter under a stag horn coral.
Right: The Mediterranean
cardinalfish is bright red.
I
I ~ ~ : SPECIAL
~ ADAPTATIONS
Several species of cardinal-
fish produce an artificial
light called bioluminescence.
The reason for t his adapta-
tion is not yet clear. It is
thought that the light helps
cardinalfish find and attract
nocturnal prey, avoid pred-
ators, and communicate.
About 1,500 fish are known
to produce this light.
One species of cardinal-
fish, Apogon ellioti, has a
large population of lumi-
nous bacteria in a gland
near its throat. The gland
reflects t he light into trans-
parent muscles under the
throat. The muscles act like
a lens, concentrating the
light into one beam.
DID YOU KNOW?
The brownspot cardinalfish
has an unusual defense pos-
t ure. When threatened, it
flops over and "plays dead"
until the danger passes.
Many species of cardinal-
fish have descriptive com-
mon names such as "pajama
fish" and "flame fish."
Scientists studying a spe-
cies of cardinalfish in Hawaii
collected more than a thou-
------
... CARDINAlFISH &:
~ MAN
People have not been a great
threat to cardinalfish because
all the species are too small to
be caught for food . But cardi-
nalfish are in danger from
ocean pollution and the de-
struction of their habitat.
Many species of cardinalfish
are popular in home aquar-
iums. These species include
Apogon endekataenia, which
is a typical bright red color;
A. margaritophorus with silver
and red stripes; and Sphaer-
amia orbicularis from the
Pacific Islands.
Like most other tropical fish,
cardinalfish are not protected
by law. Some species may
become scarce if the demand
for specimens outstrips the
numbers that can be safely
removed from the sea.
Above: The marking of the ring-
tailed cardinalfish is distinctive.
sand live specimens from
one small area of reef.
When a giant conch is
taken from the sea, it opens
its mantle cavity and releases
cardinalfish.
Below: Silver striping is another
variation in coloring.
ATLANTIC SALMON
ORDER
So/moniformes
FAMILY
So/monidoe
GENUS &: SPECIES
So/mos%r
The Atlantic salmon's lifecycle takes it from fresh to salt
water and back again. Spawned in inland waters, the young fish
swims out to open sea to mature. Eventually it returns to the
same stream to mate and then die.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Mature salmon are usually
1'/2-3 ft. long. Some grow to 5 ft .
Weight: Up to 80 lb.
BREEDING
Spawning season: Usually
November to December.
Eggs: Spherical, orange, '/4 in.
across, laid among gravel.
Hatching time: 3 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Active predators in sea;
gather in schools.
Range of the Atlantic salmon.
DISTRIBUTION Diet: Insects and other small
animals in rivers when young;
small herring and sand eels when
in the sea.
Coasts and river systems of northern Europe from the Bay
of Biscay to the Arctic Ocean; in the North Atlantic off
North America extending to Greenland.
Lifespan: 8-10 years average.
RELATED SPECIES
Close relatives include several
species of Pacific salmon, trout,
and char.
CONSERVATION
Salmon are threatened by overfishing, river pollution, and
barriers that block access t o spawning streams. Modern fish
farming may ease the pressure on wild stocks.
LlFECYCLE OF THE ATLANTIC SALMON
1 Eggs: 10-30,000
eggs laid, each
measuring about
'/4 inch.
2 Larva: Feeds
on attached yolk
sac.
3 Fry: After leaving its gravel nest,
the fry feeds on insect larvae,
worms, and other small animals.
6 Spawning: The female digs a
nest with her tail, then together
with the male releases sperm and
eggs. Spawning lasts up to two
weeks sites.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
4 Parr: At about four
inches in length, the fry
becomes a parr. It preys
on larger fish. Its
markings change
to camouflage
it for ..... ..
5 Smolt: At
this stage
the salmon
turns silver and
is large enough
to migrate tl)
the sea.
0160200291 PACKET 29
The salmon spends much of its life
at sea, preying on small fish that swarm in
the cold waters of the North Atlantic. By the time
it returns to its home river to breed it has grown
into a glittering giant that leaps waterfalls
to reach its spawning grounds.
HABITAT
Salmon are among the few
fish that live in both fresh and
salt water. The parr (young
fish) develop in the cool,
clear, fresh waters of the
rivers where they were
spawned. As they reach
maturity they form schools,
move downstream, and swim
out to sea to the rich feeding
grounds of the North Atlantic.
A salmon parr feeds on
small aquatic animals such as
freshwater shrimp, insects,
and snails. If food is scarce, it
may stay in its home river for
up to eight years. A fish
spawned in richer waters
grows more quickly and may
leave for the sea a year after
hatching. At this stage the
parr is olive-colored. As it
nears the sea and its body
adjusts to salt water it turns
silver and is called a smolt.
Once at sea, the young
salmon preys on other fish
such as sand eels and young
herring. The richest feeding
grounds are in the north,
where huge schools of small
fish feed on the plankton
(microscopic aquatic life) of
the Arctic Ocean.
European salmon cross the
Atlantic to feed in the waters
between Greenland and
Canada. They may stay there
for over four years before they
return to their home rivers to
spawn.
Right: A big salmon leaps up to 10
feet to get above a series of rapids.

In winter Atlantic salmon
spawn in the shallow gravel
beds of cool, well-oxygenated
streams. Each female digs a
nest in the gravel by beating
away the stones with her tail.
Female and male swim side
by side, dropping their eggs
and sperm together into the
nest. They cover up the
fertilized eggs. After resting,
the female digs another nest
and they repeat the process.
This may continue for two
weeks until the exhausted fish
drift downstream and die.
The fertilized eggs develop
into larvae, then fry. These
tiny fish leave the gravel as
parr, feeding on worms, in-
sects, and other small ani-
mals for three years or more
Left: Salmon have dark spots on
their flanks until they leave their
spawning grounds. i before swimming out to sea.
DID YOU KNOW?
Some male salmon parr do
not go to sea; instead they
mature in the streams where I
they were born. When the
females return these tiny
males often slip in and ferti-
lize eggs before the big
males get a chance.
Mature salmon do not
feed during their upstream
migration. Despite this,
they still snap at the bait
and lures of fishermen. No
one knows why.
When it is ready to spawn, a
salmon returns to the stream
where it hatched. It swims
over 1,000 miles of ocean,
probably using the Earth's
magnetic field to navigate.
Then it identifies the character-
istic smell of its home stream
and follows the scent until it
reaches the river mouth.
Salmon often gather in large
groups in estuaries while they
wait for a high tide to carry
SALMON &: MAN
Until the 1960s most salmon
sold commercially were caught
in nets at the mouths of rivers.
Then humans discovered their
ocean feeding grounds in the
North Atlantic and harvested
Left: Each
larva has a
yolk sac with
enough nu-
trients to feed
it for a month.
After the sac
has been de-
pleted, the
.salmon leaves
the gravel as
a parr.
Below: As
salmon near
the sea, their
bodies adapt
to salt water.
them upstream. They travel up
to 25 miles a day. The instinct
to get to spawning grounds
drives them to swim up rapids
and leap up waterfalls.
The fish rest in deep pools
in the river to gather their
strength, but they do not feed.
As a result each salmon may
lose nearly half its body weight
on the upstream migration.
Most die after spawning,
completing their lifecycle.
them in huge numbers. Their
populations began to drop.
Today wild salmon are
becoming increasingly rare.
Their home rivers are often
blocked by pollution or dams.
CARD 29 J
DAMSELFISH
'(------------------------------------------
~
ORDER
Perciformes
FAMILY
Pomacentridae
Damselfish are lively and colorful members of the coral reef
community. Found in all tropical seas, they are known
as demoiselles in the Mediterranean region.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: Up to 14 in. but usually
smaller.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2-5 years.
Spawning season: Spring to
summer in temperate regions;
less seasonal in the tropics.
No. of eggs: Up to 20,000.
Hatching time: 3-7 days.
LIFESTYLE
Habitat: Territorial. Some species
form large schools.
Diet: Plankton, bottom-living
invertebrates, algae.
Lifespan: Up to 18 years in
captivity. Less in the wild.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 235 species within
the damselfish family, includ-
ing 26 species of clownfish.
Range of damselfish.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in tropical and some semitropical seas extending into
fresh and brackish water in some areas.
CONSERVATION
Damselfish are popular aquariym fish, but collection does
not seem to be a threat so far. Habitat destruction and pol-
lution are problems facing all aquatic habitats, and coral
reefs are especially vulnerable.
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF DAMSELFISH
Blue
damselfish,
Pomacentrus
caeraleus: The
young live
together
peacefully but
become more
aggressive
as adults.
Black and white damselflsh,
Dascyl/us aruanusa: Also known as
the humbug fish. Extremely
territorial.
MCMXCI IMP BVIIMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Young beau-gregory
damselfish, Eupomacenleus
'eucosticlus: Found only in the
Caribbean.
Yellowtail
damselflsh,
MlcrtJspalhodon
chrysurus:
Damselfish like
this often lose
their bright
colors in
captivity as they
adjust to their
new sur-
roundings.
0160200421 PACKET 42
More than 200 species of brightly colored damselfish
can be found in the shallow waters of both tropical
and semitropical seas. Even though these fish are
small, they are extremely aggressive and vigorously
defend their territory against competitive species
and sometimes even against human divers.
~ H A B I T A T
Damselfish are found in all
tropical and some semitropical
seas, and certain species in-
habit fresh or brackish water.
Damselfish are most abundant
in the Indo-Pacific region.
They usually live in shallow
water around coral reefs, man-
groves, and beds of sea grass.
Some species like the bicolor
Right: A male
damselfish
prepares a
rocky ledge
for use as a
spawning site.
He uses color
changes and,
in certain
species, click-
ing or purring
sounds to
entice the
female.
damselfish occur at depths
of over 250 feet. Juveniles of
some species like the night
major are common in tropical
tide pools, while the yellow-
orange garibaldi is found in
more temperate regions. It
feeds on small animals in the
seaweed that grows in beds
off the coast of California.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Some damselfish feed on zoo-
plankton (tiny waterborne crus-
taceans and fish larvae) as they
hover above coral reef forma-
tions. Many others graze on
the seabed, eating algae (prim-
itive plants) and small bottom-
dwelling invertebrates such as
shrimp and crabs.
left: During courtship rituals
vibrant colors distinguish the
sexes more clear/y.
DID YOU KNOW?
Damselfish make unusual
purring or clicking noises
that are used in courtship.
The same noises are used
to warn off intruders.
Juvenile damselfish may be
a different color than mature
fish. The young garibaldi is .
Damselfish are known for
their ferocious and territorial
behavior. Certain bottom-
dwelling species like the
three-spot damselfish can
defend a territory up to 16
feet across. The territory
usually includes feeding and
spawning sites and a shelter
for protection from predators.
A damselfish defends its
The three-spot damselfish
and certain other species
cultivate algallawns-thick
patches of algae. They eat the
algae along with the inverte-
brates that colonize the lawn.
These lawns also provide sites
for organisms that attack and
destroy coral, changing the
composition of the surround-
ing coral reef community in
the process.
red with blue spots and fin
edges. When it matures, it
becomes a startling yellow-
orange color.
The young of one species,
Acanthochromis polyuacan-
thus, feed on mucus secreted
by their parents' skin.
left: Some
species form
schools-a
spectacular
sight against
the reef.
Right: Tube-
like coral
formations
provide
sleeping
places for
damselfish.
territory against fish that com-
pete for similar environments,
such as butterfly fish and sur-
geon fish, even if they are
much larger. But it generally
ignores less competitive spe-
cies like bass and groupers.
Some other damselfish are
less territorial and live in open
water in schools ranging from
six to several hundred fish .
After establishing a territory,
a male damselfish cleans a
rocky ledge or coral su rface
to prepare it for spawning.
Using color changes, excited
swimming movements, and,
in certain species, clicking
sounds, the male fish encour-
ages a mature female to ap-
proach the spawning site and
lay her eggs, which he quick-
ly fertilizes. Courtship and
mating take about 10 to 20
minutes. Some males may
left: Some
species of
damselfish
feed on algae
that grow on
the seabed.
Invertebrates
such as shrimp
and crabs that
also feed on
the algae pro-
vide another
valuable
source of food.
mate with several females.
Each female fish lays up to
20,000 tiny oval eggs, which
the male tirelessly guards and
tends. He fans water across
the eggs with his fins, some-
times picking out dead eggs
that could develop fungus
and threaten the whole batch.
Male damselfish defend their
eggs against fish much larger
than themselves with little
regard for their own safety.
The eggs hatch after three
to seven days, and the larvae
spend weeks drifting and
feeding on animal and plant
plankton. Some species of
damselfish mature at two or
three years of age while
others take much longer.
left: Damsel-
fish stay close
to the coral
reef, often
darting into
dark crevices
to hide from
predators.
Some species
remain in the
same colony
for two years.
FAIRY BASSLET
ORDER
Perciformes
FAM,ILY
Serranidae
GENUS
Anthias
"Fairy basslet".is the general name for tropical members of the
sea bass family. These are tiny, colorful fish that can change
sex from female to male.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 5 in., according to
species.
Weight: 1-2 oz., according to
species.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Not known.
Spawning season: Throughout
the summer.
No. of eggs: Several thousand.
~ LIFESTYLE
Habit: Most species form large
schools; others live in small groups
under coral ledges.
Diet: Zooplankton, tiny marine
animals, crustaceans, and fish.
Lifespan: Not known.
RELATED SPECIES
Fairy basslets are related to over
400 species of the sea bass
family.
Range of the fairy bass let.
DI STRI BUTION
Coral reefs throughout the world. Large populations also
found in t.he Indian and Pacific oceans, especially near the
Great Barrier Reef of Australia.
CONSERVATION
Fairy basslets seem to thrive, but continued destruction and
pollution of coral reefs may threaten their future. Collection
for home aquariums may also endanger some species.
FEATURES OF THE FAIRY BASSlET
Dorsal fin: Raised
by the male during
Pacific fairy bass let Head: Rounded. Medium-size fairy basslet
f
Hermaphrodite
mating display. ___ _
Adult males also
have elongated
dorsal spines.
Tail fin: Deeply
notched. Often
bordered with
contrasting color.
Fairy blal,'
eyes and large mouth with -----.... 1
pointed teeth.
Colors: Mal es have vivid
coloration, often magenta or
Yellow with orange markings.
Royal gramma
@ I
Fairy basslets have a wide range of colors
and patterns. Like other coral reef fish,
the males of the basslet species are more
vividly colored than the females. They also
have more prominent dorsal fins.

The fairy bass let breeds at dusk,
when light levels are low and the
fish are least at risk from preda-
tors. The male displays to the
nearby mature females. He
makes his dorsal fin and spines
stand upright and swims back-
The fairy basslet is one of the
smallest fish living among
coral reefs in tropical waters.
Most species gather in large
groups, or schools, of young
fish and mature females, with
just a few adult males. When
the fish are not feeding, the
schools stay near the reef.
Here, they can take shelter
from predators.
SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS
Fairy basslets have no de-
fense against predators. But
the large numbers in the'
schools provide some pro-
tection for individual fish.
Members of the basslet ge-
nus Anthias are hermaphro-
dites; that is, an individual
fis h has both female and
male reproductive tissues
and can change sex. The ad-
aptation is probably a way of
ensuring survival, since it
gives each fish two opportu-
nities to reproduce.
All fairy basslets are proto-
gynous, or female at birth, and
every female has the potential
to become male. But research-
ers believe that the aggressively
dominant nature of the male
basslets in the school might
keep the females from being
stimulated to change sex when
it is not necessary.
The most likely ti mes for a sex
change are when one of the
males dies or when a school
becomes very large. Then the
senior female changes into a
male within a few days and can
produce sperm and mate with
a female.
ward and forward to show off his
colorful body. One brightly col-
ored species, Anthias dispar, dis-
plays especially vigorously.
The male rubs against the cho-
sen female's sides and belly for a
few minutes. Then the pair swims
rapidly toward the surface of the
water, away from the reef. As
they reach the surface, the male
releases his sperm, and the female
releases thousands of eggs. The
sperm and eggs drift together
into open water, away from the
many reef predators. The pair
then dives quickly back to the
shelter of the reef. This method of
breeding is called pair spawning.
Left: A goby
basslet.
Right: The
royal gramma
is one of the
smallest of the
fairy basslets.
Below: Fairy
bass lets leave
the reef to feed.
... FAIRY BASSlET &:

Many species of fish from coral
reefs around the world are
now being included in home
aquariums. The fairy basslet is
among those now being
widely collected.
The most popular fairy basslet
species include Anthias squami-
pinnis, a bright orange fish with
large, A. huchtii,
which is yellow, with bright blue
and red stripes; and the rare A.
pleurotaenia, sometimes called
the "purple blotch anthias." Be-
cause of their growing popular-
ity, local populations may be-
come depleted.
DID YOU KNOW?
Many fairy basslet species
have colorful common
names. For example, Anthias
squamipinnis is also known as
"wreckfish," "jewelfish," and
"lyre-tailed coralfish."
The Caribbean jewelfish,
which weighs up to 700
pounds, and Gramma loreto,
at less than one ounce, are
both members of the
Serranidae family.
Larger members of the sea
bass family can be fierce
predators. The Queensland
grouper sometimes stalks
shell and pearl divers and
has even been known to at-
tack them.
Below: A black cap basslet feeds
at the edge of a coral reef.
FOOD &: FEEDING
The fairy basslet feeds mainly
on plankton (microscopic crus-
taceans and larvae that drift in
the ocean), although the larger
basslet species may also catch
tiny marine animals and fish.
Large schools of fairy basslet
swim out from the protection
of the coral reef and travel
through the water looking for
plankton. They frequent the
outer reef slopes and lagoon
passes, preferring clear water
with an active current that is a
rich source of plankton.