Plant Disease

Topics in This chapTer

Pathogens Conditions necessary for biotic disease The disease cycle Disease diagnosis Plant disease control Fungicides for home gardeners

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very gardener has put in plants with hopes for wonderful flowers, fruits or vegetables, only to have those hopes dashed as the plants get sick and die. These plants are considered diseased. Many things can cause plants to become diseased, including biotic (living) agents, abiotic (nonliving) factors or a combination of the two. This chapter focuses only on living agents fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and parasitic plants. Other chapters discuss abiotic factors such as nutrient deficiencies, lack of water, temperature stress and combinations of these problems as they relate to specific types of plants. Some plant diseases have had tremendous impacts on society. Perhaps foremost among these is Phytophthora late blight, a fungal disease that caused the Irish potato famine in 1845. Approximately 2 million people either starved or left Ireland, many for the United States. Powdery mildew and downy mildew are fungal diseases that devastated the French wine industry until Bordeaux mixture was found to control them. In the United States, the fungal disease chestnut blight was introduced accidentally into New York City in the late 1800s on imported Chinese chestnut trees. The Chinese trees were resistant to the blight, but American chestnut trees were not. In fewer than 40 years, 30 million acres of chestnut trees had died. Chestnut blight remains a problem in the eastern United States. Dutch elm disease also was introduced accidentally. It infects and kills elm trees throughout the nation. These examples are prominent because they caused so much damage. Plant diseases vary in how much trouble they cause, depending on a variety of conditions, including the susceptibility of the plant, and the organisms disease cycle. Minimizing their impact requires correct diagnosis of

By Jay W. Pscheidt, Extension Plant Pathologist, Oregon State University. Edited by Lindsey du Toit, Plant Diagnostician, Washington State University, Puyallup, and Warren Copes, Ornamental Plant Pathologist, Washington State University. Adapted by Michele Hbert, Extension Faculty, Agriculture and Horticulture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

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Disease terminology
General terms

DiseaseAbnormal and harmful physiological condition brought about by living (biotic) agents, such as fungi, bacteria, nematodes and viruses, or by nonliving (abiotic) factors, such as nutrient deficiencies and water stress. DodderA parasitic seed plant lacking chlorophyll; its thread-like yellow body twines around its host, from which it withdraws food and water. Downy mildewA group of fungal pathogens whose spore production looks like downy growth on the undersides of leaves. ExclusionA process by which certain plants are not allowed in an area to protect against pests and diseases from other areas. HaustoriaA modified hyphal branch that grows into a plant cell to absorb food and water. HostA plant afflicted with a disease. HyphaA single filament of a fungus. ImmunityA relationship between a plant and pathogen in which the plant does not become diseased. IncubationA period of development during which a pathogen changes to a form that can penetrate or infect a new host plant. Some fungi, for instance, grow a structure called a penetration peg that can grow through a plants cell walls. InfectionThe condition reached when a pathogen has invaded plant tissue and established a parasitic relationship between itself and its host. InoculationThe introduction of a pathogen to a host plants tissue.

InoculumThe parts of a pathogen that infect plants. Powdery mildewA group of fungal pathogens whose spore production causes white to gray powdery mycelia on the outside of their host. QuarantineA regulation forbidding sale or shipment of plants or plant parts in an area, usually to prevent disease, insect, nematode, or weed invasion. ResistanceQualities in a host plant that make it retard the activities of a pathogen. SanitationThe process of removing sources of plant pathogens from a growing area (for example, by cleaning up plant debris and sterilizing tools and growing media). Spore(1) The reproductive body of fungi and other lower plants, containing one or more cells. (2) A bacterial cell modified to survive in an adverse environment. StyletA nematodes lance-like or hypodermic-needle-like mouthpart used to puncture and feed from plant cells. TolerantA crop plant that will produce a normal yield even if diseased.
Pathogens

BacteriumA single-celled, microscopic organism having a cell wall but no chlorophyll; reproduces by cell division. FungusA plant organism with no chlorophyll that reproduces via spores and usually has filamentous growth. Examples are molds, yeasts and mushrooms. NematodeA microscopic roundworm, usually living in the soil; many feed on plant roots and can be disease pathogens. Parasitic seed plantA higher plant that lives parasitically on other seed plants. An example is mistletoe.

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Disease terminology, continued

PathogenA disease-producing organism. PhytoplasmaA microscopic, bacteria-like organism that lacks a cell wall. VirusAn infectious agent too small to see with a compound microscope; it multiplies only in living cells.
Symptoms (external or internal physical disease characteristics expressed by a host plant)

BlightRapid, extensive discoloration, wilting, and death of plant tissue. BlotchA blot or spot (usually superficial and irregular in shape and size) on leaves, shoots or fruit. CankerA dead place on the bark and cortex of twigs, stems or trunks; often discolored and either raised or sunken. ChlorosisAn abnormal yellowish-white or gray color of plant parts resulting from incomplete destruction of chlorophyll. Damping-offDecay of seeds in the soil or young seedlings shortly after they emerge; usually caused by Rhizoctonia, Pythium, or Fusarium fungi. DiebackProgressive death of shoots, branches or roots, generally starting at the tips. DwarfingThe underdevelopment of any plant organ. EnationEpidermal outgrowths on leaves or stems. EpinastyAn abnormal downward-curving growth or movement of a leaf, leaf part or stem. EtiolationDevelopment of yellow, long, spindly growth as a result of insufficient light. FasciationA distortion of a plant that results in thin, flattened and sometimes curved shoots. FlaggingLoss of turgor and drooping of plant parts, usually following a water shortage.

GallAn abnormal, localized swelling on leaf, stem or root tissue. MosaicNonuniform foliage coloration with a more or less distinct intermingling of normal green and light green or yellowish patches. MottleAn irregular pattern of light and dark areas. NecrosisDeath of plant tissue. PhyllodyA change from normal flower structures to leafy structures. RotDecomposition and destruction of tissue. RugoseWrinkled. RussetYellowish-brown or reddish-brown scar tissue on a fruits surface. ScabA crust-like disease lesion. Water-soakedLesions that appear wet and dark and usually are sunken and/or translucent. Wilt(1) Lack of freshness and turgor and drooping of leaves from lack of water. (2) A vascular disease that interrupts a plants normal uptake and distribution of water. Witches broomAbnormal brush-like development of many weak shoots.
Signs (physical evidence of a disease-causing agent)

Bacterial slimeA gooey or dried mass of bacterial cells that oozes out of plant tissues. ConkA fungal fruiting structure (e.g., shelf or bracket fungi) formed on rotting woody plants. CystThe swollen, egg-containing female body of certain nematodes; can be seen on the outside of infected roots. Fruiting bodyA fungal structure that contains or bears spores. MyceliaMasses of fungal threads (hyphae), which compose the vegetative body of a fungus.

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the problem and an understanding of techniques for growing healthy plants.

Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that are much smaller and less complex than plant cells. Many are about the size of a plant chloroplast. Bacteria can build up to high numbers and ooze out of plant tissues. Some bacteria produce slime that may attract insects that spread the bacteria to healthy plants. Bacteria can survive unfavorable conditions in plant debris or even in seeds. Bacteria cause plant diseases by forming toxins or by producing enzymes that break down plant cell walls. Crown gall bacteria actually genetically engineer their host plant to make galls and amino acids, thus giving the bacteria a better place to live and the chemicals they need to grow and reproduce.

Pathogens
Disease causing organisms are pathogens. They are microscopic or very difficult to see or recognize without magnification. Fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and even plants can be pathogenic on garden plants. Pathogens generally get nutrients, water and everything they need to reproduce from their host. Such a relationship is called parasitic. Some pathogens can infect several kinds of plants; others require a specific host.

Fungi
The largest group of plant pathogens, fungi come in a wide variety of forms. In general, they are multicellular organisms with a thread-like body. These threads, which are called hyphae, have cell walls. When many threads mass together, they form a mycelium. Further growth of a mycelium may produce fruiting bodies, where sexual or asexual spores are formed. The characteristics of the spores, fruiting bodies and mycelium are used to identify and diagnose fungal problems. Some fungi can survive and grow without a living host. Others die if they are not in close association with a host. Fungi cause plant diseases by making toxins that kill plant cells, by growing within and plugging up a plants vascular system, by rotting roots or by sending root-like structures into plant cells.

Viruses
Virus particles are composed of a few strands of DNA and are even smaller than bacteria. Electron microscopes reveal them to have many shapes, including long strands, short rods and multisided balls. Viruses utilize a host plants cell organelles to produce more viruses. The result can be strange plant colors, forms or structures. Some viral infections, however, dont result in any visible plant problems. Touching virus-infected plant material and then touching healthy plants can transmit some viruses. For example, a smoker can transmit tobacco mosaic virus from a cigarette to a plant. In Alaska, some viruses are transmitted by insects such as aphids, scales, leaf hoppers and whiteflies. Fungi, mites, nematodes and even parasitic plants also can transmit viruses. Some viruses also may infect a host plants seeds and thus be transmitted to the next generation. Potato virus X can be transferred from one garden potato to another by a contaminated garden tool or pant leg (anything that moves sap).

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Nematodes
Nematodes are multicellular roundworms that may be no larger than the letter I in the word DIME on a U.S. coin. Because they are clear and live in the soil, they are impossible to see without magnification. All plant pathogenic nematodes have a mouthpart called a stylet. The stylet is like a lance or hypodermic needle that the nematode uses to puncture plant cells and feed from them. Some nematodes move from root to root, while others set up one feeding site in a single root. Feeding may cause root lesions or galls that restrict water and nutrient flow to the host plant. Other nematodes weaken the plant through mass feeding. A few foliar nematodes attack above-ground plant parts. Movement of soil or infected plant parts can transmit nematode diseases.

Environment

Disease Host Pathogen

Figure 1.Disease is a result of simultaneous interactions between the environment, host and pathogen.

Parasitic plants
Many Alaskans notice moss and lichen growing in trees; this vegetation is not parasitic, it just uses the tree as a platform. Some plants are truly parasitic to other plants. Dodder, for example, produces flowers and seeds, but has no chlorophyll. Thus, it cannot manufacture its own food. It has a thread-like yellow body that twines around its host. Root-like haustoria penetrate the host plant and withdraw food and water. Some parasitic plants, such as mistletoe, manufacture chlorophyll but have no real roots and depend on their host (on hemlock in Southeast Alaksa) for water and nutrients. Seeds of parasitic plants are spread by birds or contaminated soil, or they may be shot out of plant structures like little bombs.

Conditions necessary for biotic diseases

In order for a biotic (pathogenic) plant disease to occur, three conditions must be met: The host plant must be susceptible. An active, living pathogen must be present. The environment must be suitable or favorable for disease development. All three of these factors must occur simultaneously. If one or more is absent or unfavorable, disease does not occur. The relationship among a plant, a pathogen and the environment is shown in Figure 1. The more the circles overlap, the more severe the disease. This is referred to as disease triangle. A host plants genetic makeup determines its susceptibility to disease. This susceptibility depends on various physical and biochemical factors within the plant. Stature, growth habit, cuticle thickness and stomatal

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shape are a few physical factors that influence disease development. A plants developmental stage also can have an effect. Stressful growing conditions can increase a plants susceptibility to diseases. Pathogens such as fungi and bacteria differ in their ability to survive, spread and reproduce. Different strains of pathogens may differ in how aggressive they are in causing diseases. Environmental factors such as temperature, light and moisture can accentuate diseases. For example, cool, moist conditions are ideal for many fungal pathogens.
(b) Released ascospores

The disease cycle

The sequence of events from a pathogens survival to plant disease development and back to pathogen survival is called the disease cycle, or the pathogens life history. An understanding of the disease cycle is important when considering control options. Control measure are most effective when applied at the weakest link in the chain of events in the disease cycle. Most pathogens must survive a period of adverse conditions, usually winter, when they do not actively cause disease.

Ascospore

Apple tree in bloom

Ascospores (g) Penetration by germinating conidium (f) Conidium Mature perithecium containing asci and ascospores (d2) Scab lesions on fruit (e) Conidium

(c) Penetration by germinating ascospore

Infection

(d1) Scab lesions on leaf

Perithecium initial

Antheridium

Ascogonium Stroma

Intercellular mycelium in leaf (a) Infected leaves on ground

Fertilization

Figure 2.Disease cycle of apple scab: Overwintering fungi (a) produce sexual spores (b) that penetrate and infect trees in the spring (c). Soon scab lesions appear (d1), within which asexual spores (e) are produced. These spores are released (f) and drift onto healthy tissue (g), where they cause more scab lesions (d1 and d2) and produce more spores (e). The cycle then begins again.

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In spring, the overwintered inoculum then infects or continues to infect a host plant. Some diseases, such as many canker diseases, have only one cycle during the year. Others, such as powdery mildew, continually produce new inoculum, thus repeating the cycle many times during a single growing season. Apple scab is an example of a fungal disease with multiple cycles each year (Figure 2). The fungus survives the winter on fallen infected leaves (Figure 2a), where it produces small fruiting bodies that contain sexual spores. In the spring, starting about the time apple trees begin to grow, these spores are squirted out of the dead leaves (Figure 2b). Frequent or long rainstorms and warm weather favor spore release. The spores drift onto healthy leaves or young fruit, where they germinate and enter plant tissue much as a seed germinates and sends roots into the soil (Figure 2c). Once inside, the fungus gets all of its food from the plants tissues. In a few days or weeks, a scab lesion forms (Figure 2d1). Within this lesion, another type of spore is produced an asexual spore (Figure 2e). When these spores are released (Figure 2f), they drift to healthy tissue (Figure 2g), where they cause more scab lesions (Figures 2d1 and d2) and produce more spores (Figure 2e). This cycle can be repeated many times during wet springs. Summer generally brings unfavorable hot, dry conditions. The fungus survives on leaves until they fall in the autumn. Then it invades the leaves and once again makes spore-bearing fruiting bodies.

Disease diagnosis
There is no single set of questions or technique for diagnosing plant diseases. Experience and practice are the best teachers. It is easiest to diagnose plant problems through personal, onsite inspection. You may notice subtle influences of the site, environment or management practices that make identification easier. Diagnosis is more difficult when you see only part of a plant, which may or may not indicate the real problem. The worst situation is diagnosis by phone, which easily can lead to misunderstanding and inaccurate diagnosis. Many beginners use the picture book method of diagnosis: attempting to match a plants problem with a picture. The Ortho Problem Solver, for example, has many useful, high-quality color pictures. Although this method is useful for simple and common problems, it usually is inefficient and inaccurate for local plant diseases, complex situations and difficult problems. Another simple technique is to ask a series of questions to build a case history of the problem. Questions should include the kind of plant, its age and its size. Also consider the location of the property and the plants location and relationship to other plants. Information on recent weather, soil conditions, mulch and care also is needed. Describing the plants overall condition is very important. Symptoms and signs also are used to diagnose a plants condition. Symptoms are physical disease characteristics expressed by a plant. Examples are wilt, galls, cankers, rots, necrosis, chlorosis and general decline. Signs are physical evidence of a pathogen. Examples include fungal fruiting bodies (such as mushrooms or vase-shaped bodies called pycnidia), mycelia, bacterial slime or nematodes.

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See Chapter 19,

Diagnosing Plant Problems.

Chapter 19, Diagnosing Plant Problems, will help you organize your approach to diagnosing plant disease problems. This systematic approach involves defining the real problem and distinguishing between living and nonliving causes of plant damage. Steps include looking for damage patterns, tracking the development of damage over time and building a case history of the problem. With these steps, it usually is easy to narrow the possibilities and turn to specialists or appropriate reference materials, such as textbooks or herbarium samples, for precise identification. Once you determine that a real problem exists and is caused by a living disease organism, decide what type of organism may be causing the damage (fungi, viruses, bacteria or nematodes). Some insect problems mimic diseases; however, the symptom descriptions below deal only with pathogens. Knowing what diseases a plant is susceptible or resistant to also can help in diagnosis. You can eliminate possibilities if you know which diseases are likely to occur.

the potential for the introduction of new species through imported plants. Remember that root injury often causes yellowing, stunting or wilting of aboveground parts. Many fungi, such as Verticillium and Fusarium, cause internal vascular discoloration in stems, as do some bacterial wilts.

Symptoms on storage organs

Many fungi and some bacteria cause discolored or dead areas that penetrate deep into storage organs such as tubers, bulbs, corms, etc. Dry rots often are caused by fungi, which also may produce mycelia or spores. Soft rots usually are associated with bacteria such as Erwinia spp. and can be accompanied by strong, repulsive odors. Often, bacterial soft rots follow rots caused by fungi, making diagnosis difficult. Other internal problems can be caused by bacteria, e.g. (ring rot of potato) or by several viruses. Scurfy, dead surface tissue may be caused by a variety of fungus-like organisms (e.g., powdery scab of potato). Fungi or nematodes can cause galling of storage organs.

Root symptoms
External root symptoms include galls, discoloration and death of roots or parts of roots. Crown gall, caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, is a common cause of galls on many plants. Some fungal diseases, such as club root of cabbage, also cause galls. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) can cause large or small irregular galls. Small, discolored, dead areas may be caused by a wide variety of fungi or root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.). Death of feeder roots or the entire root system is indicative of many fungi. Though Alaska does not currently have many problems with pathogenic nematodes, there is always

Seedling symptoms
Seedlings sometimes fail to emerge or fall over and die. This condition usually is referred to as damping-off. Fungi such as Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium are common causes; they affect seedlings just at or below the soil line. Dead areas on cotyledons (seed leaves), the first true leaves, or stems usually are caused by fungi, but occasionally by bacteria. Spots caused by fungi may contain hyphae or fruiting bodies, while those caused by bacteria may look water soaked around their margins. Rusty-red, brown or black spots or stripes indicate rust or smut fungi. White, moldy

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growth can be caused by powdery mildew or downy mildew fungi. Yellowing (either mottled or patterned) can be caused by several viruses. Ring spots, blotches and streaks of yellow or green also may occur with viral infections. Nematodes such as Ditylenchus can cause swelling or galling of stems or leaves. This nematode does not occur naturally in Alaska but can potentially come in on plants such as bulbs.

Leaf symptoms
Mottling is the abnormal yellow and greenish patterning of leaves infected with viruses. Viruses can also cause leaf rolling and distortions. General or uniform yellowing, especially on leaf margins may indicate a root rot. Dead (necrotic) areas on leaves can be caused by fungi or bacteria. Dead areas caused by fungi may contain hyphae or fruiting bodies, while those caused by bacteria often have water-soaked margins. Small, rusty-red, brown or black spots or stripes may be caused by rust or smut fungi. Moldy, white leaves indicate powdery or downy mildew. Wilting indicates lack of water, which may be due to vascular wilt fungus, root rot, nematodes or bacteria. Remember, examine the entire plant to find possible reasons for the symptoms.

a wide variety of fungi or several bacteria. Cutting into the wood with a knife may reveal a sharp border between healthy and infected tissue. Some bacterial cankers excrete a sticky ooze in the spring. Wood rots and decays are caused mainly by fungi. They may be accompanied by large conks or bracket-like fruiting structures. Galls can be produced by the crown gall bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. A few galls or swellings, such as white pine blister rust, are caused by fungi. Witches broom (excessive branching) can be caused by several fungi or by mistletoes, a group of parasitic plants.

Flower symptoms
Abnormal color changes and/or distortions can be caused by several viruses. Partial or complete death of flower parts can be caused by fungi or bacteria. Fungi usually produce characteristic spores, while bacterial infections often look water soaked. Smut diseases convert individual flowers into masses of black spores; an example is corn smut.

Fruit symptoms
Fungi cause a wide variety of decays, rots and superficial spotting or russetting. Important symptoms include the specific color of rotted tissue, firmness of tissue and signs such as spores or fruiting structures. Viruses can cause discoloration and malformation. Bacteria may cause discrete spots on fruit in the field or soft rots in storage.

Stem, branch and trunk symptoms

The leaf disease symptoms above also apply to most stem disorders of annuals and herbaceous perennials. Cankers (complete or partial death of woody stems or branches) can be caused by

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Plant disease control

Avoidance

If a disease does occur in your area, there may be ways See Chapter 5, Pruning. to avoid its development on your plants. Choosing the right site and time for planting, storing produce properly and avoiding wounds to plants are a few of these techniques. Planting certified, Exclusion virus-free stock is a good way to avoid viral This method includes quarantines, inspecdiseases. tions and certification. These techniques Root rots can be avoided by not planting prevent movement of diseased plant material in heavy, poorly drained soils. Delay plantinto a particular country, state or geographic ing until soils dry out. area where the disease doesnt exist. The Wounds can be entry points for pathogens most visible use of this method is in Calior can weaken a plant so it cannot defend fornia. At the state border, everyone must itself. For example, the crown gall bactestop at an agricultural inspection station to rium needs an injury to begin the infection be screened for fresh fruit, vegetables and process. Thus, avoid wounding plants when plants coming from areas where certain dispruning or using equipment such as mowers eases or insects are known to exist. or weed trimmers. Quarantines are regulations forbidding Finally, use good horticultural practices, sale or shipment of plants or plant parts. such as proper fertility, pruning, watering There are many quarantines of plant mateand training, to keep plants healthy and betrials coming into the United States. As a ter able to ward off infection. result, you cant obtain certain varieties or types of plants from nurseries outside Eradication a region without a first obtaining a perWhen a plant is infected or an area is mit. For example, the Alaska Division of infested with a pathogen, eradication can Agriculture has established a quarantine eliminate or reduce the disease threat. in order to prevent commodities infected Rotation, sanitation, elimination of alterwith potato late blight disease (Phytophthora infestans) from entering Alaska. Late nate hosts, chemical applications and heat blight strikes tomatoes and potatoes all over treatment are ways to reduce or eliminate diseases. North America at any stage of growth. It Crop rotation is common in both comhas shown up in Alaska but currently has mercial agriculture and home gardens. not overwintered and become established. Rotation involves planting different crops in Quarantines are in effect to prevent introa given location each year. This practice can duction of new types or forms of diseases. reduce soil populations of fungi and nemaA misunderstanding of these rules is the todes. reason that many Lower 48 nurseries To practice rotation, you need to know will not send plant material to Alasthe pathogen and what plants are its hosts. ka. Material with a proper phytosanitary certificate certainly can be Rotation works only if you plant nonhosts. For example, turnips and cabbage are hosts sent to Alaska. The five basic principles of plant disease control are exclusion, avoidance, eradication, protection and resistance. Although therapy is another basic principle, it generally is not practiced by home gardeners.

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of many of the same diseases, so they are not an effective rotation. Potatoes, however, are a host of different diseases, so it is a good crop to rotate with turnips and cabbages. See Table 1 for groups of related plants. Try to plant crops in locations where plants from the same family did not grow the previous year. Removing plant debris (sanitation) is important where pathogens may overwinter. Rake leaves, remove rotted fruit, pick up old vines and prune out dead wood or canes. Dispose of the debris by burning, burying or hot composting. Rusts are a group of fungi that complete their life cycle on two or more hosts. The other host is known as an alternate host. Eliminating alternate hosts may reduce pressure from these diseases, since the fungus cant complete its life cycle without an alternate host. Certain chemicals can eliminate infections or infestations. Soil can be fumigated or steam sterilized to reduce populations of certain fungi and nematodes. Some fungicides have kickback activity, which means they can stop some fungal infections if applied within a few days after the infection has started. Heat treatment usually is See Chapter 4, used to eliminate viruses from Plant Propagation. propagation material.

Chemical protection is one of the most widely used means of control. There are many fungicides on the market, but few are readily available to home gardeners. (See Fungicides for home gardeners later in this chapter.)

Resistance
Resistance, immunity, tolerance and susceptibility are terms that describe a plants genetic makeup and its reaction to plant pathogens. Resistance and its opposite, susceptibility, are levels or degrees of a plants reaction to a pathogen. Different cultivars of a plant can react differently to the same pathogen. If a plant never becomes diseased, the term immune can be used. Tolerant describes a plant that may become diseased yet grow much like a healthy plant. Planting resistant cultivars is the easiest means of disease control. You can find lists of resistant plants in many texts and seed catalogues. Sometimes the resistance is identified in the seed catalog as a series of letters next to the variety name (V=Verticillium, F=Fusarium, N=nematodes, etc.).

Fungicides for home gardeners

Many fungicides are registered for use on plants, but only a few are readily available to gardeners. Although many others are neither highly toxic nor restricted in use, they may be difficult to obtain in small quantities. Some fungicides, such as sulfur and copper products, are allowed under organic growing guidelines. Others, such as captan, triforine, and chlorothalonil, are not considered organic.
See Chapter 22,
Understanding Pesticides.

Protection
Protection means treating a healthy plant before it becomes diseased. There are both biological and chemical means of protection. One of the most successful examples of biological protection is use of a bacterium to protect against crown gall bacterial disease. This process involves dipping a plants roots in a preparation of the bacterium before planting.

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Table 1.Plant families for rotations.

Plant family
Apiaceae Amaranthacea

Some common genera

Celosia Apium spp., Coriandrum, Daucus spp., Foeniculum. and Pastinaca Catharanthus Ageratum, Brachycome, Calendula, Callistephus, Centaurea, Coreopsis, Cosmos, Dimorphotheca, Gaillardia, Gomphrena, Helianthus, Helichrysum, Lactuca, Senecio, Tagetes, Taraxacum and Zinnia Impatiens Myosotis . Brassica, Lobularia and Matthiola

Common name of popular flowers and vegetables

Cockscomb Carrot, celery, cilantro, fennel, parsley and parsnip

Apocynaceae Asteraceae

Madagascar periwinkle African daisy, calliopsis, China aster, chrysanthemum, cineraria, cornflower, (bachelors button), cosmos, dandelion, floss flower, globe amaranth, Jerusalem artichoke, lettuce, marigold, pot marigold, sunflower, strawflower, Swan River daisy and zinnia

Balsaminaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae

Impatiens Forget-me-not Broccoli, brussels sprout, cabbage, candytuft, cauliflower, daikon, flowering kale, horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, mustard green, radish, rutabaga, stock, sweet alyssum, turnip and watercress Bellflower, cardinal flower and lobelia Dianthus and babys breath Beet, spinach and Swiss chard Morning glory and sweet potato Cucumber, gourd, honeydew melon, muskmelon, pumpkin, squash, watermelon and zucchini Yam Pincushion flower Lima bean, mung bean, pea, snap bean, soybean and sweet pea Sage Asparagus, chive, garlic, leek, onion and shallot Mallow and okra California poppy and poppy Sea lavender and statice Corn

Campanulaceae Caryophyllaceae Chenopodiaceae Convolvulaceae Cucurbitaceae Dioscoreaceae Dipsacaceae Fabaceae

Campanula and Lobelia Dianthus and Gypsophila. Beta and Spinacia Convolvulus and Ipomoea Citrullus, Cucumis and Cucurbita Dioscorea Scabiosa Glycine, Lathyrus, Phaseolus, Pisum and Vigna Salvia Allium and Asparagus Abelmoschus and Lavatera Eschscholzia and Papaver Limonium Zea

Lamiaceae Liliaceae Malvaceae Papaveraceae Plumbaginaceae Poaceae

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Table 1.Plant families for rotations, continued.

Plant family
Polygonaceae Primulaceae Ranunculaceae Rosaceae Scrophulariaceae

Some common genera

Rheum Primula Consolida Fragaria Antirrhinum, Diascia, Linaria, Mimulus and Nemesia Browallia, Capsicum, Lycopersicon, Nicotiana, Salpiglossis, Schizanthus and Solanum Tropaeolum Verbena Viola

Common name of popular flowers and vegetables

Rhubarb Primrose Annual delphinium and larkspur Strawberry Monkey flower, snapdragon, toadflax and twinspur

Solanaceae

Amethyst flower, butterfly flower, eggplant, nicotiana, painted tongue, pepper, petunia, potato and tomato

Tropaeolaceae Verbenaceae Violaceae

Nasturtium Verbena Pansy and violet

The label is the law. No matter what anyone tells you, always follow the label directions. To do otherwise is illegal. There are, however, a few exceptions. For example, if a label says to use a certain amount of product, you cannot use more; however, if experts recommend using less, that is acceptable. Never use a product on a plant that is not listed on the label. However, if an expert recommends using the product for a disease that is not on the label, it is acceptable to do so as long as the plant is on the label. You need to understand a pathogens disease cycle and host susceptibility to get good control using fungicides. Proper timing, coverage and selection of fungicides also are important. Many fungicides work by protecting healthy plant tissues. Captan, copper, chlorothalonil and sulfurs must be present before fungi arrive. Although triforine is locally systemic (it moves inside the plant), it must be applied soon after (or before)

infection for maximum benefit. None of these fungicides can revive heavily diseased plants. Some fungicides work better when a spreader-sticker is mixed with the solution. This material helps the fungicide stay on the plant longer or spread over the leaf surface better. Most wettable powder formulations benefit from the addition of a spreadersticker. Liquid formulations usually already contain such compounds.

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How to discourage plant diseases in your garden

Select a suitable location for planting. Some plants like sunny locations; others prefer more shade. Avoid extremely wet and/or cold soils because they favor many root disorders. If you must plant in such areas, select plants that tolerate these conditions. Practice annual rotation. If possible, change the planting location of specific plants to help prevent the buildup of disease-causing organisms. Select disease-resistant varieties if they are available and adapted to your growing conditions. Use only disease-free seed and transplants. Many disease-causing organisms are carried to gardens on seeds and transplants. Buy from a reputable source. Throw away any rotted or poorly growing plants or plant parts. Maintain correct soil fertility and pH through careful use of fertilizers, lime, soil amendments, compost, etc. Plants that are too weak or too vigorous as a result of improper fertilization are more subject to diseases. Do not overcrowd your plants. High humidity beneath the plant canopy may favor certain fungal diseases. Thin your plants to permit free air movement. Water properly. Try to maintain an even water supply and avoid dry-wet fluctuations. Drip systems and soaker hoses are preferred to overhead sprinklers. To encourage quick drying of foliage, water in the morning instead of in the evening, especially if you use an overhead system. Control insect pests. Some insects spread certain viral and bacterial diseases. Destroy and remove diseased plants as soon as you observe them. They may be a source of pathogens that can spread to other plants. Spade under or compost crop refuse as soon as possible after harvesting your garden. This practice not only recycles organic matter to the soil, but also reduces the possibility of disease-causing organisms overwintering in your garden. Add diseased plant parts to your compost pile only if you are hot composting. Be alert to leaf diseases that occur annually on certain plants. Take care of them early before damage becomes so severe that the plant is lost.

See Chapter 3,

Soils and Fertilizers.

See Chapter 17,

Integrated Pest Management.

Basic Entomology,

and Chapter 23,

See Chapter 6,
Composting.

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For more information

UAF Coopertive Extension publications
Late Blight Disease of Potato and Tomato in Alaska, PMC-00338. Identifying and Controlling Pests in Alaska, PMC-10074.

WSU Cooperative Extension publications

Anthracnose on Lettuce, EB1864. Apple Anthracnose, EB0940. Apple Scab, EB1044. Azalea Leaf Gall, EB1052. Bacterial Canker of Prunus, EB1013. Botrytis Neck Rot of Onion, EB1359. Brown Rot of Stone Fruits, EB1047. Cherry Leaf Mottle, EB0981. Club Root of Cabbage and Other Crucifers, EB1049. Collar Rot of Pome and Stone Fruits, EB1497. Corticium Red Thread of Turfgrass, EB1016. Coryneum Blight of Stone Fruits, EB1266. Cultural Control of Plant Diseases, EB1131. Curly Top of Tomato, EB1255. Disease Control in Home Lawns, EB0938. Diseases of Bulbous Iris, EB0710. Diseases of Narcissus, EB0709. Diseases of Tulips, EB0711. Dogwood Anthracnose, EB0972. Fire Blight, EB1352. Fusarium Patch of Turf, EB1108. Gray Mold, Botrytis Blight, EB1045. Hawthorn Leaf Spot, EB1279. Late Blight of Potato and Tomato, EB0958. Lilac Blight, EB1081. Managing Necrotic Ring Spot on Turfgrass in the PNW, EB1734. Pea Wilt and Pea Root Rots in the Home Garden, EB1262.

Perennial Canker and Bulls Eye Rot of Apples, EB1517. Plant Diseases: An Introduction, EB0900. Plant Sanitation, EB1237. Potato Scab, EB1243. Powdery Mildews, EB1054. Raspberry and Strawberry Root Rots in Home Gardens, EB1082. Slime Molds on Lawns and Other Areas, EB1083. Sycamore Anthracnose Leaf and Twig Blight, EB1263. Tubercularia (nectria) Dieback of Broadleaf Trees, EB1254. Turfgrass Diseases, EB0713. Turfgrass Diseases Supplement, EB0713S. Verticillium Wilt of Maples, EB0983. Willow Scab, EB1278. Wood Rot of Tree Fruits, EB1452.

OSU Cooperative Extension publications

Blossom-end Rot of Tomatoes, FS 139. Controlling Diseases and Insects in Home Orchards, EC 819. Discourage Plant Diseases in Your Home Garden, FS 242. Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Management Handbook, PLANT.

USDA Forest Service publications

Insects and Diseases of Alaskan Forests. Spruce Needle Rust, R10-TP-99. Spruce Needle Cast, RT-TP-12. Spruce Broom Rust, R10-TP-100.

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