2007-2008

1
Loads, dynamics and structural design
Offshore Wind Farm Design
Michiel Zaaijer
DUWIND
2007-2008 2
Overview
Introduction
Modelling offshore wind turbines
Types of analysis and tools
Loads and dynamics in design
2007-2008 3
2007-2008
4
Introduction
Loads, dynamics and structural design
2007-2008 5
Harmonic loading
( ) ( ) + = t F t F sin

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
0
1
Simple Harmonic Loading
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
- Gravity loads on blades
- Mass imbalance rotor (1P)
- Aerodynamic imbalance (1P)
- Small regular waves
27 RPM = 0.45 Hz
2007-2008 6
Non-harmonic periodic loading
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
0
1
Complex Cyclic Loading
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
- Wind-shear
- Yaw misalignment
- Tower shadow
- Rotational sampling
of turbulence
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
0
0.5
1st Signal (0.5 Hz)
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
0
0.5
2nd Signal (1 Hz)
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.5
0
0.5
3rd Signal (1.5 Hz)
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
( )
( )
0

sin
k k
k
F t
a a F k t

=
+ +

(all 2P or 3P and multiples)

3P
2007-2008 7
Non-periodic random loading
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
0
1
Random Load
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
- Turbulence (small scale)
- Random waves
2007-2008 8
Other (non-periodic) loading
Transients
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
0
1
Step Load
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
Short events
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
0
1
Impulsive Load
Time
L
o
a
d
i
n
g
- Start/stop
- Turbine failures
- Storm front
- Extreme gust
- Extreme waves
2007-2008
9
Introduction
Loads, dynamics and structural design
2007-2008 10
The effect of dynamics
k
m
k = 1 [N/m]
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
F
Force [N]
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
x
Response [m]
?
2007-2008 11
The effect of dynamics
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
m = 0.0005 [kg]
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
m = 0.1 [kg]
Force [N]
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
m = 0 [kg]
(Static)
2007-2008 12
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
-2
-1
0
1
2
1
The effect of dynamics
k
m
F
System
F
intern
= k x
Force [N]
m = 0.0005 [kg]
Response [m]
Internal forces external forces
due to dynamics
Internal forces drive the design,
not external forces!
2007-2008 13
Dynamic amplification factor
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
1
2
3
4
5
damping ratio = 0.1
damping ratio = 0.2
damping ratio = 0.5
Frequency Ratio
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

A
m
p
l
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

F
a
c
t
o
r

(
D
A
F
)
Note: the DAF is defined for harmonic excitation
DAF =
Dynamic amplitude
Static deformation
f
excitation
f
natural
Resonance
2007-2008 14
Character of resonance
Excitation frequency natural frequency
Large oscillations
Fatigue damage (due to severe cyclic loading)
Generally not destructive (anticipated in design)
Natural frequencies of wind turbine (-components)
are close to several excitation frequencies
2007-2008 15
Classification for wind turbines
1P 3P
soft-soft soft-stiff stiff-stiff
1
DAF
f
0
Excitation
Response
2007-2008 16
Soft-stiff example
1P = 0.45 Hz
f
natural
= 0.55 Hz
3P = 1.35 Hz
2007-2008 17
Reduced response to loading
DAF
1
f
0
Alleviation of (wind) loading by
shedding loads through motion
soft-soft
structure
Typical rotor loading
frequencies
1P 3P
Typical wave loading
frequencies
2007-2008 18
Increased response to loading
1-P *-P
Quasi-static or amplified
response to wave loading
2007-2008 19
Single degree of freedom system
x k +
k
x c
&
+
c
x m F
& &
=
m
F
x
2007-2008 20
Wind turbine characteristics
Stiffness
Material properties / soil properties
Buoyancy of a floating structure
Damping
Material properties / soil properties
Aerodynamic loading
Control
(Viscosity of water / radiation in soil)
Inertia
Material properties
Hydrodynamic loading (water added mass)
Entrained water mass
2007-2008 21
Linear / non-linear systems
x(t) y(t)
ax
1
(t) + bx
2
(t) ay
1
(t) + by
2
(t)
Linear system:
Non-linear system:
x(t) + x
0
y(t) + y
0
Initial condition x
0
:
No superposition possible
Possible dependency on initial conditions
Possible variation in output statistics for the same
input (statistics)
2007-2008 22
Non-linearities for wind turbines
Aerodynamic loading
Hydrodynamic loading
extreme waves
waves and currents
Speed and pitch control
some algorithms
settings for various wind speeds
Extreme deformations (2
nd
order effects)
2007-2008
23
Introduction
Loads, dynamics and structural design
2007-2008 24
Lifelong response signal
Response
(loading + dynamics)
Time
Extreme events
Lifelong variations
2007-2008 25
Effects of loads and dynamics
Ultimate limit state (ULS)
(maximum load carrying resistance)
Yield and buckling
Loss of bearing / overturning
Failure of critical components
Fatigue limit state (FLS)
(effect of cyclic loading)
Repeated wind and wave loading
Repeated gravity loading on blade
2007-2008 26
Effects of loads and dynamics
Accidental limit state (ALS)
(accidental event or operational failure, local damage
or large displacements allowed)
Ship impact
Serviceability limit state (SLS)
(deformations/motion, tolerance for normal use)
Blade tip tower clearance
Vibrations that may damage equipment
Tilt of turbine due to differential settlement
2007-2008 27
Design drivers of wind turbines
Component Design drivers
Ultimate Fatigue
Tower top top mass -
Tower - wind/wave
Submerged wind/wave/current wind/wave
tower
Foundation wind/wave/current -
2007-2008 28
Importance of dynamics in design
Increase or decrease of maximum load
Affects Ultimate Limit State conditions
Increase or decrease of number of load cycles and
their amplitudes
Affects Fatigue Limit State / Lifetime
2007-2008 29
Effect on structural design
Monopile
soft-soft
Monopile
soft-stiff
Support structure cost
Soft-stiff monopile 100 %
Soft-soft monopile 80 %
Energy cost
Soft-stiff monopile 100 %
Soft-soft monopile 95 %
2007-2008 30
Use of dynamic models
Analyse system
properties
Avoid resonance
and instabilities
Assess lifelong
loading
Reduce internal
loads and match
resistance
Make lightest
and cheapest
structural design
1. 2. 3.
Validate reliability
and technical
lifetime
2007-2008
31
Modelling of offshore wind turbines
Structural models of rotor, nacelle and support structure
2007-2008 32
Flexibility of wind turbines
Drive train
- Torsion
Blades
- Flapwise bending
- Edgewise bending
- Torsion
Tower
- Bending
- Torsion
Rotor
- Rotation
Foundation
- Rotation
- Horizontal
- Vertical
2007-2008 33
Integrated dynamic model
Wind
Wave
Grid
Controllers
Rotor Drive train Generator
Offshore wind turbine
Support structure
2007-2008 34
Rotor model
Aerodynamic properties
Distributed mass-stiffness
Beam theory
FEM
, EI
x,y,p
Tables
C
l

C
d

2007-2008 35
Drive train model
I
hub+low speed shaft
I
generator
Stiffness torsion in
transmission and main shaft;
main shaft bending
Damping transmission
suspension and generator
torque control
Transmission ratio
2007-2008 36
Generator model
n
0
generator
motor
0
0
T
k,g
n
synchronous generator:
n
0 2n
0
induction generator:
T
k,g
0
0
generator
motor
n
Slip
2007-2008 37
Tower model
Distributed mass-stiffness
Beam theory
FEM
, EI
x,y,p
Modal representation
Deflection
1
st
mode
+
Deflection
2
nd
mode
=
Total
deformation
Effective reduction of DOFs
2007-2008 38
Foundation model
(

=
(

u
k k
k k
M
H
x
x xx
2007-2008
39
Modelling of offshore wind turbines
Deriving parameters for foundation models
2007-2008 40
Importance of foundation model
4
0
.
0
m
5
.
0
m
1
5
.
0
m
2
1
.
0
m
3
5
0
0

x

7
5
2
5
0
0

x

1
0
0
2
8
0
0

x

6
0
2
8
0
0

x

3
2
2
8
0
0

x

2
5
2
8
0
0

x

2
0
37.0m
(25.0m Penetration)
3.0m
6.0m
2
8
0
0

x

6
0
15.4m
12.0m
12.0m
12.0m
6.0m
Pile
Tower
Flange
Boat Landing
J-Tube
MSL
x
3
0
3.0m
3.5m
5.0m
Scour Protection
4.6m
x
1
0
0
Rotor/nacelle mass 130,000 kg
First natural frequency (Hz)
without foundation 0.34627
with foundation 0.29055
with scour 0.28219
Second natural frequency (Hz)
without foundation 2.2006
with foundation 1.3328
with scour 1.2508
2007-2008 41
Enhanced foundation model
External shaft friction
(t-z curves)
Internal shaft friction
(t-z curves)
Pile plug resistence
(Q-z curves)
Pile point resistance
(Q-z curves)
Lateral resistance
(p-y curves)
Use:
Standards (API/DNV)
Existing software
(In exercise: ANSYS Macros)
2007-2008 42
Scour
General scour depth
Local scour depth
Overburden reduction depth
No scour condition
General scour only
Local scour condition
Vertical effective soil pressure 0
Pil e
Seabed
Typically 6 times pile
diameter
Typically 1-1.5 times
pile diameter
2007-2008 43
Effective fixity length
Seabed
Effective
fixity
length
3.3 D 3.7 D Experience with
offshore turbines
6 D General calculations
7 D 8 D Very soft silt
3.5 D 4.5 D Stiff clay
Effective fixity
length
Configuration
2007-2008 44
Uncoupled springs
Tower
Seabed
Rotation
Translations
Forced displacement/rotation
Ignore M Ignore F
Method A

F
M
u
Ignore
Applied force/moment
Ignore u
Method B

F
M
u
In exercise: Use
ANSYS Macros
and method B for
a monopile
2007-2008 45
Stiffness matrix
Stiffness matrix
Seabed
Tower
Run two load cases with FEM
model with py-curves
(See next slide)
(

=
(

u
k k
k k
M
H
x
x x x
2007-2008 46
FEM-based pile-head stiffness
4. Check assumption with another FEM solution
1 1 1

+ =
x xx
k u k F
1 1 1


+ = k u k M
x
1. Solve FEM for F
1
, M
1
(F
1
, M
1
near loading situation of interest)
2 2 2

+ =
x xx
k u k F
2 2 2


+ = k u k M
x
2. Solve FEM for F
2
, M
2
(F
2
, M
2
near loading situation of interest)
3. Scratch one equation and solve k
xx
, k
x
, k

(k
x
= k
x
, assume matrix equal for both loads)
2007-2008 47
Selection of pile foundation models
Foundation flexibility significant enough to require
close consideration of modelling
Effective fixity length model dissuaded
Stiffness matrix much more favourable than uncoupled
springs
For exercise: Monopile in Bladed modeled with uncoupled springs
(unfortunately)
2007-2008 48
Vertical
Horizontal
Rocking
Inertia Viscous
damping
Spring
stiffness
( )

1 3
3
D G
( )

8 7
1 16

D G

1
2 D G
( )

1 32
65 . 0
4
G D
( )

2 4
6 . 4
2
G D
( )

1 4
4 . 3
2
G D
( )

1 32
64 . 0
5
D
( )

2 8
76 . 0
3
D
( )

1 8
08 . 1
3
D
GBS
Lumped springs
and dashpots for:
- Horizontal
- Vertical
- Rocking
Documented GBS model parameters
2007-2008
49
Types of analysis and tools
Natural frequency and mode analysis
2007-2008 50
FEM modal analysis
FEM analysis provides:
Natural frequencies
Mode shapes
(Pre-processed)
matrices of structural
properties:
Mass
Stiffness
Damping
1
X
Y
Z
Parametric support structure model generation
2007-2008 51
Natural frequencies
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Monopile Monopod Tripod Truss
N
a
t
u
r
a
l

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
i
e
s
2007-2008 52
Modes of the support structure
Monopile 1
st
mode 2
nd
mode
2007-2008 53
Rayleigh's method
=
Z
Velocity:
Maximum
strain energy
2

~ Z
( )
2
max

2
1
:
x k V
SDOF
=
Maximum
kinetic energy
2 2

~ Z
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2
0 max

2
1
2
1
:
x m
x m T
SDOF
=
=
&
( ) ( ) ( ) t Z x t x v sin

, =
2007-2008 54
Rayleigh's method
To estimate first natural frequency (lowest)
Based on energy conservation in undamped, free
vibration: Exchange of energy between motion and
strain
Mode shape must fit boundary conditions
Best estimate of mode shape results in lowest estimate
of natural frequency
(Deflection under static top-load gives educated guess
of mode shape)
2007-2008 55
Rayleighs method for stepped tower
( )
2 3
2
2
2 4
4
4 48
3
top eq
found
eq
m m L L
T C
EI

+
= +
| |
|
\
See document on Blackboard for:
Derivation of this equation
Explanation of EI
eq
, m
eq
, C
found
2007-2008 56
Free vibration of cylinder in water
( ) ( )
c w c w D c M w M
x v x v D C x D C a D C f & & & & + =
, ,
2
,
2
2
1
4
1
4

Inertia force Drag force

Inertia force due to moving cylinder
Still water remaining inertia term is called water added mass
With C
M
2 water added mass mass of replaced water
But related to water surrounding the cylinder!
Use water added mass in analysis of natural frequency and modes
2007-2008
57
Types of analysis and tools
Response analysis
2007-2008 58
Types of response analysis
Static analysis with dynamic response factors
Time domain simulation
Frequency domain analysis
Mixtures
All approaches can also be divided in:
Integrated combined loading
Superposition of effect of load components (wind, wave,
current, gravity)
2007-2008 59
Static + dynamic response factors
Calculate static response for several loading conditions
(separate wind, wave, g)
Estimate a dynamic response factor per condition
(comparison of characteristic frequencies) Typical 1.2-1.5
Superimpose results (including partial safety factors
per loading type)
2007-2008 60
Superposition of forces
Superposition Waves +
current
Wind
on tower
Thrust Gravity
2007-2008 61
Time domain simulation
Generate realisations of external conditions
Integrate equations of motion numerically
Analyse response (extremes, probability distribution,
fatigue, )
Repeat until statistically sound information is obtained
The tool used in the exercise to do this is Bladed.
See Blackboard item Assignments for a tutorial and manuals.
2007-2008 62
Frequency domain analysis
Fourier transforms and linear systems
Time domain Frequency domain
( ) ( ) ( ) t h t y t x , , ( ) ( ) ( ) H Y X , ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
* y t x h t d x t h t = =

( ) ( ) ( ) H X Y =
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) t y b t y a
t x b t x a
2 1
2 1
+
+ ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2 1
2 1
Y b Y a
X b X a
+
+
2007-2008 63
Frequency domain analysis
Determine transfer function per load source
Linearise system or use small harmonic loads
Multiply spectrum of load source with transfer function
Superimpose response spectra of different sources
Due to non-linearity in the system, this procedure must be
repeated for different average wind speeds
2007-2008 64
Time domain - frequency domain
Time domain Frequency domain
Comprehensive non-linear
structural model
Simplified linear structural
model
Very time consuming Very rapid calculation
Careful choice of time
signal
Well documented wind
turbulence spectra
Able to model control
system dynamics
Able only to model linear
control system
Established fatigue
prediction tools
Fatigue prediction tools
relatively new
2007-2008 65
TD simulation:
- Transfer function tower top
loading (linearisation)
- Aerodynamic damping
FD analysis:
- Transfer function for wind loading
- Aerodynamic damping as extra
structural damping
- Linear wave loading
+
Mixing time- and frequency domain
2007-2008 66
U(1-a)
Aerodynamic damping
Tower for-aft motion
Blade motion
V
blade
Angle of attack
decreases/increases
-V
blade

Lift/thrust force
diminishes/increases
L
L opposite V
blade
2007-2008 67
Aerodynamic damping
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
5 10 15 20 25
wind speed at hub height [m/s]
a
e
r
o
d
y
n
.

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

a
s

f
r
a
c
.

o
f

c
r
i
t
.

d
a
m
p
.

[
%
]
soft-soft monopile
soft-stiff monotower
stiff-stiff lattice tower
Function of wind speed, turbine design
(aerodynamic and control) and support structure!
2007-2008 68
Some relevant analysis tools
ANSYS
Sesam
Adams WT
Phatas
Bladed
Flex
Turbu
FEM Time Freq Rotor Offshore
X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
2007-2008
69
Loads and dynamics in design
Overview of the process
2007-2008 70
Suggested steps
Choose a limited set of load cases
Make preliminary design based on static loads
Check for resonance*
Check extreme loads with time domain simulations*
Check fatigue damage*
* Adjust design when necessary
2007-2008 71
Partial safety factor method
Apply load and resistance factors to:
loads on the structure or load effects in the structure
resistance of the structure or strength of materials
Fulfill design criterion:
Combined loading with non-linear effects:
Apply one safety factor to combined load effect, determined
from structural analysis of simultaneous loading
R
S
R
S

2007-2008 72
Values for safety factors
Importance of structural component w.r.t.
consequence of failure considered
Typically between 0.7 and 1.35
1.0 for favourable loads!
Load factor 1.0 for fatigue (safety in resistance)
See e.g. Offshore standard DNV-OS-J101
Design of offshore wind turbine structures
2007-2008
73
Loads and dynamics in design
Choose load cases
2007-2008 74
Fundamental problems in evaluation
Response
(loading + dynamics)
Time
More realisations
at the same site
What is the true extreme?
Long time span (20 year)
2007-2008 75
Load cases: Combine conditions

extreme
normal
external conditions

stand-by
operational conditions
normal conditions
start-up
power production
normal shut-down
fault conditions
condition after occurrence of a fault
erection
The number of
combinations that
is required in the
standards is
enormous!
2007-2008 76
Reducing number of load cases
(extremes)
Select a few independent extreme conditions that might
be design driving, e.g.:
Extreme loading during normal operation
Extreme loading during failure
Extreme wind loading above cut-out
Extreme wave loading
And combine these with reduced conditions for the other
aspects (wind, wave, current)
2007-2008 77
Reducing number of load cases
(fatigue)
Hs \ \ Tz
0 - 1 1 - 2 2 - 3 3 - 4 4 - 5 5 - 6 6 - 7 7 - 8 8 - 9 total
5.5 - 6 0.0
5 - 5.5 0.08 0.1
4.5 - 5 0.04 0.3 0.3
4 - 4.5 0.3 0.08 0.4
3.5 - 4
lumped sea state
0.7 0.7
3 - 3.5 0.7 0.7
2.5 - 3 0.6 0.04 0.7
2 - 2.5 0.2 0.2
1.5 - 2 0.0
1 - 1.5 3.4 0.4 3.8
0.5 - 1 19 58 0.7 77.7
0 - 0.5 0.68 1.0 65 12 0.1 0.11 79.0
total
0.7 0.0 1.0
84.2 73.4
2.0 1.9 0.5 0.0 164
Idling: V
w
> V
cut_out
Idling: V
w
< V
cut_in
Normal operation:
V
cut_in
< V
w
< V
cut_out
Lump states
in 3D scatter
diagram
Use normal
operation and
idling
2007-2008 78
T
V V
rated
V
cut-out
Ideal pitch
Stall
Response
to gust/failure
V
extreme
~V
2
~V
-1
~V
2
Knowledge about load case selection:
Thrust curves
2007-2008 79
Extreme and reduced conditions
H
max
1.86 H
s
H
reduced
1.32 H
s
V
gust,max
1.2 V
10 min
V
gust,reduced
(1.2 / 1.1) V
10 min
2007-2008
80
Loads and dynamics in design
Make preliminary design
2007-2008 81
Preliminary support structure design
Determine largest loads at several heights
Estimate wind, wave, current and gravity loads
e.g. C
D,AX
= 8/9 (Betz) at V
rated
& linear wave & DAF & safety
Superimpose and determine largest at each height
Dimension tower (moments / section modulus)
Rule of thump D/t
200 tower section
~60 driven foundation pile (see e.g. API on BB)
Estimate pile size with Blums method
(See document on Blackboard!)
2007-2008
82
Loads and dynamics in design
Check for resonance
2007-2008 83
Campbell diagram
forbidden
area
margin
C
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Rotor speed
1
e
lead-lag
3-P
1-P
1
e
flap
1
st
tower frequency
1
st
tower frequency
1
st
tower frequency
Soft-
stiff
Soft-
soft
Stiff-
stiff
Wave-excitation
Soft-stiff
Soft-soft
2007-2008 84
Design adaptations
Change diameters and/or wall thicknesses
Shift masses
e.g. move transformer from nacelle to platform
Adjust rotor speed control
e.g. skip resonance in partial load region
Change concept
e.g. to braced tower / tripod
2007-2008
85
Loads and dynamics in design
Check lifetime fatigue
2007-2008 86
Fatigue
F
static
F
time
failure

number of cycles
fatigue test
Fatigue: after a number of cycles of a varying load below static
strength failure occurs.
2007-2008 87
S-N curves
log N
log
amp
UTS
1:20?
Carbon-Epoxy
1:10
Glass-Polyester
Steel (Welded)
1:3
2007-2008 88
Variable amplitude loading

amp
log N
n
1
n
2
n
3
n
4
n
5
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
3
N
4
N
5
Miners Damage Rule:
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
N
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
N
n
i
i
+ + + + =

Damage < 1.0

2007-2008 89
Stochastic loading
Stress history can be converted to blocks of constant
amplitude loadings (using counting method)

amp
log N
stress histogram

Time
Stress history
Information about sequence lost
2007-2008 90
Rainflow counting
Two parametric method: Range and mean
Display series of extremes with vertical time axis
Drip rain from each extreme, stop at a larger extreme
Start and stop combine to one stress cycle
2007-2008 91
Rainflow counting
Established method
Several equivalent algorithms exist
Reservoir method
Intermediate extremes in groups of 4
Principle based on stress-strain hysteresis loops:
2007-2008 92
Frequency domain approach
Rayleigh: Theoretical, narrow band signals:
Dirlik: Empirical, wide band signals:
Used for spectra of random, Gaussian, stationary processes
2007-2008 93
Lifetime fatigue analysis
Hs\\Tz 0-1s 1-2s 2-3s 3-4s 4-5s 5-6s 6-7s 7-8s 8-9s total
5.5-6m 0.0
5-5.5m 0.08 0.1
4.5-5m Idling,high:Vw>=Vcut_out 0.04 0.3 0.3
4-4.5m 0.3 0.08 0.4
3.5-4m lumpedseastate 0.7 0.7
3-3.5m 0.7 0.7
2.5-3m 0.6 0.04 0.7
2-2.5m 0.2 0.2
1.5-2m idling,low:Vw<Vcut_in 0.0
1-1.5m 3.4 0.4 3.8
0.5-1m 19 58 0.7 77.7
0-0.5m 0.68 1.0 65 12 0.1 0.11 79.0
total 0.7 0.0 1.0 84.2 73.4 2.0 1.9 0.5 0.0 164
Do the following for all load cases
(scatter diagram, operational and idle)

Time
Determine stress time series or PSD
(PSD = Power Spectral Density)
Determine stress histogram
(Rainflow counting Dirlik)

amp
log N
2007-2008 94
Lifetime fatigue analysis
n
1 N
1
Apply Miners rule to histogram
(damage per load case)

amp
log N

=
i
i
N
n
D
Apply Miners to all load cases:
Damage of each load case (normalised to 1 unit of time) *
Probability of load case * Total lifetime
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

1
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

2
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

3
p
r
o
d
.

8

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
0

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
4

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
5

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
7

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
9

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

2
0

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

2
1

m
/
s
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

1
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

2
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

3
d
a
m
a
g
e

f
o
r

l
o
a
d

c
a
s
e

w
i
t
h

u
n
i
t
y

p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

[
-
]
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

l
o
a
d

c
a
s
e

[
-
]
PP wind & waves
II, IP: waves
PP: wind
PP: waves
probability
Load case type
Pile
5.5 m below mudline
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

1
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

2
I
d
l
e
,
l
o
w

3
p
r
o
d
.

8

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
0

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
4

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
5

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
7

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

1
9

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

2
0

m
/
s
p
r
o
d
.

2
1

m
/
s
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

1
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

2
I
d
l
e
,

h
i
g
h

3
(
a
b
s
o
l
u
t
e
)

d
a
m
a
g
e

p
e
r

l
o
a
d

c
a
s
e

[
-
]
No.1: wind & waves (full avail.)
No. 2: waves & no aerodyn. damping
No. 4: pure wind
No. 5: waves & aerodyn. damping
Fatigue analysis type Pile
5.5 m below mudline
2007-2008 95
Integrated system dynamics
0
10
20
30
40
50
E
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t

b
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
m
e
n
t
wind
wave
wind
loading
wave
loading
super-
position
separate analyse
combined
loading
integrated
analysis
combined