Shell Special Intensive Training Programme

4 DRILLING SYSTEMS AND OPERATION

This section deals with the basic drilling techniques including some basic introduction to advanced drilling techniques.

4.1

OVERVIEW OF WELL PLANNING

4.1.1 Introduction
Drilling of an oil/gas well plays a key role 'm an overall field development the various aspects of which include: 1. Exploration to confirm the potential presence of hydrocarbons. This would normally include seismic exploration among other techniques. 2. Drilling a number of wells to confirm the presence of and to exploit the possible oil gas deposits. 3. Well completions involving the installation of necessary production tools, etc 4. Production operations include the processing of the produced fluids for consumption or export., etc. The drilling engineer is responsible for 'making' the hole. There are three basic types of wells. These are Exploratory wells Appraisal Wells Development Wells With exploratory and Appraisal wells, the objectives are to confirm the present of any hydrocarbon presence and to appraise the extent of the field in terms of geological information - stratigraphic features and lithological configurations, identification of likely problems and problem zones, reservoir characterisation with respect to actual reservoir/formation rock relationships, types of Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 1 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme hydrocarbon, estimates of the reserves, production versus pressure relationships etc. With these wells, there are little or no information about the particular block or field and it is the objective to set up a comprehensive information data bank for the field. In development or infill wells, there is relatively good information about the environment. Successful drilling of these wells therefore require careful planning. The main objective of an effective well planning therefore is to ensure that the entire drilling programme is carried out as fast as possible at a relatively cheap rate and maximum safety standard. This requires that the Drilling engineer must have projections on anticipated potential problems and should develop appropriate preventive measures to eliminate or minimise the problem. Taken further, he must develop appropriate strategies to cope with any potential problems. Safety is the overriding criterion and safe drilling practices to prevent any catastrophic problems requires effective planning prior to spudding the well to initiate the drilling programme. For exploratory and appraisal wells, little or no Information is available prior to drilling. It is therefore essential to forecast the necessary information or data required for effective well planning. Thus the planning will be flexible and subject to modifications as drilling progresses in line with encountered facts. For development drilling the planning is much simpler as there are data and experience of the particular environment. The major areas that require well planning are essentially: 1. The sizing and trajectory of the hole 2. Casing setting Depths, Casing Design and Cement programmes 3. Design of the Optimum Mud Weight, type and properties 4. Selection of the Drilling rig and rig equipment Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 2 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme 5. Contingency planning against unknown eventualities. 6. Knowledge of formation/fracture pressure. These programmes require a good knowledge of the formation pressure to be encountered and essentially the fracture gradient as these parameters drive the overall safe drilling programme.

4.2

KEY PRESSURE DEFINITIONS

One of the primary functions of the drilling mud is the control of subsurface formation pressure. This it achieves in either of two ways:

1.

Overbalance Drilling

This is currently the most popular technique in which the drilling mud exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the formation which is greater than the formation pressure. Thus PH = PF + POB Where PH= Hydrostatic pressure PF = Formation pressure POB = Overbalance pressure or simply Overbalance, If the formation pressure becomes greater than the hydrostatic pressure then formation fluid will flow into the wellbore, a phenomenon known as KICK. (1)

2.

Underbalanced Drilling

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme This is a specialised drilling technique in which the influx of formation fluid into the wellbore can be deliberately controlled to minimise or avoid certain borehole problems such a formation damage, thus the hydrostatic pressure would be designed to be less than the formation pressure. This is a controlled kick in which the volume of fluid flowing and Mixing with the wellbore fluid would be known. Thus, in this case PH = PF - POB (2)

Most conventional wells are drilled overbalance but recent developments in drilling technology have witnessed the adoption of underbalanced drilling to improve well productivity. The regulation of the relationships between these pressures is crucial to a successful drilling operation. Pressure can be defined as the force exerted on a unit cross-sectional area. Pressure Gradient is the pressure exerted per unit length.

Types of Operational Pressures

1. Hydrostatic Pressure
This is the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height of a static column of fluid. It is expressed mathematically as: (a) In Field Units PH = 0.052**D PH = Hydrostatic pressure, psi =Density, pounds per gallon(ppg) D = Well depth , ft. (3)

(b) In Metre Units

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme PH= D/1 0 where PH = Hydrostatic pressure, kg/cm2 = Density, pounds per gallon, gm/cc D = Well depth, meters (4)

2.

Overburden Pressure

This is the pressure exerted by the total weight of solids and fluids in the formation. It can be defined mathematically as : (a) In Metric units ob = b * D/10 b = average bulk density for interval, gm/cc D = depth of sediment, metres (b) In Field Units ob = 0.433* b * D b = Specific weight, gm/cc D = Depth, ft. b = g*(1- + fl * ) The bulk density can be obtained from the combined Density, Resistivity and Gamma ray logs. = (g - b )/( g - fl) One of the most important aspect of well planning is the estimation of bulk density for the various formations drilled. This can be computed from seismic data, shale density or sonic logs. Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 5 of 28 Univation (6) (5)

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme The Overburden gradient is defined as ob/D ( psi/ft) Bulk density is a function of depth and as the overburden increases with depth, porosity decreases due to compaction effect thus increasing the bulk density

3.

Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure

Circulating pressure describes the pressure required to circulate the drilling fluid through the entire circulating system from the surface lines, through the drillstem, drillbit and back to the surface via the annulus as shown in Fig. 4. 1. The pressure generated at the pump overcomes friction in the entire flow loop. Thus the pump pressure is the sum of all the pressure losses in each segment of the entire wellbore. Pump pressure = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + P6 = Standpipe pressure (SPP) The SPP minus the bit pressure loss are called parasitic losses. The annular pressure losses (Pann = P5 + P6) act as a small "back pressure" during circulation. Therefore the bottom hole circulation pressure(BHCP) is given as BHCP = PH+ Pan

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4.

Equivalent Circulation Density (ECD)

ECD is the mud weight equivalent to the bottom hole circulation pressure. It is given as e = (BHCP)/(0.052D) BHCP = BH circulation pressure, psi D = Depth, ft

5.

Differential Pressure

The differential pressure is the difference between the bottom hole circulating pressure and the formation pressure. Thus. P = BHCP - PF There are three possible scenarios that can occur if the differential pressure is negative, equal to zero or positive.

6.

Formation Fracture Gradient

This is the plot of pressure versus depth necessary to break down the formation by the creation of fractures. Deliberate fracturing is a well stimulation technique to improve production. However there can be induced fracturing during drilling that can result is a major problem such as lost circulation. The fracture gradient : helps to define the setting depths for intermediate casing determine the maximum annular pressure allowed while controlling a kick In most cases, the weakest point in the wellbore is just below the casing shoe. The leakoff test is a way of determining the fracture gradient.

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7.

Formation Pressure (Pore Pressure)

This is the pressure exerted by the fluids contained 'm the pore space of a rock. It depends normally on the fluid column density and vertical depth. For a normal formation, it is equivalent to the pressure supported by a column of the formation fluid at that depth. i.e. the Hydrostatic Pressure. . For this normal formation, the true pore pressure at a given depth is equal to the fluid column pressure plus: 1. Pressure losses from fluid movement 2. Temperature effects The pore pressure, PF= 0.052*F *D We can have normal or abnormal formations The upper limit of the pore pressure is the overburden pressure

4.3

NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE

As defined above, this is the pressure exerted by the pore fluids above the depth of interest because saline water is the most common fluid in the porous rock, the formation pressure is given as a function of the formation water density depending on salinity, the density ranges From 0.434psi/ft to 0.465psi/ft. Examples for different regions are Niger Delta = 0.433psi/ft North Sea (Viking Basin) = 0.442psi/ft Gulf Coast = 0.46'Jpsi/ft 4.4 ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE.

Where the formation pressure is less than 0.434 psi/ft or greater than 0.465psi/ft the pressure is abnormal. For PF< 0.434psi/ft, it is SUBNORMAL Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 9 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme For PF>0.465psi/ft it is GEOPRESSURED OR OVER PRESSURED.

4.5

ESTIMATION OF FORMATION PRESSURE AND FRACTURE

GRADIENT
Formation pressure and Fracture gradient are two critical parameters needed by the drilling engineer in planning and drilling a modern well. One of the main functions of the drilling fluid is the control of formation pressure. Knowledge of the formation pressure Is crucial to the design of drilling fluid density. From equation 1, PH = 0.052*m*H = PF + POB. The overbalance POB depends on company or local experience but is based on the knowledge of the Fracture gradient. The overbalance must be such that the hydrostatic pressure is never greater than the maximum allowable pressure, which is less than the fracture gradient. Thus the equivalent density must be less than the fracture equivalent density. In well planning, the engineer must first determine whether abnormal pressures will be present. If they will be, the depth at which the fluid pressures will depart from normal and the magnitude of pressure must be estimated also.

Estimation of Formation pressure

Direct measurement of formation pressure is possible with Repeat Formation Tester (PM but expensive and can only be done after drill'mg. Thus, indirect estimates are needed for planning purposes. Most methods for detecting and estimating abnormal formation pressure are based on the fact that formations with abnormal pressure also tend to be less compacted and have a higher porosity than similar formations with normal pressure at the same depth measurements that reflect changes in porosity is therefore used to detect abnormal pressure.

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme Generally, the porosity dependent parameter is measured and plotted as a function of depth. A distinct departure from the normal trend signals a probable transition. Knowledge of the transition depth is crucial to the determination of the casing shoe setting depth. Two methods are used to make a quantitative estimate of formation pressure from plots of a porosity- dependent parameter versus depth.

Method 1
Assumptions that similar formations having the same porosity dependent variable are under the same effective matrix stress z. Thus matrix 1 at depth D is z = zm at depth D. which gives the same measured value of the porosity dependent parameter. z = zm = obn - Pn Therefore, Pn = obn - z Knowledge of bulk density at depth of interest gives the overburden stress to be = 0.052*b*D Maximum overburden stress is 1psi/ft if no other information is available. If the normal pressure to a depth D is known, then the net matrix stress for the well can be estimated. Thus beyond that depth the formation pressure can always be computed 1. Assume normal formation with pressure gradients as defined for that region 2. For transition to abnormal formation assume the maximum of 1psi/ft especially for casing design. There are however ways for the estimation/detection of Abnormal Formation Pressure The techniques include 1. Predictive Method Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 11 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme 2. Drilling Estimated Formation Pressure 3. Verification Method

1.

Predictive Method

Estimates of formation pore pressure made before drilling are base on: Correlation from nearby or adjacent wells Seismic data For development wells, emphasis is on data from previous drilling experiences in the area. For exploratory wells, only seismic data is available. From the seismic data, the average acoustic velocity as a function of depth is determined. This is a special role for Geophysicists who will provide a profile of the rock matrix transit time versus porosity.

2. Estimation of Pore Pressure While Drilling

When kicks occur, the shut in drillpipe pressure is indicative of formation pressure. Sloughing and spalling of shale fragments as observed on the surface shaker is another indication of transition zone to abnormal zone Abrupt change in bit penetration rate (ROP) or behaviour as measured at surface is very useful.

Method 2
This is an Empirical correlation approach which depends on substantial database.

Estimation/Detection of Abnormal Forination Pressure

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme The techniques include 1. Predictive Method 2. Drilling Estimated Formation Pressure 3. Verification Method

1. Predictive Method
Estimates of formation pore pressure made before drilling are base on : Correlations from nearby or adjacent wells Seismic data For development wells, emphasis is on data from previous drilling experiences in the area. For exploratory wells, only seismic data is available. From the seismic data,

the average acoustic velocity as a function of depth is determined. This is a special role for Geophysicists who will provide a profile of matrix transit time versus porosity. Observed transit time can be computed from the following equation : t = tma(1 + tfl ) KD can then be computed from the equation t t ma -KD =ln (t fl tma ) (t fl t ma ) 0 0

Estimation of Formation Pressure During Drilling

This can be achieved through the following 1. Direct measurement by DST or RFT 2. Seismic interval velocities Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 13 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme 3. 'd' exponent /Signalog 4. Shale density 5. Wireline or MWD logs- Resistivity, sonic, and density logs 6. Kick

THE d-EXPONENT
The "d" exponent is basically used to predict the possibility of abnormally pressured formations. It gives a non-dimensional number, which is based upon the relationship between the penetration rate and formation pressure. It can be used to identify the transition from normal to abnormal formation pressure for a given drilling fluid density. It can also be used to calculate: The formation pressure The fracture gradient in abnormally pressured zone Mathematically, it is defined as:
Log ( R Log (12W ) )

'd'=

60 N

100 Dbit

R N W Dbit

= Penetration rate, ft/hr = Rotary speed, rpm = Weight on bit, kilo-lbf = Bit diameter, inches.

In normally pressured formations, the d-exponent increases gradually as the well depth increases. Any departure from this trend is an indication of the transition to abnormal pressure conditions. This may be in the form of reverse trend with negative gradient or that the trend increases less rapidly with depth. Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 14 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme

Shale Density
Shale density is a porosity dependent parameter that can be plotted against depth to estimate formation pressure. The empirical equation for computing this is: shn = g - (g - fl ) e-kD 0 shn g fl = shale density for normally pressured shale = density grain = pore fluid density

The Boatman relationship (Fig. 4.2) can then be used to estimate formation pressure.

Shale density analysis measures the actual bulk densities of shale and claystones as drilling Progresses. In normally pressured formations, shale density increases with depth and the density increase when plotted on semilog scale forms a trend of normal

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme compaction. Accurate density values make it possible to calculate the formation pressure. Overpressured shale contains more porosity than expected for the depth. Therefore the bulk density in the overpressured section is lower than the density predicted by the trend.

Calculation of Formation Pressure from Kick

PF = SIDPP + PH PH = 0.052*m*D. SIDPP = Shut-in Drillpipe Pressure, psi

Fracture Gradient Estimation

This is the plot of pressure versus depth necessary to break down the formation by the creation of fractures. Deliberate fracturing is a well stimulation technique to improve Production. However there can be induced fracturing during drilling that can result in a major problem such as lost circulation. The fracture gradient : helps to define the setting depths for intermediate casing determine the maximum annular pressure allowed while controlling a kick In most cases, the weakest point in the wellbore is just below the easing shoe. The leakoff test is a way of determining the fracture gradient.

The Leak-off Test

The leakoff test is the ultimate method for the positive determination of the maximum mud weight permitted in the open hole section of the well. The crew performs the test in the first few feet of a new hole drilled after a new casing point, which is the likely weakest point of the open hole section if no highly

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme permeable formations exist further down hole. The test result when converted to equivalent mud density determines the maximum mud weight that the section can withstand without loss of circulation. Leakoff tests should be run usually of a few wells in a new block. The test consists of closure of the hole at surface, then application of pressure until mud just begins to inject into the formation. A Leakoff Test is usually as follows: 1. After cementing easing, run in hole with bit and drillstring. 2. Pressure test casing , then drill out easing shoe and a further minimum of 10feet of new formation. 3. Pull bit up to easing shoe. 4. With bit at shoe depth, shut off pumps, wait for flow to cease then close the kelly cock and blow out preventer.(mainly the annular preventer) 5. Then use cementing unit to pump drilling mud slowly through the choke line into the hole annulus. While pumping, always monitor the pressure build up and volume pumped. 6. The pressure build-up should be more or less linear until mud begins to bleed into the formation. The pressure at which the build-up curve departs from linearity is the Leakoff pressure (PLOT) 7. As pumping continues, the build-up curve flattens out until pressure no longer increases. At this point, the pump is injecting mud into the formation pores and fractures. The pressure of the mud at this point is the INJECTION PRESSURE. 8. At injectivity point, pump should be shut off and the choke line closed. 9. Monitor the pressure. Normally at this point the shut-in pressure will fall until it reaches an equilibrium point that is slightly above the leakoff Pressure. The equilibrium point is the Bleedoff point-

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme 10. Hold bleed off pressure for several minutes to confirm that no breakdown has taken place. If bleedoff pressure remains steady, open the choke valve to vent the rest of the pressure

Bottom Hole Pressure at Leakoff

The leakoff pressure determines the Bottom Hole Pressure at leakoff. The maximum mud weight or ECD permitted can then be calculated. The equation for the BHP is as follows BHP(at leakoff) = 0.052*m*D + PLOT PLOT = Leakoff pressure(psi) m = Mud Density, lb/gal D = True Vertical Depth of well, ft. Maximum Mud Weight Permitted is computed to be max = BHP/(O.052*D) Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 18 of 28 Univation

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4.6

FORMATION INTEGRITY TEST (FIT)

In a FIT otherwise known as Formation Intake Test, the crew tests the formation below the newest casing shoe to a pressure slightly less than the predicted fracture pressure. If no leakoff occurs at this pressure, then the test is success! The disadvantage of Fit is that the true leakoff pressure is unknown. If mud weight is raised above the maximum defined by the FIT, then lost circulation may occur.

4.7

CALCULATION OF FRACTURE GRADIENT DURING

DRILLING
As mentioned previously, fracture gradients are essential to well planning. For any given well, the gradient is used to: determine the setting depth of protective casings determine the maximum mud densities permitted during drilling determine the maximum allowable annular surface pressure(MAASP) permitted during kick circulation. The factors influencing the fracture gradient are Insitu stress conditions Hole geometry and orientation Mud density, rheology and hydraulics Wellbore temperatures Formation composition Fracture gradient is a loose term to define three different values 1. Pressure to initiate a fracture 2. Pressure to reopen or extend an existing fracture

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Shell Special Intensive Training Programme 3. Fracture closing, pressure. For drilling purposes, the lowest value-the fracture closing pressure defines the maximum pressure allowable in an open hole and is taken to be equal to the lust principal stress. Fracture Gradient Theoretical Calculations are based on a number of summary models Each model is based on the following assumptions: = ob - PF = sx + PF in horizontal direction. =Kx + PF Kx = / ) (1

4.7.1 Fracture Gradient Determination

Knowledge of fracture gradient is useful in determining the operating window for Net Overbalance required for optimum mud density Determination of casing setting depths Two main methods are available for determining the Fracture gradient. They are Theoretical Method - There are a number of empirical correlations being used to predict fracture gradient. One example is the Hubert and Willis correlation who defined fracture gradient as a function of overburden stress, formation pressure, and a relationship between horizontal and vertical stresses. They believed these stress relationships to be in the range of 1/3 to 1/2. The minimum and maximum gradients were defined as: Pfrac/D(min) =1/3(z/D + 2PF/D) Pfrac/D(max) =1/2(z/D + 2PF/D) Pfrac = fracture pressure, psi z = Overburden stress, psi Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 20 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme PF = pore pressure, psi D = depth, ft Details of this will be covered in the individual sections,

4.8

HOLE SIZE/TRAJECTORY

The hole size is mainly dictated by 1. The number of casings proposed for installation 2. Subsequent downhole completion and production facilities 3. Number of multiple pay sections 4. Planned completion strategy 5. Trajectory of hole 6. Available technology Hole trajectory is a function of 1. Expected reservoir target 2. Number of reservoirs within the block 3. Defined safe well spacing for the area 4. Completion efficiency and projected production plan 5. Location of the Drilling Platform and proximity of other Structures 6. Type of well - conventional or relief well , injection well or producer. 7. Available Technology The decision to drill a vertical, deviated or extended reach, multilateral or horizontal wells depend on these factors

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4.9

DETERMINATION OF OPERATING MUD WEIGHT

The operating mud weight is computed from the equation below e = (PF + POB)/0.052*D = The equivalent mud density to maintain a safe hydrostatic pressure to control formation pressure.

4.10 CONTINGENCY PLANS

In all drilling operations, events will occur which do not follow regular mode of operation. These events must be taken into account before they occur so that they can be avoided or mitigated. 1. In all cases, the appropriate arrangements for all materials to be used should be done and materials acquired before going to site especially for remote locations 2. The programme schedule of all operations should be decided and developed. 3. Schedules should include Well control schedule Casing /Cementing schedule Mud schedule Bit schedule Bottom Hole Assembly(BRA) Schedule Testing sequence, etc. For optimum results, the preparation of this schedule requires an integrated team approach involving geologists, reservoir and production/completion engineers and of course the drilling engineer

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4.11 WELL OPERATION PROCESS

The step-by-step procedure involved in well planning are presented are presented in Fig 4.4.

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4.11.1 The Drilling Process

After spudding, the surface hole is drilled followed by the setting of surface easing. This is followed by intermediate hole and setting of intermediate casing. As the drilling target is reached preparation for the productive formation begins. In addition to Mud logging, open hole logging is performed prior to setting of casing. These are supported by core analysis and well testing

Types of Wells
There are different trajectory profiles of oil wells nowadays. For a variety of reasons especially to cut costs and improve production, several wells are drilled single platform especially offshore. The wells (Fig. 4.5) include: 1. Vertical wells 2. Deviated or Directional Wells 3. Horizontal Wells 4. Multilateral and Multibranch wells. To drill a directional well to target, requires drilling an initial vertical well and then make an initial deflection from the vertical through a build-up section. The deviation from vertical begins when the use of a combination of tools: 1. The downhole hydraulic motor 2. The jet bit 3. The Whipstock(Fig.4.6). The drilling and monitoring of deviated wells especially horizontal and multilateral wells requires continuous monitoring of trajectory. This requires the use of MWD tools to "track" the hole.

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4.12 NEW DRILLING TECHNIQUES

The relatively new drilling techniques are 1. Coil Tubing Drilling - This involves the use of coil tubing combined with downhole motors for drilling highly deviated, extended reach, multilateral and horizontal wells. 2. Slim Hole Drilling This is not radically different from conventional borehole drilling except for the size of the boreholes, which are relatively smaller with Oyeneyin, M.B. Page 27 of 28 Univation

Shell Special Intensive Training Programme possible effects on the drilling fluid equivalent circulation densities and more complex completion strategy. They appear to have a future in deep water drilling projects. 3. Underbalanced Drilling - In this technique, the well is drilled under negative differential pressure. The mud is designed such that the formation is drilled with controlled level of underbalance. This technique is currently limited to very tight sands and carbonate formations where no formation damage can hardly be tolerated. Ideally, the technique is applied in wells where impairment is expected to be very low. Nevertheless, it is becoming increasingly popular for use in different formations. One approach is to use foam-drilling fluids - The so-called aerated mud.

4.13. MWD
Measurement-While-Drilling (MVM) provides real time data to guide the driller to the target, to view the formation while invasion is shallow and the wellbore is smooth and to improve pore pressure evaluation. Examples include: 1. The D&I Sensor (Direction & lnclination) Tool used to measure hole direction (Azimuth) and inclination (Drift). 2. Tool Face (TF) - This is a measurement of the orientation of the.BHA versus top of the hole 3. . Shocks - Dedicated accelerometers measure the number of traverse shocks imparted on an MWD collar.

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