Models and Theories

Leadership Theories Kevin Jackson UNIVERSITY OF PHOENIX January 21, 2013 Dr. Louis Algaze

Models and Theories Abstract Scholars and practitioners have studied and research the phenomenon of leadership for over a century. Many theories, and models have emerged from this study and research, such as contingency models, dyadic models, Schenins model of organizational culture and leadership, transactional leadership theory, transformational leadership theory, charismatic leadership theory path-goal leadership theory, and situational leadership theory. The theories of leadership tries to explain the process of leadership a leader takes to motivate subordinates, task completion, and most importantly act as a change agent for the organization.

Models and Theories Leadership Theories Many definitions, leadership theories, models exist to explain the phenomena of the exchanges between leaders and followers. According to Hemphill and Coons (1957), define leadership is the behavior of an individual directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal (as cited in Nahavandi 2006, p. 3). Rauch and Behiling (1984), also define leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement (as cited in Nahavandi 2006, p. 3). According, Nahavandi (2006) (p. 3), that most definition of leadership reflect the assumption, which it involves a process whereby intentional influences is exerted by one person over other people to guide, structure, and facilitate activities and relationships in a group or organizations, as in the above definitions. Many theories and models have been built upon from these definitions of leadership to help explain the relationship exchanges between leaders behaviors and followers or subordinates in organizational changes and task completion. Contingency Models Path-Goal - theory is part of the contingency model, according to Chemers (1980), path-goal theory is concern with the effects of specific leader behavior on subordinate motivation and satisfaction, rather on the general issues of decisionmaking and performance (as cited in Wren, 1995, p. 90). House (1971), propose that he leaders role is to clear the paths for subordinates to accomplish goals (as cited in Nahavandi, 2006, p. 168). In other words, according to House (1971), (p.324) The motivational function of the leader consist of increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and making the path to these

Models and Theories payoffs easier to travel by clarifying it, reducing roadblocks and pitfalls, and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction in route. (as cited in Yukl, 2006 p. 218). However, according to Porter and Lawler (1968), and Vroom (1964), the basis for the path-goal theory is the expectancy model of motivation (as cited in Nahavandi, 2006, p. 168). The expectancy theory describes how the leader makes rational choices about the behavior on the subordinates perceptions of the degree to which the followers effort and performance can lead to outcomes he or she values (Nahavandi, 2006, p. 168). Path-Goal theory relies on four leader behaviors of supportive, directive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership. Supportive leadership is similar to consideration behavior, whereas directive leadership is comparable to transactional leadership. Participative leadership involves consultation with followers, and achievement-oriented behaviors include setting challenging goals and boosting followers confidence (Nahavandi, 2006). Transactional leadership- is the exchange between leaders and followers. The leader provides followers with resources and rewards in exchange for motivation, productivity, and effective task completion (Nahavandi, 2006). The main concept for transactional leadership is contingent reward and management-byexception active and passive. Contingent reward involves the leader provides followers with promise of a reward when followers fulfill his or her agreed upon goals and objectives (Nahavandi, 2006). This can be based on economic and emotion exchanges; leaders can accomplish this by clarifying role requirements. Management-by-exception (active) is a negative transaction between the leader and

Models and Theories follower. The leader monitors subordinates performances and provides corrective action when needed. Management-by-exception (passive) is when the leader waits until deviations occur before intervening (Avolio & Ymmarino, 2002, p. 10). The problem with this type of leadership is that it does not inspire followers to aim for excellence. The theory focuses on short-term immediate outcomes (Nahavandi, 2006). Dyadic Models Transformational leadership- According to Connelly, Gaddis, and HeltonFauth (2002), transformational leadership are leaders who bring followers to increase levels of effort and performance by encouraging him or her to transcend of self-interests (as cited in Avolio and Yammarino, 2002, p. 256). The transformational leader can inspire trust, loyalty, and admiration in followers, thus subordinate his or her individual interest to the interest of the group. According to Bass (1985) transformational leadership includes the following four factors (as cited in Clawson, 2006, p. 392): Idealized influence: Charisma Intellectual stimulation: increasing follower awareness and understanding of problems Inspirational motivation: conveying a compelling vision; using symbols and slogans to unite followers and intensify his or her efforts Charismatic Charismatic leaders capture the imagination and inspire his or her followers devotion and allegiance. These leaders have a profound emotional effect on

Models and Theories followers (House, 1977). In-turn followers see the leader not just as a boss but as role models and heroes who are larger than life (Nahavandi., 2006). Charismatic leaders influences the attitudes and behaviors of followers by (Yukl, 2006, p. 252): Articulating an appealing vision with strong communication Taking personal risks to attain the vision Communication high expectations Expressing confidence in followers Modeling behaviors consistent with the vision Managing follower impressions of the leader Establishing identification with the group or organization Empowering followers

According to Bass (1985), the major characteristic that defines charismatic leaders is his or her self-confidence in abilities and the correctness and moral righteousness of the leaders beliefs and actions (as cited in Nahavandi, 2006, p. 231). The leaders high level of confidence in his or her actions motivates followers and creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. Thus the more confidant the leader is, motivations of followers rises, which furthers emboldens the leader and encourages followers to carryout the leaders vision. With followers high motivation and hard work increase the chances of success, provides proof of the leaders righteousness (Nahavandi, 2006, p. 231-232).

Models and Theories Similarities and Difference in Leadership The leadership theories or models share much of the same traits for accomplishing task completion by subordinates; however each model is fundamentally different. Path-Goal model and Transactional leadership- model are comparable in regard that the models is based on the concept of exchange between leaders and subordinates for effective task completion in the form of initiation of structure (Nahavandi, 2006) . However, transactional leadership does not remove obstacles so subordinates can complete effectively task objectives. Instead, the leader provides followers with resources and rewards in exchange for motivation, productivity, and effective task accomplishment (Nahavandi, 2006, p. 240). In contrast, path-goal theory takes in consideration that if the task is new and unclear, the followers are likely to waste his or her efforts because of a lack of knowledge and experience (Nahavandi, 2006, p. 168). In this situation, according to Nahavandi (2006), the leader must provide instructions and training, thereby removing obstacles to followers performance and allowing him or her to do his or her job. Charismatic and Transformational- according to Bass (1985) charismatic leadership s the ability to inspire superficial identification (as cited in Clawson, 2006, p. 392). Charisma is an ingredient of transformational leadership; however transformational leadership encloses it and goes beyond it. Transformational leadership arouses stronger emotional appeals to values, whereas charismatic leaders often try to keep followers dependent and weak. Charismatic leader are

Models and Theories rare; however transformational leaders reside at any level of an organization., are comparable in regard of idealize influence (Clawson, 2006, p. 392). What makes these two models similar is the idealize influence is an attributed charisma, which refers to follower attributions about the leader as a result of how he or she perceive the leaders power, confidence, and transcendent ideals. This is comparable to charismatic leadership because it is the emotional component of leadership, which theoretically shifts follower self- interest toward the interest of the greater good (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002, p. 9). Conclusion As business becomes more globalized, the competitive, and business environment shrivels. The call for leadership becomes essential. Organizations must meet this challenge and issue to remain competitive. Organizations would need leaders to motivate subordinates to complete task objectives. However, organizations need these leaders to have idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and inspirational motivation for subordinates to complete these objectives efficiently. Thus, changing him or her from a subordinate to a follower of the leaders vision, and move beyond his or her self-interest. Thus, organizations need transformational leaders. Path-Goal, Transactional, and Charismatic leadership, although good theories it do not focus or give enough attention on gaining followers. Transformational leadership addresses these issues of gaining committed followers, by the leaders ability to inspire trust, loyalty, and admiration in followers, who then subordinate his or her individual interest to the interests of the group.

Models and Theories

References Avolio, B.J., & Yammarino, F.. (2002). Transformational And Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead . : Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Clawson, J. (2006). Level Three Leadership:Getting Below the Surface (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River , New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Nahavandi, A. (2006). The Art and Science of Leadership (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River , New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Wren, J.T. (1995). The Leader's Companion: Insights on Leadership Through the Ages. New York, New York: The Free Press. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership In Organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River , New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.