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Human induced changes on major biogeochemical cycles Climate change and global warming Green house effect and green house gases

Burning of Fossil Fuels and Biomass

Burning fossil fuels and biomass release large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In the 1700s, CO2 made up 0.029% of the atmosphere; it now makes up 0.038%, and is expected to be up to 0.06% (double the preindustrial level) by the middle of this century. The main impact of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is global warming and consequent changes in the climate.
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Burning of Fossil Fuels and Biomass [2] Fossil fuel combustion also produces aerosols i.e. tiny particles consisting of sulfates, nitrates, carbon, mineral dusts and ash. Aerosols enhance scattering and absorption of sunlight in atmosphere and cause clouds to form, but less likely to release their precipitation. Both the clouds and light-scattering effect in atmosphere cause a warming of atmosphere and a threefold reduction in the amount of solar radiation reaching Earths surface, and ocean; ultimately affect the hydrological cycle as well.
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Burning of Fossil Fuels and Biomass [3] When fossil fuels are burned, the oxygen and nitrogen combine to produce nitrogen oxides which play vital role in producing photochemical smog - mixture of air pollutants that injures plant tissues, irritates eyes, and causes respiratory problems Nitrogen oxides also react with water in atmosphere to form acids that leave the atmosphere as acid deposition and cause the pH of surface waters and soils to decrease. Coal, and to a lesser extent liquid fuel, contain sulfur and upon combustion emit sulfur dioxide a major cause of acid deposition.

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Conversion of Natural Ecosystems to Agriculture

Conversion of forest, wetland and grassland ecosystems to agricultural ecosystem has disrupted natural carbon cycle. Less carbon is being stored in soil and in the bodies of large, long-lived plants such as trees contributing to an increase in amount of CO2 in atmosphere Use of fertilizer to increase crop yields has signiYicantly altered the nitrogen and phosphorous cycles as well. During the 20th century, humans doubled the amount of Yixed nitrogen entering the global nitrogen cycle.
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Agricultural Runoff
Nutrients in fertilizers are intended to become incorporated into the bodies of the plants and animals that we raise for food. Excess nitrogen or phosphorus is carried into aquatic ecosystems and also leach to groundwater. Animal wastes that contain nitrogen and phosphorus compounds often enter local water sources.

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Agricultural Runoff
Addition of nitrogen and phosphorus to aquatic ecosystems is particularly signiYicant. Presence of large amounts of these nutrients in either freshwater or saltwater results in increased rates of growth of bacteria, algae, and aquatic plants. Many algae are toxic, and when their numbers increase signiYicantly, Yish are killed and incidents of human poisoning occur. Increase in number of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems can lead to low oxygen concentrations in water.
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Global climate is changing, and consequently our environment is changing. Climate change refers to any signiYicant change in the measures of climate (such as temperature, precipitation or wind) lasting for an extended period. Global Warming is an average increase in temperature of atmosphere near the Earths surface, which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns. The term "global warming" is often used instead of climate change since it rapidly conveys one of the main ways in which the climate has changed. However global warming is only one aspect of climate change.
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Climate change may result from:

Natural factors, such as changes in the sun's intensity or slow changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun. Natural processes within the climate system (e.g. changes in ocean circulation). Human activities that change the atmosphere's composition (e.g. through burning fossil fuels) and the land surface (e.g. deforestation, reforestation, urbanization, desertiYication, etc).
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Introduction to Climate Change

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Introduction to Climate Change

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Explain radiative forcing, greenhouse gases, and the enhanced greenhouse effect. Explain how climate models project future climate conditions. Describe the importance of extreme and unpredictable climate change.

Anthropogenic climate change is an established phenomenon. The question is no longer whether climate change will occur, but at what rate, with what effects, and what, if anything, we can do about it.
Human produced greenhouse gases are the most plausible explanation for the warming that has occurred in the recent century.
Mean annual global temperature (C)

15.0 Earths average temperature is based on daily measurements taken at several thousand land-based meteorological stations around the world, as well as data from 14.8 weather balloons, orbiting satellites, transoceanic ships, and hundreds of sea14.6 surface buoys with temperature sensors. Data show that the 14 warmest years since 14.4 the mid-1800s have occurred since 1990. According to the National Oceanic and 14.2 Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), global temperatures in those years may 14.0 have been the highest in the last millennium. (Although widespread thermome13.8 ter records have been assembled only since the mid-19th century, scientists recon13.6 struct earlier temperatures using indirect climate evidence in tree rings, lake and 13.4 ocean sediments, stalagmites, small air bubbles in ancient ice, and coral reefs.) The last two decades of the 20th century were Earths warmest (Figure 21.1). 13.2 Other evidence conrms the increase in global temperature. Several studies have documented that phenological spring in the Northern Hemisphere now comes about six days earlier than it did in 1959, and autumn is delayed ve days. (Phenological spring is determined by when buds of specic plants open, and autumn by when leaves of specic trees turn color and fall.) Since 1949, the United States has experienced an increased frequency of extreme heat stress events, which are very hot, humid days and nights during summer months; medical records indicate that heat-related deaths among elderly and other vulnerable people increase during these events. In the past few decades, the rate of sea-level rise has increased. For most of the 20th century, the rate of increase was about 1.5 to 2 cm/decadeit is now at about 3 cm/decade. Glaciers worldwide have retreated, and extreme weather events such as severe rainstorms have occurred with increasing frequency in certain regions. Scientists around the world have researched global climate change for several decades. As the evidence has accumulated, those most qualied to address the issue have concluded that temperatures have increased over the past century, that it is extremely unlikely that natural causes can explain the warming, and that humanproduced greenhouse gases are the most plausible explanation for the warming that has occurred. Further, the remainder of this century will experience signicant additional climate change, and human activities will be largely responsible for this change. In response to the growing scientic agreement about both the change and its human

1960

1971

1974

1977

1992

1995

2001

2004

Year

temperature, 19602007. Data are presented as surface temperatures (C) for 1960, 1965, 1970, and every year thereafter. The measurements, which naturally uctuate, clearly show the warming trend of the last several decades. (The dip in global temperatures in the early 1990s, caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, is discussed later in the chapter.) (Global LandOcean Temperature Index, Goddard Institute of Space Studies, NASA)

Figure 21.1ns9tute of annualtudies, NASA Goddard I Mean Space S global

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2017

1980

1983

1986

1989

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Green House Effect and Green House Gases

Several gases in atmosphere are transparent to ultraviolet and visible light but absorb infrared radiation mainly carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and
nitrous oxide

These gases allow solar radiation to penetrate the atmosphere and the radiation is absorbed by the Earths surface. The earths surface reradiates the absorbed energy in the form of infrared thermal radiation, which is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
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dioxide in the atmosphere. Measurement of carbon dioxide levels at the Mauna Loa ObserSome solar vatory in Hawaii shows radiation is reflected by the that the carbon dioxide Earth and the level increased from atmosphere. about 315 parts Permillion (ppm) in 1958 to about 384 ppm in 2007. (See figure 16.17.) This E ER is an increase of about PH OS M Infrared 22 percent. Since changes AT radiation is in carbon dioxide levels TH R emitted from the EA in the atmosphere are Earths surface. due to human activity, Solar radiation we can make changes passes through that will stabilize or rethe clear atmosphere. duce atmospheric carbon Most radiation is dioxide. The actions reabsorbed by the quired will be discussed Earths surface later. and warms it. Methane comes primarily from biological 14 sources, although some Figure 16.16 Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect naturally warms the Earths surface. Without it, enters the atmosphere Earth would be 33C (60F) cooler than it is todayuninhabitable for life as we know it. from fossil-fuel sources. Source: Data from Climate ChangeState of Knowledge, October 1997, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Washington, D.C. (See figure 16.17.) Several kinds of bacteria that are particularly abundant in radiation (heat), which is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in wetlands and rice paddies release methane into the atmosphere. the atmosphere. Because the effect is similar to what happens in Methane-releasing bacteria are also found in large numbers in the a greenhouse (the glass allows light to enter but retards the loss guts of termites and various kinds of ruminant animals such as catof heat), these gases are called greenhouse gases, and the tle. Control of methane sources is unlikely, since the primary warming from their increase is called the greenhouse effect. sources involve agricultural practices that would be very difficult (See figure 16.16.) The most important greenhouse gases are to change. For example, nations would have to convert rice paddies carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (primarily CCl3F to other forms of agriculture and drastically reduce the number of and CCl2F2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Table 16.2 animals used for meat production. Neither is likely to occur, since lists the relative contribution of each of these gases to the potenfood production in most parts of the world needs to be intial for global warming. creased, not decreased. The Greenhouse Effect
Some of the infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules. The effect of this is to warm the Earths surface and the lower atmosphere.

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Life on earth would not be possible without the natural greenhouse effect as it keeps the earth warm (earth temperature would be 33C cooler without it). Emissions of green house gases from human activities is increasing the concentration of green house gases in the atmosphere causing global warming.

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Principal Green House Gases

Table 16.2
Greenhouse Gas
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4)

Principal Greenhouse Gases

Pre-1750 Concentration (ppm)
280 0.608

2007 Concentration (ppm)

382 1.78

Contribution to Global Warming (percent)

60 20

Principal Sources
Burning of fossil fuels Deforestation Produced by bacteria in wetlands, rice fields, and guts of livestock Release of fossil fuels Release from foams, aerosols, refrigerants, and solvents Burning of fossil fuels Fertilizers Deforestation

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

0.00088

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Nitrous oxide (N2O)

0.270

0.321

Source: Data from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, with updates from Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory 2000 380

Concentration (parts per million)

Change in Methane Abundance

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1750 360
CH4 (ppb)

1500 1250 1000

340

320 1960 1970 1980 Year 1990 2000 2007

750 500 1000

8
1200 1400 Year 1600 1800 2000

(a)

(b)

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Carbon dioxide
Most abundant of the green house gases and occurs as a natural consequence of respiration. Much larger quantities are put into atmosphere as a byproduct of energy production. Coal, oil, natural gas and biomass used as source of energy emit carbon dioxide. Deforestation is another cause of increased CO2 concentration as tied up carbon dioxide are released to the atmosphere; and reduction in forest lessens its ability to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
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Carbon dioxide level increased from about 315 parts per million (ppm) in 1958 to about 384 ppm in 2007.

Scripps Ins9tu9on of Oceanography

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Methane
Comes primarily from biological sources, although some enter the atmosphere through fossil fuel sources. Bacteria that are particularly abundant in wetlands and rice paddies release methane into the atmosphere. Primary sources involve agricultural practices (eg. rice, animals) methane emissions is very difYicult to control.

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U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2005

Nations would have to convert rice paddies to other forms of agriculture and drastically reduce the number of animals used for meat production (difYicult due to rising population).
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ChloroJluorocarbons
Minor component of the principal greenhouse gases, entirely the result of human activity, CFCs used
intensively in refrigeration, air conditioners

They are extremely efYicient as greenhouse gases (about 15,000 times more efYicient at retarding heat loss than is carbon dioxide). But, increased concentration threatened Ozone layer already banned
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Nitrous Oxide
Minor component of principal green house gases. Enters atmosphere from fossil fuels and fertilizers.

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Average temperature of earth likely to increase by 1.1-6.4C by the end of 21st century rela9ve to 1980-1990 with a best es9mate of 1.8-4.0 C. Average rate of warming over each inhabited con9nent is very likely to be at least twice as large as that experience during the 20th century.

NASA Earth Observatory based on IPCC, 2007

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Large increase in average temperature could signiYicantly alter the climate of major regions of the world. Rising temperature will affect the hydrologic cycle, sea level, human health, the survival and distribution of organisms, and the use of natural resources by people. Some natural ecosystems and human settlements will be able to withstand or adapt to changes others will not. Poorer nations are more vulnerable to climate change - dependence on subsistence agriculture and lack economic resources to buffer against changes.
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Disruption of Hydrologic Cycle

Rising temperature will result in increased evaporation causing some areas to be drier; and some other areas could experience greater rainfall. In areas with increased evaporation soil will become drier, lake levels will drop, rivers will carry less water impairing navigation, electricity generation, and result in water shortages.

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Disruption of Hydrologic Cycle [2]

The intensity of rainfall in other areas may increase without an increase in the total amount of rainfall itself, resulting in Yloods, landslides large seasonal variation

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Rising Sea Level

Increase in water temperature will result in expansion of water taking more space. Warming of earth will result in melting of glaciers adding more water to the oceans. Rising sea level erodes beaches and coastal wetland, inundates low lying areas and result in increased storm surges and intense rainfall.

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Rising Sea Level [2]

Many coastal cities and island nations would be signiYicantly affected by an increase in sea level.

Maldives

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Health Effects
The most direct effect of climate change on health would be the impacts of hotter temperatures. Extremely hot temperatures increase number of people dying on a given day. Higher temperature increases the concentration of ozone at ground level leading to injury of tissues and intensiYies the effects of airborne pollen and spores that cause respiratory disease.
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Health Effects [2]

Several serious diseases appear only in warm area. Tropical diseases could migrate to former temperate regions. Vector borne diseases like malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever and encephalitis could spread further north.

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Changes to Ecosystems
Some of the most dramatic projections regarding global warming involve natural systems. Geographic distribution of organisms could be signiYicantly altered. Tundra biomes will be greatly affected because of melting of permafrost.

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Changes to Ecosystems [2]

Rising sea level could inundate mangrove forests and marshes and subjected to violent weather and storm surges. Loss of Arctic sea ice will threaten biodiversity across an entire biome and beyond.

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Challenges to Agriculture and Food Supply

Climate strongly affects crop yields - yields will fall in regions where drought and heat stress will increase. In regions that will receive increased rainfall and warming temperatures yields should increase. Severe weather events will cause crop damage that will affect yields. A warmer climate would reduce Ylexibility in crop distribution and increases irrigation demands.
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Challenges to Agriculture and Food Supply [2]

Expansion of the ranges of pests could also increase vulnerability and result in greater use of pesticides. Total global food production is not expected to be altered substantially by climate change but the poorest countries are the most likely to suffer from decreases in agricultural productivity.

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THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere (air) is composed of 78.1 percent nitrogen, 20.9 percent oxygen, and a number of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor that total about 1 percent. Most of the atmosphere is held close to the 30 Earth by the pull of gravitational force, so it gets less dense with increasing distance from the Earth. Throughout the various layers of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen are the most common gases present, although the molecules are farther apart at higher altitudes. 0 The atmosphere is composed of four layers. (See figure 16.1.) The troposphere extends from the Earths surface to about 10 kilometers (about 6.2 miles) above the Earth. It actually varies from about 8 to 18 kilometers (511 miles), depending on the position of the Earth and the season of the year. The temperature of the troposphere declines by about 6C (11F) for every kilometer above the surface. The troposphere contains most of the water vapor of the atmosphere and is the layer in which weather takes place. The stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to about 50 kilometers (about 31 miles) and contains most of the ozone. The ozone is in a band between 15 and 30 kilometers (919 miles) above the Earths surface. Because the ozone layer absorbs sunlight, the upper layers of the stratosphere are warmer than the lower layers. The mesosphere is a layer with decreasing temperature from 50 to 80 kilometers (3150 miles) above the Earth. The thermosphere is a layer with increasing temperature that extends to about 300 kilometers (186 miles) above the Earths surface.
60 Westerlies

Trade winds

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60

of air caused by the rotation of the Earth a brought about by temperature difference 35 patterns of world air movement. In Nort westerlies (from the west to the east).

Figure 16.2

Global Wind

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Even though gravitational force near the Earth, the air is not static Earth, it expands and rises. When it space, the air cools, becomes more Earth. As the air circulates verticall it also moves horizontally over the the Earth rotates on its axis. The ments creates the wind and weather ferent regions of the world. (See fig

Kilometers Above Sea Level

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Ozone

Thermosphere

Mesosphere

POLLUTION OF TH ATMOSPHERE

Stratosphere

Mount Everest

Jet aircraft Troposphere

Figure 16.1

The Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into the troposphere, the relatively dense layer of gases close to the surface of the Earth; the stratosphere, more distant with similar gases but less dense; the mesosphere; and the thermosphere. Weather takes place in the troposphere, and the important ozone layer is present in the stratosphere.

Pollution is any addition of matter o vironment for humans and other orga are the major cause of pollution we c There are several natural sources of g the quality of the air, including mat dust from wind erosion, and gases fr plants and animals. Since these event we cannot do much to control them 36 sions, chemical odors, factory smo considered air pollution and will be The problem of air pollution is of people living in an area and the ki

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Air pollution refer to addition of various chemicals/ substances to atmosphere by natural events or human activities, and that degrade the environment. Air pollution consists of gases, liquids or solids present in the atmosphere in high enough levels to harm humans, organisms or materials. Air pollutants can come from natural sources, however, human activities make a major contribution to air pollution.
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Air pollutants can be primary or secondary. Primary air pollutants are harmful chemicals that enter directly into the atmosphere - carbon monoxide,

volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen
Secondary air pollutants are harmful chemicals that form from other substances released into the atmosphere ozone
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Air pollutant standards

Particulate Matter

Solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere. Consists of variety of Figure Carbon Monoxide The major source of car pollutants, such as s16.4internal combustion engine, which is used to provide bon monoxide oil is the most of our transportation. The more concentrated the number of automobiles, the more concentrated particles, soot, hundred parts per millionthe pollutants. Carbon monoxide concentrations lead, of a are not unusual in rush-hour traffic in large metropolitan areas. These concentrations are high enough to cause fatigue, dizziness, and and asbestos, sea salt, headaches. sulfuric acid droplets. C H A P T E R 1 6 368

processes that involve burning (pow dustry, burning leaves, etc.). Althoug fuel efficiency and the use of catalyti have reduced carbon monoxide em U.S. National European Union kilometer driven, carbon monoxid Measurement Ambient Air Air Quality Air Pollutant Period Quality Standards Standards problem because the number of aut the road and the number of kilom EPA Criteria Air Pollutants have risen. In urban areas, as much a Carbon monoxide (CO) 8-hour average (9 ppm) (10 mg/m3 ) 10 mg/m3 of carbon monoxide is from motor 3 1-hour average (35 ppm) (40 mg/m ) many parts of the world, automobile 3 3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Annual mean (0.053 ppm) (100 g/m ) 40 g/m maintained and may have inoperab 3 1-hour 200 g/m control equipment, resulting in e Ozone (O3) 8-hour average (0.075 ppm) (147 g/m3) 120 g/m3 amounts of carbon monoxide. 3 1-hour average (0.12 ppm) (235 g/m ) Carbon monoxide is dangerou 3 3 Lead (Pb) 3-month average (1.5 g/m ) 0.5 g/m binds to the hemoglobin in blood 3 Particulate matter (PM10) Annual mean 20 g/m the hemoglobin less able to car 24-hour average (150 g/m3) 50 g/m3 Because carbon monoxide remains 3 Particulate matter (PM2.5) Annual mean (15 g/m ) hemoglobin for a long time, even sm 3 3 24-hour average (35 g/m ) (25 g/m ) tend to accumulate and reduce 3 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Annual mean (0.03 ppm) (78 g/m ) oxygen-carrying capacity. Several 24-hour average (0.14 ppm) (365 g/m3) 125 g/m3 posure to air containing only 0.001 3 3-hour average (0.50 ppm) (1300 g/m ) carbon monoxide can cause dea 3 1-hour average 350 g/m monoxide is most dangerous in encl Other Common Air Pollutants where it is not diluted by fresh air space. The amount of carbon mo Benzene Annual mean No standards set, but 5 g/m3 duced in heavy traffic can cause current levels are below drowsiness, and blurred vision. Ciga 2.5 g/m3 ing is also an important source Volatile organic No standards set, but monoxide because the smoker is compounds reductions needed to directly. A heavy smoker in conges reduce ground-level ozone 39 doubly exposed and may experien Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and European Commission. impaired reaction time compared smoking driver. Fortunately, carbon monoxid persistent pollutant. It readily combines with oxyge to form carbon dioxide (2CO O2 2CO2). There can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if no new carb ide is introduced into it. Control of carbon mono United States has been very good. The U.S. EPA carbon monoxide levels decreased by about 67 perce 1990 and 2007, and nearly all communities now me dards set by the EPA. This was accomplished with controls on industry and, in particular, on moto Catalytic converters reduce the amount of carbon m leased by vehicle engines, and specially formulate produce less carbon monoxide are used in many citi a carbon monoxide problem. Often these special fu used in winter, when car engines run less efficiently a more carbon monoxide.

Table 16.1

Air Pollutant Standards

PARTICULATE MATTER

Particulate matter consists of minute (10 microns a solid particles and liquid droplets dispersed into the atm micron is one millionth of a meter. Many bacteria are ab in diameter. The Environmental Protection Agency has s

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Particulate Matter [2]

Particulate matter may contain materials such as heavy metals, asbestos or organic chemicals that are toxic or carcinogenic. Extremely small particles even if not toxic can be lodged deep in lungs, PM-10 (particulate matter less than 10 m in diameter).

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Lead
A soft metal that is used in industrial and chemical processes, has a variety of health impacts. Chronic effects can include permanently reduced cognitive ability, behavioral problems, slowed growth, hearing problems, and headaches. Airborne lead can be a problem both when it is inhaled and when it settlesin water and on surfaces including foods.
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Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides are gases produced by the chemical interactions between atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen when a source of energy, such as combustion of fuels, produces high temperatures. Nitrogen oxides consist mainly of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrogen oxides inhibit plant growth, and when breathed aggravate health problems such as asthma.
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Sulfur Oxides
Sulfur oxides are gases produced by the chemical interactions between sulfur and oxygen. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), is a major sulfur oxide emitted as a primary air pollutant. Another major sulfur oxide is sulfur trioxide (SO3), a secondary air pollutant that forms when SO2 reacts with O2 in the air. Sulfur trioxide, in turn, reacts with water to form another secondary air pollutant, sulfuric acid.
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Carbon Oxides
Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon monoxide, a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas produced in the largest quantities of any atmospheric pollutant except carbon dioxide, is poisonous and interferes with the bloods ability to transport oxygen. Carbon dioxide, also colorless, odorless, and tasteless, is a greenhouse gas; its excessive buildup in the atmosphere is associated with global climate change.
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Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are a diverse group of organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane (CH4). Hydrocarbon molecules could be found in either gaseous, liquid or solid form. Hydrocarbons have a variety of effects on human and animal health. Some cause injury to the respiratory tract, and some could cause cancer also. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas linked to global climate change .

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Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen considered a pollutant in one part of the atmosphere but an essential component in another. In the stratosphere oxygen reacts with UV radiation coming from the sun to form ozone. Stratospheric ozone prevents much of solar UV radiation from penetrating to Earths surface. Unlike stratospheric ozone, ozone in the troposphere is a human-made air pollutant.
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Outdoor Air Pollution

Two main human sources of outdoor air pollution are transportation (mobile sources) and industries (stationary sources).
Mobile sources, generate signiYicant quantities of nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, particulate matter, and hydrocarbons. Stationary sources (power plants, industries), generate particulate matter, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon oxides.

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Indoor Air Pollution

Air in enclosed places such as automobiles, homes, schools, and ofYices may have signiYicantly higher levels of air pollutants than the air outdoors. In congested trafYic, levels of harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide, benzene, and airborne lead may be several times higher inside an automobile than immediately outside. The concentrations of certain indoor air pollutants may be two to Yive times greaterand sometimes more than 100 times than outdoors. Indoor pollution is of particular concern to urban residents because they may spend as much as 90% to 95% of their time indoors.
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Sources of Indoor Air Pollu<on

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