G.

Gautschi

Piezoelectric Sensorics
Force Strain Pressure Acceleration and Acoustic Emission Sensors Materials and Amplifiers

With 175 Figures

Springer

Contents

Symbols, Quantities and Units 1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 4 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.1.1 4.2.1.2 Introduction Background of Piezoelectric Sensors Direct and Converse Piezoelectric Effect Discovery of the Piezoelectric Effect Applications of the Converse Piezoelectric Effect History of Piezoelectric Sensors Piezoelectric Materials for Sensors Requirements of Piezoelectric Materials for Sensors Quartz Choice of Coordinate System Physical Properties Synthetic Quartz Crystals Twinning Suppressing Secondary Twinning Temperature Dependence of Piezoelectric Constants Nonlinear Electromechanical Properties of a-Quartz Piezoelectric Properties of ^-Quartz Tourmaline Gallium Orthophosphate Crystals of the CGG Group Other Piezoelectric Single Crystals Piezoelectric Textures Piezoelectric Ceramics Piezoelectricity in Thin Films Piezoelectric Sensor Terminology Definition of a Sensor Properties of Sensors Static Characteristics Properties Relating to the Measurand Properties of the Relationship Between Measurand and Output

XI 1 5 5 6 8 9 13 13 14 15 17 20 21 26 27 29 30 31 35 37 40 43 43 50 51 52 53 53 53 55

VIII

Contents

4.2.1.3 4.2.1.4 4.2.1.5 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.1.1 5.5.1.2 5.5.1.3 5.5.1.4 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 5.5.5 5.5.6 6 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7 7.1 7.2

Influence of Temperature on the Relationship Between Measurand and Output Influence of Acceleration and Vibration on the Relationship Between Measurand and Output Drift, Stability and Repeatability Dynamic Characteristics Electrical Characteristics Effects of Sensor Mounting Lifetime of a Sensor Cross Talk Piezoelectric Sensors Introduction Fundamental Observations on Measuring Force Basic Design of a Sensor General Review of Practical Sensor Designs Components of a Sensor Transduction Elements Quartz Tourmaline Crystals of the CGG-Group and Gallium Orthophosphate Piezoelectric Ceramics Electrodes Insulating Materials Preloading Elements Sensor Housings Connectors Force and Torque Sensors Quantity, Units of Measurement, and Coordinate Systems Force Sensors Sensors for Compression Force Linear Compression Force Sensors Measuring Tension Force with Preloaded Force Sensors Multicomponent Force Sensors Torque Sensors Cross Talk in Single- and Multicomponent Force Sensors Mounting Force Sensors Measuring 3 Forces and 3 Moments (6 Components) Calibration of Force Sensors Strain Sensors Quantity and Units of Measurement Working Principle of Piezoelectric Strain Sensors

60 65 65 66 70 70 71 72 73 73 74 76 81 85 85 85 87 87 87 88 89 89 90 90 93 93 94 94 95 97 102 105 106 109 112 123 127 127 127

Contents 7.3 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.1.1 7.4.1.2 7.4.2 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Surface Strain Sensors Strain Pins for Internal Strain Longitudinal Strain Pins Measuring Tie Bar Loading Measuring Pressure Variations in Thick-Walled Pipes Transverse Strain Pins Omnidirectional Strain Sensors Piezoelectric "Strain Gage" Multiaxial Strain Sensors Calibration of Piezoelectric Strain Sensors

IX 128 130 130 131 132 134 136 137 138 139

Pressure Sensors 141 Quantity and Units of Measurement 141 Design of Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors 142 Low-Pressure Sensors 144 Pressure Sensors for General Applications 146 High-Pressure Sensors 148 Pressure Sensors with Acceleration Compensation 150 Pressure Sensors for High Temperature 155 Sensors for Cylinder Pressure in Internal Combustion Engines .. 156 Sensors for Cavity Pressure in Plastics Processing and in Die Casting of Metals 159 Calibration of Pressure Sensors 161 Acceleration Sensors Quantity and Units of Measurement Basic Properties of Acceleration Sensors Designs of Piezoelectric Acceleration Sensors Characteristics of Sensors with Piezoelectric Ceramic or Tourmaline Elements Acceleration Sensors with High Sensitivity Acceleration Sensors for General Applications Acceleration Sensors for Measuring Shock Acceleration Sensors for High Temperature Acceleration Sensors for Low Temperature Acceleration Sensors for Modal Analysis Triaxial Acceleration Sensors Calibration of Acceleration Sensors Acoustic Emission Sensors Quantity and Units of Measurement Background of AE as Process Parameter Design of AE Sensors AE Sensors for Process Monitoring 167 167 167 177 181 183 184 186 188 190 190 193 194 199 199 200 201 203

X 10.5 10.6 10.7 11 11.1 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.2.3 11.2.4 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.6.1 11.6.2 11.6.3 11.6.4 11.6.5 11.6.5.1 11.6.5.2 11.6.5.3 11.6.5.4 11.6.5.5 11.6.5.6 AE Sensors Applied to Metalworking AE Sensors for Nondestructive Testing Calibration of AE Sensors

Contents 203 205 205

Amplifiers for Piezoelectric Sensors 209 Quantity and Units of Measurement 209 Principles of Measuring Electric Charge 210 Piezoelectric Sensor as an Active Capacitor 210 Discharge of a Capacitor, Time Constant, Insulation Resistance .. 211 Lower Frequency Limit of an .RC-Circuit 213 Zero Point of a Measurement 214 Ideal Electrometer Amplifier 215 Real Electrometer Amplifier 216 Ideal Charge Amplifier 219 Real Charge Amplifier 222 Sensitivity Setting, Scale and Measuring Range 222 Lower Frequency Limit of a Charge Amplifier 225 Resetting and Choosing the Zero of a Charge Amplifier 227 Upper Frequency Limit of a Charge Amplifier 227 Quasistatic Measuring, Stability and Drift 228 Phenomenon "Drift" 229 Time Constant of the Feedback Circuit 230 Dielectric Memory Effect in Capacitors and Cables 231 Leakage Current at the Input 232 Zero Point Stability 233 Leakage Currents Over the Insulation Resistance in the Input Circuit due to Offset Voltages 233 11.6.5.7 Output Voltage with Poor Insulation Resistance at the Input and Short Time Constant 234 11.6.5.8 "Operate Jump" 235 11.6.5.9 Equalization of Electric Charge After Manipulations 236 11.6.6 Influence of Cables 236 11.6.7 Properties of Currently Used Input Stages 237 11.6.8 Capacitive Coupling for Measuring at High Temperature 238 11.6.9 Protecting the MOS-FET at the Input from Overload 238 11.7 Connecting Several Sensors to One Amplifier 239 11.8 Cables and Connectors 240 11.9 Calibration of Charge Amplifiers 241 245 255 259

References List of Manufacturers Index