Communication Theory

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UNIT II ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS

Phase and frequency modulation Single tone Narrow band and
wideband FM Transmission bandwidth Generation and
demodulation of FM signal

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Angle Modulation

Angle modulation results whenever the phase
angle () of a sinusoidal wave is varied with
respect to time

- Generalized sinusoidal carrier signal

- Instantaneous frequency

( ) ( ) | |
| |
0 0
0
cos
cos
u e
u
+ =
=
t A
t A t S
c
dt
d
i
u
e =

Angle modulated wave:


Types of Angle Modulation

- Frequency Modulation (FM)
- Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase Modulation

- If the phase of the carrier is varied directly
in accordance with the modulating signal ,
PM result.
- The magnitude and direction of the
phase shift ()is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal.
- The rate at which the phase changes are
occurring is equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal (fm).
- () is called the phase deviation
- Linearly vary angle, u(t), of a carrier signal
with the baseband signal, m(t).

S
pm
= Accos[2fct + k
u
m(t)]

k
u
= phase deviation constant (radians /volt)
A
c
= amplitude of the carrier
Fc= Carrier frequency

- Phase modulation index
m
p
= k
u
*A
m

Where A
m
is the peak amplitude of the
modulating signal

PM Waves



Frequency Modulation

- If the frequency of the carrier is varied
directly in accordance with the modulating
signal ,FM result.

- Linearly vary instantaneous frequency of
carrier signal with the base band signal,
m(t).

- The magnitude and direction of the
frequency shift (f) isproportional
to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
- The rate at which the frequency
changes are occurring is equal to
the frequency of the modulating
signal (fm).
- (f) is called the frequency deviation.

- If modulating signal is a sinusoid


m(t) = A
m
cos(w
m
t)

A
m
= sinusoid amplitude
f
m
= sinusoid frequency
-
Frequency Modulation Index = k
f
A/w

K
f
A
m
= peak freq deviation.
K
f
is in units of freq/volt

- Frequency modulated signal

( ) ( ) (5.17) 2 sin 2 cos
(
+ = t f
f
A k
t f A t S
m
m
m f
c c FM
t t
dt
d
i
u
e =

FM & PM Waves

FM and PM Relationship

- FM is equivalent to phase modulation, but
input to the PM is proportional to m(t)
- Similarly PM is equivalent to freq
modulation but the input of the modulator is
proportional to PM = FM with input of d/dt
m(t)


Spectrum of Frequency Modulated signal

For a frequency modulated carrier

General equation for a FM carrier

For a sinusoid modulating signal, its
spectrum contains carrier frequency
theoretically infinite number of sidebands at
(Fc+ - n*fm). Its Bandwidth is theoritically
infinite.
For a sinusoid signal the amplitudes of
the spectral components are given by
Bessel functions of the modulation
index.

Where g(t) = k
f m(t) dt
= A
m
/f
m
sin (2 Pi f
m
t)
( ) ( ) | |
}
+ = dt t m k t A t S
f c FM
e cos
( ) ( ) (5.17) 2 sin 2 cos
(
+ = t f
f
A k
t f A t S
m
m
m f
c c FM
t t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t g K t A t g K t A t S
f C f C FM
sin sin cos cos e e =

Since the FM is a non-linear operation, the
Spectrum has to estimated on a case by case
basis, for a specific modulating signal.
A rule of thumb has been developed fro
estimating the Bandwidth of a FM signal

Spectrum of FM signal

Bandwidth of the freq modulated signal

Carsons rule approximation of FM
bandwidth: An FM signal has 98 % of the
total transmitted power in RF bandwidth BT
given by
upper bound: BT = 2(f +1) fm
lower bound : BT = 2 f
f is the frquency modulation index and f
is the frequency deviation

Carson rule:

For small value of modulation index (f<1),
the spectrum of an FM signal is effectively
limited to the carrier freq (fc), and one pair
of sideband frequencies at (fc+ - fm).

For large value of modulation index the
bandwidth approaches, and is only slightly
greater than 2 f

U. S. Amps cellular system:
for f = 3, fm = 4 kHz
upper bound: BT = 2(f +1) fm = 2(3+1)4
k = 32 kHz
lower bound: BT = 2 f = 2(f fm)
= 24 kHz

Frequency Analysis of Angle-Modulated Waves

- With angle modulation, the frequency
components of the modulated wave are
much more complexly related to the
frequency components of the
modulating signal than AM.
- In a frequency or phase modulator, a
single-frequency modulating signal
produces an infinite number of pairs of
side frequencies and, thus has a infinite
bandwidth.
- However most of the side
frequencies are negligibly small in
amplitude and can be ignore
- Each side frequency is displaced from the
carrier by an integral multiple of the
modulating signal frequency.


Bessel Functions Identities

e = E
c
cos[
c
t + m cos (
i
t)]

Identity:

Bessel Function Solution for a Angle
Modulated Wave

e= Ec[J0(m)cos ct J1(m)[cos(c-i)t
cos(c+ i)t]+ J2(m)[cos(c-2i)t +
cos(c+ 2i)t] -J3(m)[cos(c-3i)t +
cos(c+ 3i)t] + .]
e= Angle modulated wave
Ec= Peak Amplitude of
unmodulated wave
J0(m)cos ct = Carrier
component

J2(m)[cos(c-2i)t + cos(c+ 2i)t]
= 1stset of side frequencies
J3(m)[cos(c-3i)t + cos(c+ 3i)t] = 2ndset of
side frequencies.

Solving for the Amplitude of a Side-
Frequency Component

Jn(m) = (m/2)n[1/n! (m/2)2/(1!(n + 1))
+ (m/2)4/(2!(n +2)) -(m/2)6/(3!(n + 3)+
]

Bessel Function

Narrowband Frequency Modulation

The FM equation is

when the modulation index is small compared to
one radian,then


The modulated output of the narrowband
modulator differs in two aspects.


Wideband FM:

The modulated signal is represented as


Taking fourier transforms


GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS

Direct Method
fc varied according to m(t)

Indirect Method
Balanced modulator generates
narrowband FM signal
Frequency multiplication to increase
both the freq deviation and the carrier
freq to the required level

In Direct method,

In voltage controlled oscillator the
frequency of the output signal is
proportional to the input signal.
Voltage controlled oscillators (VCO) are
used to vary carrier frequency of the carrier
signal with baseband signal amplitude
Varactor (voltage variable capacitor).
Application of voltage varies the
reactance causing the instantaneous freq
of the VCO to change proportionally

A reverse biased p-n junction diode,
larger the reverse bias, smaller the
capacitance
Generate FM signal
Fc not stable for wideband FM, so phase
locked loop (PLL) is used which locks
the central freq to a stable crystal
reference frequency

Direct FM: VCO circuit



Wideband FM generation

Armstrong

Approximate narrowband FM
Carrier + SSB (90 out of
phase)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t g K t A t g K t A t S
f C f C FM
sin sin cos cos e e =
( ) ( ) (5.23) ] 2 sin [ ] 2 cos [ t f t A t f A t S
c c c c FM
t u t ~

A NB FM signal is generated using balanced
modulator, which modulates a crystal
controlled oscillator. Max freq deviation is
kept constant and small to keep the validity
of this equation. The output is NB FM
signal. A wideband signal is then generated
by using frequency multiplier of NB FM
signal.
Phase noise
Phase noise increases as a function of
freq multiplier factor N.

Indirect: An example of FM

Fc=200Khz Fc1 = 200*64 =12.8
Deviation = 25 Hz Deviation=25*64 =1.6 kz

Freq converter just shifts the signal up
Fc3 = 12.8-10.9=1.9 Mhz
Fc4 = 1.9*48 = 91.2 Mhz,
freq deviation = 1.6*48 = 76.8 Mhz


FM Detection

Demodulator
-Frequency-to-amplitude converter circuit
Frequency discriminators

FM Detection Techniques

Slope Detector: Input signal is
differentiated (Slope), and then envelope
detection used to recover the signal

Zero-crossing Detector: If linearity is
required over a broad range of frequencies,
The freq to amplitude conversion is
performed by directly Counting the number
of zero crossings in the input.
Counting the number of zero crossings
is measuring the frequency.
Phase Locked Loop(PLL) for FM
Detection: PLL is a closed loop circuit,
which tracks the variation in frequency and
the phase of the received signal


Quadrature Detection: The detector
comprises of a phase shift network. It shifts
the phase of an incoming signal by an
amount proportional to instantaneous
frequency.
Quadrature Tank Circuit

69
( ) ( ) | |
( ) (5.24) 2 2 cos
2 cos
1
1 1
(
+ =
+ =
}

t
f c
c
d m k t f V
t t f V t v
q q t t
u t
( ) ( ) ( ) (5.25) 2 sin 2
1 2
t t f
dt
d
t f V t v
c c
u t
u
t +
(
+ =
( ) ( )
( ) (5.26) t m 2 2
2
1 1
1
f c
c out
k V f V
t
dt
d
t f V t v
t t
u t
+ =
(
+ =
Slope Detector
Signal at the output of the limiter
Output of the differentiator
Output of the envelope detector
Limiter Differentiator Envelope Detector
V
in
(t)
V
1
(t)
V
2
(t)
V
out
(t)

Zero Crossing Detector

The FM modulated signal is passed through
the Limiter circuit, to eliminate the
amplitude variation in the incoming signal.
This converts the signal to FM modulated
Pulse train
This pulse train is then passed thru a
differentiator, which generates a trigger
signal for a monostable multivibrator

The output of monostable multivibrator
consists of a train of pulses with average
duration proportional to desired signal.
This pulse train is passed thru the low pass
filter to perform averaging operation by
extracting the slowly varying DC
component
This is the desired signal.

FM Detection using PLL

Phase detector:

- Detects the phase of the signal. The phase is
then amplified, and filterd (to filter out the
high freq components), and fed to VCO.
- The output of the VCO is compared to the
input signal using a phase comparator.
Which produces output signal proportional
to the phase difference.

- The feed back functions to lock the freq of
VCO to the freq of input signal. Once the
freq of VCO is locked to the input freq, the
VCO continues to track the variation in
input freq.
- Once the tracking is achieved the output
signal is simply proportional to the
demodulated signal.
- The PLL detector uses PLL technology to
demodulate FM signals.
- The diagram shows a simple PLL detector.
The phase detector compares the phase of
the FM input and the VCO output.
- Frequency deviation of the carrier results in
a phase difference between the two and the
phase detector sends an error voltage to the
low pass filter.
- The filtered error signal is used to change
the VCO output frequency in order to reduce
the phase error.
- The output of the low pass filter has an
amplitude that is proportional to the
deviation of the FM input, so it is actually a
replica of the original modulating signal.
FM is converted directly to audio.


Communication Theory

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