COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Summary of the Lecture by Prof. Dr. A. Wittneben Lukas Cavigelli, December 2011 lukasc@ee.ethz.ch

FILTERED RANDOM P ROC ESSES

Let ( ) ( Mean value: )( ) for this section Autocorrelation: if ( ) WSS ( ) ( ) ( ) { } Linear Receiver: LTI filter followed by a sampler AWGN channel: additive white gaussian noise channel (i.e.this) ( )

Conditional Probability density Function of :

|

( | )

Detection error, if Probability of error: ( |

, but symbol 0 was sent )

( )

( | ) ( (

0. RANDOM PROCESSES
Energy: | ( )| | ( )|

Power Spectral Density: [ ( )] ( ) ( ) | ( )| | ( )| ( ) ) ( )

Average probability of symbol error: (

MATCHED FILTER
Output Signal: ( ) ( ) ( )
| [ ( )| ( )]

STATIONARITY
Strict Sense Stationary (SSS): ) have the same statistical properties if ( ) and ( and thus [ ( )] Wide Sense Stationary (WSS): ) ( ) ( ) if ( ) and ( Generally SSS WSS Ergodic Random Process: (by example of the mean) ( ) which fulfills [ ( )] Let ( ) A random process is ergodic in the mean, if ( ) [ and ( )]

Example: Sine with random phase ( ) ( ( with const. and ( ) { Autocorr.: PSD: ( ) ( ) [ ] ( [ ( ) )

Complementary Error Function: ( ) ( ) ( upper bound: Optimum Decision Threshold:

Formulation: Optimal detection noise ratio at Matched Filter: : ( )

maximize pulse signal-to-

)(

) for ( )

)]

( )

( )

) Opt. Dec. Th. with (

GAUSSIAN PROCESS
Gaussian Process: Let ( ) ( ) be a random variable with ( ) an arbitrary function, then: If is Gaussian distributed for every ( ), then is a Gaussian process. Properties: Filtering: A LTI-filtered Gaussian process is Gaussian if ( ) is a Gaussian process, then the arbitrary set of random variables observed at times ( [ ( ) ( ) ( )] ) is jointly Gaussian distributed Multivariate Gaussian PDF: ( ) with ( [ )

Properties of matched filter: no assumption about the statistics of the white noise pulse SNR of matched filter only depends on ratio of signal energy to PSD of white noise at filter input. | ( )| Matched Filter for Rectangular Pulse Input pulse: Output ( ):

and ) ( )
( )

INTERSYMBOL INTERFER ENCE (ISI)

Intersymbol Interference (ISI): arises when the communication channel is dispersive. In this case the magnitude frequency response of the channel and/or the group delay are not constant over the frequency range of interest. Using a binary PAM transmission system with: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Pulse ( ) is normalized such that ( ) and we have ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Receive filter output sampled at : ( ) [( ) ] ( ) [( ) ] ( ) (ISI)
-

CORRELATION, COVARIANCE & PSD

Autocorrelation: ( ) [ ( ) ( )] ) for WSS: ( Properties: ( ) [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) | ( )| Autocovariance: ( ) [( ( ) Crosscorrelation: ( ) [ ( ) ( )] ( ) (
( ) ( )( ( ) ( )(

( )

Integrate-and-dump Circuit: For rect. pulses, the matched filter may be implemented by an integrate-and-dump circuit.

( )

) ( )

))

ERROR RATE DUE T O NO ISE

Binary, bipolar NRZ System:

( )

( )] and

)( ( )

)]

( ) ( )

NOISE
White Noise: ( ) ( ) ( ) Receiver Structure with Matched Filter:

NYQUISTS CRITERION (TO AVOID ISI)

f di Bit rate: i e e d i ) ) ( ) { i i (=avoid ISI)

Stationarity means: ( ) ( ) not generally max. at Power Spectral Density: ( ) Properties: ( ) [ ( )] ( ) ( ) [ ( )] [ ( ) ( ) ( )

Physically not possible, has infinite power filter it to get finite White Gaussian Noise: also assume noise process is Gaussian

Requirement for no ISI: (( Nyquist Criterion: Receiver gets signal ( ) Threshold detector: { Threshold Detector Errors: Assume 0 was sent. because of white noise with PSD we get the ( ) ( ) autocorrelation function The random variable ( ) of the signal is Gaussian distributed: ( ) [ ] { () ()

, not generally an even function

1. BASEBAND PULSE TRANS MISSION

( ) Binary PAM Transmission System:

( )]( )

Derivation of Nyquist Criterion: FT of period. seq. of delta functions: ( ) ) ( ( ( To avoid ISI, we need ( ( ) ( ( ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ) for )

)) , so:

( )

, if ( )

Variance of the random variable : [( ) ] [ ( ) ( )]

( )

Ideal Nyquist Channel: simplest frequency function to fulfill Nyquist criterion: ( ) ( ) { ( ) | |

Probability of Error:

( )

) (

overall system bandwidth: ( ) achieves zero ISI with minimum bandwidth possible physically unrealizable because of abrupt transitions at band edges ( ) decreases as | | for large | | very sensitive to timing error Raised Cosine Spectrum: We consider three terms in Nyquist criterion expression for ( ) and restrict freq. band to | | ( ) ( ) ( )

Precoding: Correlative-level coding results in error propagation, because it uses decision feedback. Solution: precoding.

FROM C ONTINCUOUS TO A DIS CRETE MODEL

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Select largest Same result as with the Matched Filter Bank.

ERROR PROBABI LITY

( ( ( | ) with being the region where is nearest in signal space. Union Bound: Upper bound for through rough approximations of the Regions and looking at pairwise probabilities. With being that is nearer to than ( ) ( ) ( ) | | ) ( ) )

{ Thoughts: 1. we may use modified duobinary technique to avoid having a DC component. 2. Here we had two symbol correlations generalize to symbols.

( ) is the comp. of the received sig. orthog. to signal space: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

BASEBAND M-ARY PAM TRANS MISSION

( ) amplitude levels, i i ( ( )) for same e i i i Use Gray Encoding between similar symbols (least influence in case of of a symbol error)

( ) ( ) Theorem of Irrelevance: ( ) The random process has [ ( )] is independent of all ( ) is thus irrelevant to the decision, only noise.

( )

Pairwise Error Probability: ( ) ( ) ( )

DETECTION & DECODING

Gaussian Vector Channel: ] [ [ Properties of the received vector: [ ] [ ] with [ ] [ ] ( ) ( ) [( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) for Gaussian, this means independ. ( ) ( ( ) ) { ) } ) ] ( ) [ ( ) [ ] ] ( )] [ ( ) ] ( )

Union Bound on Average Error Probability: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

| | ( ) ( [ [
(| | )

2. SIGNAL-SPACE ANALYSIS
| | with an AWGN channel where noise is ( ) ( | ) ( Probability of Error: Energy: | ( )| | ( )| Optimal Receiver: Minimize (MAP)

])

{ With rolloff factor

| | ]:

3. PASSBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 1

Modulation Basetypes: ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying FSK: Frequency Shift Keying PSK: Phase Shift Keying QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (comb. of ASK & PSK) Coherence: A signal detection is coherent, if receiver and transmitter phase are synchronized -ary xSK: Symbol Rate: levels for sig. information [ ]

GEOMETRIC REPRESENTA TION OF SIGNALS

Signal set: { ( )} Orthonormal Basis Functions of the signal set: { ( )} Signal Space: the resulting -dim Euclidian space, Detection of can be implemented like the formula below. Synthesis of ( ) can be implemented like the formula.

[ ] [ ] Because the cov. is 0 and Likelihood Function: ( ) ( | )

( )

in Time-domain: ( ) Transmission Bandwidth:

)(

) )

Log-Likelihood Function: ( ) ( ( )) ( ) ( )

CORRELATIVE -LEVEL CODI NG

Problem: try to avoid discontinuities in frequency response without excess bandwidth Answer: Correlative-Level Coding achieves that at the expense of increased error probability Example of CLC: Duobinary Signaling:

Signal Space Representation: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Bandwidth Efficiency:

BPSK: BINA RY PHASE S HIFT KEYING PROBABI LITY OF ERROR

Probability of Error: in the decision ( | ) ( | ) MAP decision rule: (max-a-posteriori) ( | ) Set if ( ( ) Set If ( ) Set if ( if
( ) ( ) ( | )

( ) ( ) [ ] Setting up using Gram-Schmidt: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Basis Functions:

| ) | ) for all

()

),

()

()

maximum for

Frequency response with ideal Nyquist channel: ( ) ( || () () { ( )( ( Impulse response: ( ) Decay faster than ideal Nyquist channel: | | ))

) ( |

) maximum for

Signal Space: ( ) ( ( ) ( ) Error Probability: ( Power Spectral Density: ( ) ( ( ) ) )

) ( )

( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) If ( ) , there is no new basis function for that signal. Properties: Crosscorrelation: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Energy of a signal: Distance: ( Angle between signals: ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )) ( )

, then MAP-decision = max. Likelihood: Set if ( ) maximum for Geometric Interpretation: ( ) is max., when ( ) is min. by Optimal Receiver:
( ( ) ) ( ( ( ) ) )

( ( )

Implementation: Calculate inner product of for all Subtract for each value in parallel

in parallel

QPSK: QUADRIPHASE -SHIFT KEYING

Signal Space: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

for for

{ decoding independ.

()

()

()

no phase memory required

( )

( )

( )

( ( (

( )) ( ) ( )))

Gray Coding, because rather want 1 bit wrong than two. Bit Error Rate: Gray Dibit QPSK-Phase (( ) ( ) (

MSK: Minikum Shift Keying: CPFSK with min. for orthogonal Phase-Trellis of MSK for bits 1101000:

with ( )

Remark: scaling factor of , to preserve signal-to-noise power complex envelope ( ) Narrowband Case: Equivalent Baseband Model Narrowband Case: ( ) ( ) | | | | ( | |) with Notation & Notes: ( ) ( ) { and are called reference frequency and phase of the baseband model for the baseband model is time-invarianr (a filter) analytic signal ( ) physical passband signal ( )

Estimation of ( ): ( ) [ [ ( )] ( ) [ ( )] ( )]

Power Spectral Density: ( ) ( ) Comparsion to BPSK: more bandwidth efficient same BER at same noise power, but double bit rate same BER at same noise power, but half the BW

5. PASSBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 3

-ARY QAM: QUADRATURE A MPLITUDE MOD.

Principle: Use QPSK and modulate amplitude Remark: 4-QAM = QPSK Example: 16-QAM grid of Basis Function: same as QPSK Signal Space: Error Probability: ( with

red: symbol 1 transimitted, blue: symbol 0 transmitted For all blue/red traject., the cos-comp. has the same shape Thus we can estimate ( )by observing [ ( )] ( ) for ) ) ( ( ) [ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) Names and Notation: ( ) ( ): complex envelope of ( ): analytic signal (pre-envelope of ( ): physical passband signal ( ) ( ) { ) Complex Baseband Representation:

points

[ ] with ) (

odd integers, )
( )

Signal Space of MSK: for ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ( )

: space between points,

: avg. Energy per symbol

FSK: FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYI NG

Basis Functions: ( ) [ ( ] ( ) [ ], thus ) ( )] ( a 3dB loss ( ( ( )) ) ) )

( ) ( ) Error Probability: ( )

( )

Signal orthogonal for Signal Vectors:

same as QPSK Power Spectral Density: no delta components like FSK for , the PSD decays prop. to small(er) spectral side lobes (than QPSK) weiter mit 5.14

( ))

Error Probability: , compared to (( Power Spectral Density: ( ) [ ( ) )

4. PASSBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 2 CPFSK: CONTINUOUS PH ASE-SHIFT KEYING

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( ) )

Pre-Envelope, Complex Envelope and Physical Passband Sig. Complex Envelope: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) in-phase component ( ) quadrature component | | due to narrowband case: ( ) Analytic Signal (pre-envelope): ( ) ( ) ( ( ) ) ( ) analytic signal has one-sided spectrum: not scaling factor to preserve power values. ( ) Physical Passband Signal: ( ) { ( )} ( ) ( ( ) ( ) ( ))

Phase tree, no phase jumps, continuous at symbol transition

6. MULTIUSER RADIO C OMMUNICATIONS

FDMA: non-linearity of transponder causes interference between frequency subbands. Transponder operated in linear regime, below maximum power; reduced efficiency TDMA: Transponder operates at full power, commonly used CDMA: Combination of TDMA and FDMA by code SDMA: Multiple antennas allow beamforming Broadcasting: high power transm. to many cheap receivers (TV) Satellite Communication System: AWGN model appropriate satellite amplifies received signal in another frequency band Radio Link Analysis: Link (power budget) of all gains & losses balance sheet with detailed accounting of: resources available to rcvr & txmtr, sources of possible loss of signal power, sources of noise Allows performance estimation of free-space links Link Margin: waterfall curve relates prob. of error to max. accepted error probability leads to Op1 and the min. ( ) Actually received ( ) defines Op2 Link Margin: Diff. between req. and recv. signal level: [ ] ( ) ( [ ) ] [ ] Large link margin: high reliability, low energy efficiency

Effective isotropically radiated power: referenced to an [ ] isotropic source. Antenna beamwidth: angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is half the max. Effective Aperture: ratio of power available at input to power ( ( ) ) per unit area of the wave. Aperture efficiency: with : physical area Friis Free-Space Equation: Power at receiver at distance : ( Friis Free Space Equation: ( Path Loss: [ ] ( ) ( ) ( ) ) [ ] ) [ ]

( ) (

|(

) ( ) [ ]

|(

) ]

( )

BER over Rayleigh Fading Channels:

Noise Figure: Spot Noise Figure: ratio of total available output noise power (device and source) per unit bandwidth to portion thereof due ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) to source alone: ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )

( ) If two-port is noise free: Available Power Gain: ( ) Avergage Noise Figure:

( )

( )
( ) ( )

( )

Equivalent Noise Temperature: - a better measure for low noise devices Available Input Noise Power: Total Output Noise power: Equivalent Noise Temperature: Cascade of Two-Port Networks: (

) ( ( ) ) ig SNR deep f de d i e pe f ce Fading leads to severe performance degradation. Diversity: Availability of independently faded copies of the transmit signal at the receiver - frequency diversity: redundant information on carriers with sufficient frequency spacing (for independent fading) - time divresity: redundant information in time slots with spacing equal or larger than the inverse of the Doppler BW - space diversity: indep. faded signal copies from several transmit or receive antennas. At high SNR, -th order diversity allows:

Radio Communication over Multipath Channels: Complex Baseband Multipath Channel Model: Propagation: Free Space Propagation Model: with : distance rcvr Farfield region: largest dimension of antenna, : wavelength Isotropic Source: - power density: ( ) [ ] ( )[ ] ) ( ) Power Theorem: ( ( ) [ Average power per angle: Important Antenna Measures: ( ) ( ) ) directivity gain: ( - radiation intensity: ( ) directivity: power gain: includes antenna imperfections
( )

txmtr, :

[ ] ]

Narrowband Fading: ( ) ( ) ( ) Rayleigh Fading: ( )is modeled as zero-mean complex Gaussian random process. Completely characterized by the autocorrelation function ( ) as well as the Doppler )] spectrum ( ) [ ( ) ( ( ) Coherent BPSK over Slow Rayleigh Fading Channel: ( ) ( ) ( ) with input-output relation: ( ) Rayleigh and uniformly distr. Gaussian. rand. vars. channel stays constant over symbol period with perfect knowledge of at the receiver, the instantaneous bit error rate of coherent BPSK is:
( | ) (

7. DOES NOT EXIST

( )

Note: phase shift

does not affect BER

8. INFORMATION THE ORY 1 UNCERTAINT Y, INFORMATION & ENTR OPY

{ } Finite Alphabet: Message: ) Message Probability: ( Symbol Sequency: a series of realisations of Discrete Memoryless Source: Successive realizations are stat. indep. (discrete memoryless) Information: ( ) Properties: ( ) for ( ) for ( ) for ( ) ) ( ) ( Entropy: ( ) [ ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )

always uniquely decodable

for every source exists a prefix code s.t. ( ) ( )

by encoding a large extension, the +1 becomes negligible Example of a decision tree: 1011111000 corresponds to

if the current output only depends on the current input Discrete Memoryless Channel is fully descibed by: input alphabet and output alphabet transition probabilities ( | ) ( | ) Channel/Transition Matrix: ( | ) ( | ) [ ] ( | ) ( | ) each row (column) corresponds to one input (output) symbol all row sums are 1 (complete output alphabet) the marginal prob. distribution of is obtained as: ( ) ( ) ( | ) ( )

CHANNEL CODING THEOR EM

A discrete, memoryless source emits symbols from Information rate: ( ) , one symbol every seconds One coded symbol every seconds Shannons Channel Coding Theorem: there exists a channel code yielding an If ( ) arbitrary small error probability as the channel code-word length goes to infinity. such a code does not exist. For ( ) is the maximum amount of data per channel use that can be sent reliably over the channel. Code Rate: is a measure for redundancy Block Code: a block code maps data bits onto channel input bits ( ) let the source emit 0s and 1s with equal prob. the channel coding theorem implies:
( )

( ) if

and

statistically independent

Properties: ( ) ( ) with for BPSK, for 64-QAM ( ) iff for one ( ) iff for all ( ) Extension of a discrete, memoryless Source: divide sequence of successive source symbols emitted by a discrete memoryless source into blocks Consider each block of symbols as a single supersymbol, taking values in Refer to the corresponding source as extended source ( ) Entropy of that source: ( )

Huffman Coding: minimizes the average code word length for a discrete memoryless source the code sequences are found by backtracking from the last pseudo-symbol and tracing the sequence of 0s and 1s 1. Assign a 0 and a 1 to the source symbols of lowest probab. 2. Replace the two symbols by a new pseudo-symbol whose probability is the sum of the respective two probabilities 3. Repeate steps 1 and 2 until only one single pseudo-symbol is left Drawbacks: Encoder needs probabilistic model of the source a-priori Redundancy due to memory can only be removed using large extension codes, thereby increasing complexity Example Huffman Coding:

9. INFORMATION THE ORY 2 MUTUAL INFORMATION

Conditional Entropy of given : is a measure of uncertainty about ( | ) [ ( ( | ))] ( ) ( ( | )) if is konwn

and

Mutual Information of the channel reduction of uncertainty about by observing ( ) ( ) ( | )

the error probability can be driven to zero with , but keeping the ratio fixed. Repetition Code (a block code): transmit each bit times decoder chooses the symbol observed times ) , : error prob. of bin. sym. c. ( ) (

DIFFERENTIAL ENTROPY
Differential Entropy: of a continuous random variable ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ] tends to

SOURCE CODING THEORE M

Source Coding: Discrete memoryless src. Source encoder Average Code Word Length: Shannon Source Coding Theorem: ( ) Coding Efficiency: , Efficie : if for large extensions of the source binary sequence

Average length of codeword: ( ) ( ( ) Entropy: ( )

) ( )

Properties: ) ( ) Symmery: ( the uncertainty about the input resolveed by observing the output is the same as the uncertainty about the output resolved by sending the input. ) Nonnegativity: ( , no information an be lost ( | ): conditioning reduces entropy ( ) Joint Entropy: ( ) [ ( ( relation to mutual info: ( ) ))] ( ( ) ) ( ) ( ( ( )) )

Lempel-Ziv Coding: Adaptive, low-complexity algorithm, captures stats intrinsically 1. Segments 0 and 1 are assigned indices 1 and 2 2. A new subsequence is always composed from an onld sequence and a 0 or a 1 (innovation symbol) 3. A sequence is encoded by appending the innovation symbol to the index of the root subsequence. The stored subsequences are indexed for to Has always fixed-length code words (encoded blocks) Typically 12 bits are used, with a code book of 4096 entries Example Lempel-Ziv Coding:

the probability that takes on a value in [ ( ) for small for continuous variables, ( ) Mutual Information for continuous variables: ( ) ( ) ( | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Example:

INFORMATION CAPACITY THEOREM

Typical wired channel: band-llimited, power-limited Gaussian channel Let be cont. rand. vars modulated onto unit energy sinc-pulses, band-limited to Hertz (one-sided) This allows orthogonal pulses (dimensions) per second. Resulting random process ( ) is an AWGN channel, with zero mean and power spectral density Output proc. ( ) is low-pass filtered with and sampled at Nyquist rate (matched filter) with i.i.d. with and Information Capacity with power contraint: { ( ) [ ] }
{ ( )}

DATA COMPACTION
Compaction: is lossless (compression is lossy) Prefix Codes: consider a binary code-word of bits
for any , the first bits are called prefix of the code word

DISCRETE MEMORYLESS CHANNEL

Channel: a statistical model with input and output every unit of time the channel accepts an input symbol emits an output symbol and are statistically dependent random variables Discrete: if input and output alphabets are of finite size Memoryless:

CHANNEL CAPACITY
Problem: Mutual information not only depends on the channel, but also on the input distr.. Channel cap. = max. mutual info Channel Capacity:
{ ( )}

no code-word is a prefix of another code-word implicit recognition of end of code word (no extra symbol needed) decision tree structure (each bit cosidered only once)

and

[ ]

i c e e

Shannons Information Capacity Theorem: ) ( ) Mutual Information: ( ( ) ( ( ) ( ) | ) ( ) is indep. of density of Need to maximize the first term only should be i.i.d. Gaussian, so should be too [ ] (minim. TX power), [ ] , [ ]

 Differential entropies: ( ) ( ) ( ) i c ) e Capacity: ( ( )

)) and

Parity Check Matrix: We have [

[ ][ ]

Parity Check Equation: General message flow: e

) block code with min. dist. Given a ( Error Detection Capability: error patterns with weights can be detected Error Correction Capability: ) can be corrected error petterns with weight ( Perfect Codes & Hamming Code: for a given and codeword length , good codes have a large number of possible code words. Hamming bound: the number of code words for a binary ) must satisfy: code ( ( ( ) ( )) with ( ) Example: Syndrome Decoding Given a linear block code (

Example: Repetition Codes as linear block codes Repetition code with bit and repetitions [ ] Generator Matrix: Parity-Check Matrix: Note: and [ ]

Implications of Information Capacity: Assume data transmitted at a rate Transmit power is Ideal sys. is defined by So we get

(ideal system) ) (bits /channel-use) needed to

achieve the desired bandwidth efficiency if we have inifinite BW, there still is a minimum energy per bit required for reliable communication (Shannon Limit):

, telling usthe necessary

Cyclic Codes (subclass of linear block codes): Properties: encoding and syndrome calculation with low complexity linearity: sum of any two codewords is also a code word cyclic property: any cyclic shift of a codeword is a codeword
Code Polynomial: [ ] ( )

( ) if we have inifinite BW, there is a max. information rate for reliable commincation for a given transmit power : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

10. DATA LINK LAYER 1

Purpose of coding: make BER acceptable for given Forward Error Correction (FEC): channel encoder adds redundancy, channel decoder exploits redundancy to decide message bits Block Codes: no mem in enc. (linear block codes, cyclic codes) Convolutional Codes: have mem in encoder. See Ch. 11

Multiplication of polynom. by is like a bitshift of bit to right Cyclic Shift: ( )( ) ( ) ( ) Generator Polynomial: Let ( ) be a polynomial of degree that is a factor of (ensures cyclic property). ( ) is expanded as: ( ) The generator polyn. uniquely defines the cyclic code. Encoding in non-systematic form: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ): message polynomial with degree ( ): code polynomial with degree Analogies Cyclic Codes Linear Block Codes: Generator Matrix Generator Polynomial ( ) Parity-Check Matrix parity-check Polynomial ( ) ( ) ( ) Encoding in systematic form: 1. Multiply ( ) with ( ) by ( ), to get remainder ( ) 2. Divide
( ) ( )

Perfect Code: if code satisfies equality in hamming bound ) linear block codes Hamming Codes: ( block length: # message bits: # parity bits: Properties: ( ) satisfy hamming bound with equality are single-error correcting binary perfect codes Ex.: for ( ) hamming code: [ ]

] ]

[ ] Syndrome: Receive word: [ [ ] Coset leader: [ ] Estimate Corresponding Standard Array:

LINEAR BLOCK CODES

Notation: always modulo 2 addition (XOR) always modulo 2 multiplication (AND) all vectors are row vectors (makes no sense to me -.- ) Block Codes: take information bits, produce coded bits. Linear Block Codes: adding mathematical structure any two codewords in the code can be added to produce a third codeword in the code the all-zero codeword is part of linear code Code Rate: Systematic Linear Block Codes: message bits are transmitted unaltered codewords are by definition distinct parity bits: the unaltered bits parity bits are linear sums of the message bits: Generation of parity bits:
[ ] [ ][ ]

Syndromes & Syndrom Decoding Receiver vector with error vector Syndrome: Projection of onto parity-check matrix : Properties: of a given depends only on , not . ( ) all error patterns that differ by a codeword ( ) have the same syndrome : ( ) coset of : distinct error patterns lead to the same Syndrome of systematic Cyclic Codes: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Example: Syndrome of a systematic cyclic code Generator Polynomial: ( ) ( ) ( ) Test using polynomial division: ( ) ( )(

( )

( ) ( )

( ) to get ( ) 3. Add ( ) to ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Idea: determine parity bits s.t. codeword is multiple of ( ) Example: Systematic Code Generation Generation of a (7,4) cyclic code ( )( )( ) We take ( ) as generator polynomial ( ) Encode message 1001 :
( ) ( )

Maximum Likelihood Decoding Choose the codeword which is closest to the received word ( | ) (minimum distance decoding): Syndrome decoding is equal to maximum likelihood decoding, if each coset leader has the largest prob. of occurence Given a binary symmetric channel with transition prob. ) with a block code ( is the number of coset leaders with weight Error Probability: ( ) Error Detection: Detectable Errors: errors with weight are surely detectable in total error patterns are detectable there are undetectable error patterns Probability of undetectable Error: ) linear block code given a ( a binary symmetric channel with transition probability weight distribution (#codewords with weight ) ( ) Example: Syndrome decoding (contd) continuation from previous example Weight distribution of coset leaders: Weight distribution of codes:

( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

( )

( )

0111001

Code Vector [ Generator Matrix: Closure (linearity):

] [ ] (

] ] [ ), then ( )

Quality of Codes: ) #different bits between the codes Hamming Distance: ( Hamming Weight: ( ) #nonzero elements in the code ( ) ( ) ( ) Smallest Hamming Distance: = smallest Hamming weight of the nonzero code vectors in the code

( ) ( )( ) Because ( ) not a codeword, ok Syndrome Decoding: 1. construct standard array 2. compute syndrom 3. within coset characterized by , find the coset leader (error pattern with highest prob. of occurrence within the coset) 4. Compute code vector:

For a BSC (bin. symm. ch.) with

( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) (

we get:
)

11. DATA LINK LAYER 2 CON V. CODES CONVOLUTIONAL ENCODE R

Branch Metrics: Assume an info. seq. of length is encoded inot of length ( ) and a -ary seq. is received over a binary input, Q-ary output discrete memoryless channel. ( | ) branch metric: ( | ) bit metric: ( | ) ( | ) ( | ) Branch Metrics for ML: ( | ) ( | ) ( | )
( ( | )) ( ( | )) ( ( | ))

The shift register shifts bits at a time Constraint length: number of -bit stages Code rate approximately Linear Code generators: bin. tap weights used to generate code seq. for input bits: known header and trailer ensure defined shift register content (zeros) and define a ( ( ) ) linear block code

Transfer Function: derived directly from the state diagram input state is the all-ze e output state is again the all-ze e de ed e transitions are labeled with its Hamming weight

where ( | ) is a channel transition probability. special case: binary symmetric channel, ( | ) ( | ) ( | ) ( | ) special case: AWGN channel ) ( ( | )) ( Partial Path Metric: for the first branches ([ | ] ) ( | ) ( | ) ( ( | )) Algorithm Steps: 1. beginn at some point and calculate the partial metric for the single path entering each state. 2. compute branch metrics for all paths of the next step, ++ 3. add the previous metric to the new calculated ones 4. choose the lowest metric for each state and eliminate nonfavorable paths 5. start again at 2 until done ( 6. survivor to the terminal state is the ML path

Centralized: central unit coordinates channel access and assignes time slots to individual stations. Usually polling method is initiated s.t. each station periodically transmits. st Hybrid Methods: example: 1 phase, short pakets asking central station for permission to send (collisions occur). nd 2 phase, individual stations are scheduled -> no collisions Best Solution: no best. Arguments: network topology, traffic type, transmission delay, medium characteristics, reliability, complexity, signal processing possible at fast rate? Contentio v. Collision-free Protocols: for low load contention is better due to lower delay for high load, contention is much worse than collision-free

MAC ALGORITHMS
Pure ALOHA: Properties/Characteristics: used for many, uncoordinated users any user send whenever he wants; collisions can occur collided packets are resent after a randomly selected waiting time Assumptions: infinite many independent stations, arrival of packets is a Poisson process with arrival rate : ( ) [ | ] fixed frame length with transfer time Collided packets are discarded and retransmitted (ARQ) Offered load: retransmitted and new packets together Assumption: Poisson distr. with channel access rate no other transmission errors The probability of generating frames in a given time interval corresponds to a Poisson distribution: ( ) [ | ] with : offered load avg. # generated frames per frame Throughput : with : prob. of successful transmission Collision occurs, if at least one more frame in an interval relative to the red frame is generated:

Example: K=3, k=1, n=3 conv. encoder ; systematic code: coded bit 1 is info bit Rate Each block of three coded bits is determined by the current input bit and the previous ones. [ ] Generator polynomials: [ ] [ ] diagram of the encoder of the example:

Resulting state Equations, e.g. , etc. Then solve for Transfer Function ( ) Upper bound on First Error Event Probability: ( ( )) Energy per coded bit: Asymptotic Coding Gain : ( ) only valid in high SNR regime.

12/13. MULTIPLE ACCESS PR OTOCOLS 1 & 2 BASICS OF CHANNEL AC CESS

broadcast networks: one channel shared by multiple users point-to-point: channel only used for on connection MAC: Medium Access Control (low part of data-link layer) Static Channel Allocation: Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM) narrowband signals are transmitted in a wide frequency spectrum in which the narrowband signal is spread to broadband through use of a unique user code (code spreading) Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) Dynamic Channel Allocation: Station Model: indep. stations generating frames for transmission. The avg. # frames generated in is , where (arrival rate of new frames) is constant. Single Channel Assumption: Assume only one comm. chan. Collision Assumption: if two frames are transmitted at once, the resulting signal is distorted. Need for retransmission. Time Allocation: continuous -> frame transmission can be performed at an instant; slotted -> frame only transmitted at beginning of a slot. Carrier Sense: stations listen to the channel before sending and can tell if the channel is in use.

VITERBI DECODER
memory depth # -bit registers ) code notation: ( states, memory bits : input bits, : output bits Trellis for a (3,2,1) code with ( ) [ ] and info. sequence of length :

State Diagram Description: States defined by shift register content memory (2 bit) state transitions defined by input bit (solid 0, dashed 1) transitions labeled with the 3 coded output bits Trellis: possible sequence of transitions can be visualized in trellis each path through the trellis is a unique seq. of input bits for finite number of input bits: pad trailing zeros to terminate each path in all-zero state convention: initial state = all zero state linear code: distance distribution is given by the weight distribution of all non-zero codewords a code word going has the Hamming weight ( )

Trellis comprises time units (h=5,m=2) starts in and return to states leaving and entering each state upper leaving branch , lower branch ] info sequence (red) is [

MAC PROTOCOLS CLASSI FICATIONS

Slotted ALOHA: transmission only takes place at the beginning of a time slot time slots have constant length collision it at least two frames are transmitted within an interval (half as much as pure aloha)

 Probability of successful transmission is and thus the throughput Comparison of Slotted and Pure ALOHA:

| ]

Transmission Probabilities: #new # retr. transition frames frames 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

probability ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( )( ) )( ( ) ( )) )) )( ) ( )) ) ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ) ) ) ) Throughput of nonpersistent CSMA: Assumptions: many stations: packet transmission with fixed duration 3 states per slot: unused, collision, successful transm. channel access follows Poisson districbution with rate normalized offered load (note that due to CSMA this is the rate at which stations try to access the channel, not the actual packet rate on the channel) transmitter immediately knows whether transm. successful no packet loss and the delayed packets have to be transmit. CSMA/DC: with collision detection If stations detect the collision and abort transmissions immediately, this improves spectral efficiency. For long distances, this is inefficient, as a long time is elapsed until the collision is detected three state: contention, transmission, idle

Pure ALOHA: Slotted ALOHA: retransmission rate for slotted

achieved at at 0 >1 1 1 >1 >1

Analysis of Slotted ALOHA: : number of stations stations buffer only one frame (new frame or retransmission) a backlogged station does not accept new pakets non-backlogged stations generate a new frame in the next slot with probability : retransmission probability of a backlogged station in the next slot : number of backlogged stations ( ) : offered load Probability Distribution of new & retransmitted frames: Probab. that new frames are being sent in a specific slot: ( ) ( ) )( Probab. that packets that have already collided are being retransmitted in a specific slot: ( )( ) binomial distribution converges to the Poisson distribution, if we keep acg. # frames per slot constant ( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )

( Mean Delay: from Markov chain, we get steady state probab. [ ] avg. number of backlogged nodes: avg. number of customers in system: with : average delay, and : average rate of new frames arrival rate depends on # backlogged frame: [ ( )] [( ) ] ( ) Average delay of frame until successful transmission:
( )

Collision-free protocols Assumptions: all stations hear each other and are synchronized there are exactly stations with unique address Bit-Map Protocol: s reservation protocol

Markov-Chain Model of Slotted ALOHA: # backlogged stations completely determines the prob. distr. of thransmission attempts (new & retransm. frames) state variable stands for the number of backlog. stations

Transition probab. matrix:

denotes the vector of state probab. at time index is an eigenvector of

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): Carrier Sense: stations listen for a carrier (ongoing transm.) All CSMA protocls are slotted. 1-persistent: wait until channel idle, then immediately transmit a frame. If a collision occurs, wait a random amount of time and start over. 1-persistent, because it sends with a probability of 1, when it finds an idle channel. Nonpersistent: Waits a random period of time and then checks the channel again / repeats the algorithm. Depending on the protocol, it does not continually sense the channel. P-persistent: only applies to slotted channels if a station has data to send and finds an idle channel it transmits with probability . if other station beginns transmitting, handle it like a collision if c e fi i i i s free to begin with the algorithm. Collisions can still happen: propagation delay among stations more than one station begin to transmit at the end of the previous transmission (especially 1-persistent) Hidden node problem in case of wireless comm.

Vulnerable periode between nodes: ( Duration of channel access:

poisson distr.: prob. of frames in : [ | ] random time between two channel accesses follows exp. distr. with mean :

for

)
( ( ) ) (

(
)

rate of successful transm.: becomes:

Image says it all. Transmission in order of the address. Overhead of 1 bit per station. Binary Countdown: each station has a binary address of same length stations that want to use the channel start broadcasting their address, string with MSB if address bit is 1, send a burst; if 0, sense the channel. give up, when sensing a 1 final address: XOR of all the channel use trials highest address wins switch address to solve Limited-Contention Protocols use contention at low load, collision-free prot. at high load Assume: stations, each with probability to transmit in slot (during contention mode) ) Prob. for successful channel acquisition: ( Optimal value [ | ] ( ) Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol: Each bit slot: associated with a particular node in the tree In the first contention slot following a successful frame transmission, slot 0,all stations are permitted to try to acquire the channel. If there is a collision, then during the slot 1 only those stations falling under node 2 in the tree may compete. If one of them acquires the channel, the slot following the frame is reserved for those stations under node 3. If on the other hand, there will be a collision during slot 1, it is node 4 d i g 2

with the max. possible packet rate , the throughput

 The heavier the load, the farther down the tree the search should begin.

EXAMPLES FOR WIRED N ETWORKS

Physical Layer: Manchester Coding (10BASE-T): for Manchester: each bit is divided into two equal intervals. If 1 is to be transmitted, send 10, for 0 send 01 for Diff. Manchester: each bit divided into two intervals. Always exactly one transition per bit. transmit 1 transition not at beginning of bit, for 0 transition at the beginning. Goal: easier synchronisation

Channel Access: - If medium free for time DIFS, transmit immediately - If medium busy, wait until end of ongoing transmission and start backoff procedure - check status of channel again, after this Backoff Procdure: for a station willing to transmit - Station sets backoff timer to a random backoff time. In this time the station waits and uses carrier-sense - Only if medium free, the station decr. backoff timer - Also start backoff procedure on collision Prob. of Collisions: reduction through backoff proc. - without such a proc., there would be a high prob. immediately after a successful transmission - because the all stations prepared to transmit would start at the same time Hidden Station Problem:

A tries to send to B, does carrier sensing, but C is out of range. Thus it can falsely conclude that it can transmit to B

Ethernet MAC Algorithm: Binary exponential backoff based on CSMA/CD alternating the time slots with contention or successful transm. after a collision, time is divided into discrete slots; length of each slot is equal to the worst-case round-trip propagation i e e e e (2 ). after the first collision, each station waits either 0 or 1 slot times before trying again. after each further collision the backoff window is doubled (up to maximum 1024 time slots) for example after the second collision each one picks either 0, 1, 2, or 3 at random and waits that number of slot times. in general after collisions, a random number between 0 and is chosen, and that number of slots is skipped. after 16 collisions, report failure to higher layer further recovery is up to higher layers. WLAN 802.11: MAC sublayer Two multiple access schemes: Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): CSMA/CA (contention based) Point Coordination Fuction (PCF): Polling (central allocation) DCF: CSMA/CA (CA: Collision Avoidance)

ADMINISTRATIVE
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