1

MEDE3005 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN

BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

2008 2009 Academic Year

Part I (11 hours, Dr. K. W. Chow) Governing Equations of Fluid
Dynamics


(A) Elementary concepts of fluid flows

Dependence on space and time
(1) Conditions in a body of fluid can vary from point to point and, at any given
point, can vary from one moment of time to the next. A flow is uniform if the
velocity at a given instant is the same in magnitude and direction at every point
in the fluid. If at any instant in time, the velocity changes from point to point,
the flow is nonuniform.

(2) A flow is steady if the fluid properties, e.g. velocity and pressure, at any
given point do not change with time. A flow which is not steady, i.e. with time
dependent properties, is termed unsteady.

(3) Note that all these combinations are possible:
(a) Steady uniform flows flow properties independent on position and time;
(b) Steady nonuniform flows flow properties independent of time but
depending on position;
(c) Unsteady uniform flows flow properties independent of position but
depending on time;
(d) Unsteady nonuniform flows flow properties depending on both position
and time.

Real and ideal fluids
(4) When a real fluid flows past a boundary, the fluid immediately in contact
with the boundary will have the same velocity as the boundary (the no slip
boundary condition, or friction will not permit a relative motion along the
boundary). In most problems encountered in practice, this boundary is taken to
be at rest.

(5) A frictionless fluid which permits sliding along the boundary will be termed
an ideal fluid.


2
(6) In practice, the no slip condition must be enforced. A thin portion of fluid
around the boundary, termed the boundary layer, will be the region where
viscous effects are the largest. This is also the region where drag force,
momentum transfer and energy loss are important considerations. Tremendous
efforts have been spent over the years to understand this dynamics, and we shall
attempt a brief introduction later this course.

Compressible and incompressible flows
(7) If the density of a fluid does not change in the flow, the fluid is
incompressible (otherwise, compressible). In practice, a liquid can be taken as
incompressible. The dynamics of a gas will usually require compressible effects
to be taken into account. However, as a working rule, a gas can still be treated
as almost incompressible if the Mach number is small (about 0.1 or 0.2). The
Mach number is the ratio of flow speed to the local sound speed. Given sound
speed in air as roughly 340 m s
1
, it is remarkable that a gas is still roughly
incompressible for a speed as fast as say 40 m s
1
. Compressibility must be
considered when the Mach number reaches say 0.4 or 0.5.

One, two and three (1D, 2D, 3D) dimensional flows
(8) A flow is termed 1D, 2D or 3D if the flow depends on one, two or three
spatial coordinates respectively.


(B) Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow

(1) The main objective of this section is to apply two basic laws of physics,
namely, conservation of mass and Newtons law of motion, to the dynamics of a
fluid. Cartesian coordinates will be used first, but once the equations are
established, one can easily extend the derivation to configurations in cylindrical
or spherical geometry, or for that matter, any other curvilinear coordinates
system.

(2) Review

(a) Lagrangian description The motion of a fixed particle is traced. The
usual Newtons law of motion is applied. The subsequent locations of the
particles are to be found as a function of the initial position and time.

(b) Eulerian description The fluid properties and locations are given in
terms of positions / coordinates fixed in space. This approach is more
convenient but note that different particles will flow through a fixed point at
different values in time.

3

In this case the total or material derivative is


z
w
y
v
x
u
t Dt
D
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

where u, v, w are velocities in the x, y, z directions. Roughly speaking, the time
derivative term denotes the local rate of change, while the other terms represent
the contribution from the convection or advection.

(3) Vorticity Formally the vorticity vector e is the curl of the velocity
vector (u), or e = curl u. Physically the vorticity represents twice the local
angular velocity of the fluid element, or in other words, it measures roughly
how fast the fluid is rotating and spinning. To keep the analysis to a minimum,
we consider again a two-dimensional (2D) setting. First we decompose the fluid
motion into these components: (i) translation, (ii) rotation, (iii) angular
distortion and (iv) volume distortion. We argue that, for the case of
incompressible flow, the volume distortion is zero or small, and thus we focus
of (ii) and (iii).

We now consider a deformation with angles , as shown in the figure, and
regard the whole deformation process as consisting of
(i) a rigid rotation of angle ( )/2 (angle of rotation of the fluid
element) and then
(ii) a bending/squeezing of ( + )/2 where the two sides move in opposite
directions (i.e. the dy side moves in clockwise sense while the dx side
moves in anticlockwise direction (angle of distortion).

Quantitatively we now relate this angle of rotation, ( )/2, to the
spatial gradients of the velocity vector. More precisely, for small angles,

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
dx
dt dx
x
v 1
o

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
dy
dt dy
y
u 1
|

and thus the rate of rotation about the z-axis is

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|

y
u
x
v
dt 2
1
2
1 | o



4
which is related to the z-component of curl (u). We define curl (u) to be the
vorticity (vector) of the fluid, and is, by this derivation, twice the local angular
velocity of the fluid.


(C) The Continuity Equation

(1) The continuity equation is simply a statement for the conservation of mass.
For any control surface (or control volume), the net mass outflux of fluid is
equal to the contribution from any source (or sink) located inside and the effect
from a net change in density (if the fluid is compressible).

(2) For simplicity we first derive it in a two dimensional (2D) setting, or one
unit of depth in the spanwise direction (direction perpendicular to the plane of
this page). In one unit of time, a length of fluid equal to the velocity of the fluid
will flow through a fixed section. The volume flux (volume per unit time) of
fluid is thus velocity times the cross sectional area. The mass flux is the density
times the volume flux.

Mass flux in the x direction u dy

Mass flux out in the x direction on the right hand side: dx dy u
x
dy u ) (
c
c
+

Net mass out in the x-direction

dy dx u
x
) (
c
c


Similarly in the y-direction the mass out flux is dy dx v
y
) (
c
c
. This mass out flux
must come at the expense of the decrease in mass or density

dy dx
t c
c


) ( ) (

v
y
u
x t c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c


or . 0 ) ( ) ( = + +
y x t
v u

For the case of constant density this reduces to


5
. 0 = +
y x
v u

In vector forms the continuity equation can be written as

0 ) ( div

= +
c
c
u
t


where u = u i + v j

and div is the divergence operator. Again for the constant density case this
reduces to div (u) = 0.

(3) Extension to three dimensions is conceptually straightforward.

(4) A popular approach is to use the summation convention, i.e. repeated indices
denote summation, while a free index, or an index occurring once, implies that
the equation holds for all three directions, e.g. the continuity equation can be
written as

u
j
/ x
j
= 0 .


(P1)
Water flows through a pipe 25 mm in diameter at a velocity of 6 m s
1
.
Determine whether the flow will be laminar or turbulent, assuming that the
dynamics viscosity of water is 1.3 (10
3
) kg m
1
s
1
and its density is
1000 kg m
3
. If oil of specific gravity 0.9 and dynamic viscosity 9.6 (10
2
) kg
m
1
s
1
is pumped through the same pipe, what type of flow will occur?

(Recall from last year (MEDE2005) that the Reynolds number, defined as
Re = (reference velocity)(reference length)/(kinematic viscosity) measures a
ratio of inertial force to viscous force. The kinematic viscosity is defined as
(dynamic viscosity/density). For pipe flow a transition from laminar to turbulent
flows occurs typically around Re around 1000 to 3000, depending on the
experimental configuration (i.e. laminar for Re < Re
critical
and turbulent for Re >
Re
critical
with Re
critical
somewhere between 1000 to 3000 (Note: these are NOT
rigid limits)).

For the flow with water:
Re = (6)(0.025)(1000)/(0.0013) = 115385, therefore turbulent.

For the flow with oil:
Re = (6)(0.025)(900)/(0.096) = 1406, probably still laminar)

6


(P2) An air duct is of rectangular cross section with dimensions 300 mm by 450
mm. Determine the mean velocity in the duct when the flow rate is 0.42 m
3
s
1
.
If the duct tapers to a smaller section with dimensions of 150 mm by 400 mm,
fine the new mean velocity, assuming that the density and flow rate remain
constant. (3.11 m s
1
; 7 m s
1
)


(P3) Determine if the following flows of an incompressible fluid satisfy the
continuity equation.

(a) ,
) (
2 1
2
0 0 2 2 2
2
2 2
r V
y x
x
y x
u
(

+
=

.
) (
2
2
0 0 2 2 2
r V
y x
xy
v
+

= (Yes)

V
0
is a reference velocity and
0
r is a reference length. Both are constants.

(b) ,
) (
2
0 0 2 2 2
r V
y x
xyz
u
+

=


0 0 2 2 2
2 2
) (
) (
r V
y x
z y x
v
+

= ,


0 0 2 2
r V
y x
y
w
+
= . (Yes)


(P4) For the flow of an incompressible fluid the velocity component in the x-
direction is

by ax u + =
2
,

and the velocity component in the z-direction is zero. Find the velocity
component v in the y-direction. To evaluate arbitrary functions that might
appear in the integration, assume that v = 0 at y = 0. ) 2 ( axy v =



7
(P5) An incompressible fluid flows through the circular pipe shown in the figure
at the rate of Q m
3
/s.

(a) If it is assumed that the velocities at stations 1, 2, and 3 are uniform, what
are the velocities, given that the diameters of the pipe at the three sections are A,
B, C, respectively?

) /( 4 ), /( 4 ), /( 4
2 2 2
C Q B Q A Q t t t

(b) Compute numerical values for the case

Q = 0.4
m
3
/s,
A = 0.4 m,
B = 0.2 m,
C = 0.65 m.


(P6) The incompressible continuity equation in polar coordinates is (v
r
, v

are
the velocities in the r and directions respectively)

0
1 ) ( 1
=
c
c
+
c
c
u
u
u
r r
rv
r
r
.

(a) On the basis of this equation alone, what is the most general type of flow
possible if ? 0 =
u
u Sketch the flow. ) / ( r C
r
= u

(b) Similarly, what is the most general type of flow if
r
u = 0? Sketch the flow.
)) ( ( r F v =
u



(P7) A compressible fluid is caused to flow through a tube of constant diameter
in such a way that the velocity along the axis is given by

x
u u u u
u h tan
2 2
1 2 2 1

+
+
= ,

where
1
u and
2
u are the velocities when x is minus or plus infinity, respectively.
The density does not change with time at any point. The density at x = is
1
= . Obtain an equation for the distribution of density along the tube.
) / (
1 1
u u =


8

(D) Equations of motion of an inviscid fluid

Newtons second law (force = mass(acceleration)) in Eulerian
coordinates
The total forces acting on a fluid element are those resulting from the pressure
and any body forces arising from stratification, electromagnetic effects and
other relevant physical effects. There is no contribution from viscous stress (i.e.
no friction). For a 2D setting the Newtons law of motion or force = mass times
acceleration is

x
f
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

1


y
f
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

1


where f
x
, f
y
are the body forces per unit mass. These are the Eulers equation
of motion.


(P8) The equations of motion in plane, polar coordinates are:

,

1
,

1
2
u
u u u u u
u u
u u
u
f
p
r r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
f
r
p
r
v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
r
r
r
r r
r
r
+
c
c
= +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c


and can in principle be obtained by considering the forces on a small element
bounded by the lines corresponding to r, r + dr, and u, u + du.


(P9) Consider the stream function
2 2
y x = for a fluid of constant density
(Recall that ) ,
x y
u u = =

(a) Calculate the total acceleration vector a and show that it is proportional to
the radius vector. (4 x i + 4 y j)

(b) Use the result in part (a) to integrate the equation of motion assuming no
friction and no body forces and find the pressure as a function of radius. (p =
2r
2
+ constant)

9


(P10) Assume that a perfect and incompressible fluid is flowing horizontally
over a large surface. The flow is steady. Let the x-direction be the direction of
flow and let the y-direction be parallel to the action of the gravitational forces.
Gravitation is the only body force acting. Find the relation between p and y.
) , 0 ), ( , 0 ( gy p p y u u
x
= = = = u


(P11) Consider a perfect and incompressible fluid flowing in circular path about
a center. The flow is purely two-dimensional and steady. There are no body
forces acting.

(a) Find from Eulers equation the differential relation between the pressure,
the tangential velocity u
u
, and the radial distance.
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
r r
p
2
u
u


(b) Find this same relation by considering the equilibrium of a small element
of fluid in this special case.


(E) Equations of motion for a viscous fluid

Relations between stress and strain and the Navier Stokes equations
(1) The consideration of stress is very similar to the one covered in earlier
course work in solid mechanics. Again, on applying force = (mass)
(acceleration) we get (f
x
, f
y
, f
z
are the body forces)

z y x
f
Dt
Du
zx
yx
xx
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
t
t
o


z y x
f
Dt
Dv
zy yy xy
y
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
t o t


z y x
f
Dt
Dw
zz
yz
xz
z
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
o
t
t


Exact relations between the stress and strains are involved, and please consult
the textbooks and references for details. These connections between stress and
strain are generally known as constitutive equations (or relations) in fluid
mechanics. We just state the results:

10


z
w
y
v
x
u
y
w
z
v
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
z
w
p
y
v
p
x
u
p
zy yz
zx xz
yx xy
zz
yy
xx
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= =
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
O
t t
t t
t t
O o
O o
O o
.
,
,
, 2
3
2
, 2
3
2
, 2
3
2




On simplification this gives


.
3
1 1
,
3
1 1
,
3
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z o o
y o o
x o o
f
z
v
z
w
y
w
x
w
v
z
p
Dt
Dw
f
y
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
v
y
p
Dt
Dv
f
x
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
v
x
p
Dt
Du
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
O

If the volume dilatation term is zero by the continuity equation then we have the
Navier Stokes equations

x o
f
z
u
y
u
x
u
v
x
p
Dt
Du
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
2
2
2
2
2
2

1


y o
f
z
v
y
v
x
v
v
y
p
Dt
Dv
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
2
2
2
2
2
2

1


z o
f
z
w
y
w
x
w
v
z
p
Dt
Dw
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
2
2
2
2
2
2

1



11
where = =

o
v kinematic viscosity,

= dynamic viscosity, = density.

Non-dimensional forms can be obtained by introducing non-dimensional
coordinates (with *)

, , ,
* * *
L
z
z
L
y
y
L
x
x = = =
), / /(
*
o
U L t t =
o o o
U
w
w
U
v
v
U
u
u = = =
* * *
, ,
) /(
2 *
o
U p p =

L and U
o
are the reference length and velocity scales. On dropping the * we get

x zz yy xx x z y x t
f u u u p wu vu uu u + + + + = + + + ) (
Re
1


y zz yy xx y z y x t
f v v v p wv vv uv v + + + + = + + + ) (
Re
1

z zz yy xx z z y x t
f w w w p ww vw uw w + + + + = + + + ) (
Re
1

where

Re
L U
v
L U
o
o
o
= =

is the Reynolds number and measures (roughly) the ratio of inertial force to
viscous force.

Cylindrical coordinates
(2) In a cylindrical coordinate system the Navier Stokes equations are:

r-direction


,
2 1 1
3
1 1
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
r
r r r r
o o
r
z
r r
r
r
f
v
r r
v
z
v v
r
r
v
r
r r
v
r
v
r
p
r
v
z
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
+

c
c

c
c
+
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
u
O

u
u
u u



12
u-direction

,
2 1 1
3
1 1
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 u
u u u u
u u u u u u
u
u
u
O
u
u
f
v
r r
v
z
v v
r
r
v
r
r r
v
r
v
r
p
r
v v
z
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
r
o o
r
z r
+

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c

z-direction


,
1 1
3
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
z z z
o o
z z z
r
z
f
z
v v
r
r
v
r
r r
v
z
v
z
p
z
v
v
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
+

c
c
+
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
O

u
u



Boundary Conditions
(3)
(a) No penetration condition for both ideal and viscous fluids at a solid wall
which is at rest, the normal component of fluid velocity should be zero (the no
penetration boundary condition), unless there are sources or sinks inside the
wall (ejection or seepage). In the unlikely situation where the wall is moving,
the fluid velocity perpendicular to the wall should match that component of the
wall velocity.

(b) Tangential condition for an ideal fluid, wall at rest the tangential
component of the fluid velocity at the wall needs not be zero as there is no
friction. The fluid can slide along the wall.

(c) Tangential condition for a viscous fluid, wall at rest the tangential
component of the fluid velocity at the wall must be zero as there is friction
(the no slip boundary condition).


Limiting cases
(4) The equations of motion can be simplified considerably in certain regimes:

(a) Reynolds number much, much larger than one (Recall that the Reynolds
number is the ratio of inertial force to viscous force) in this case the viscous
effect is only important in the boundary layer. The flow then consists mainly of
an inviscid core outside of the bluff body, and a thin boundary layer around the
body. The difficulties are then (a) the analysis of the boundary layer and (b) the

13
matching of the two regions. Despite the efforts in the past 100 years, some
scientific and technical issues are still unresolved.

(b) Reynolds number much, much less than one Viscous forces dominate.
The regime is usually called Stokes flow.


(P12) Flow down an inclined plane, gravity being the body force and friction
opposes the motion Liquid of density and viscosity flows down a wide
plate inclined at the angle u to the horizontal under the influence of gravity. The
depth of the liquid normal to the plate is h. The flow is steady and everywhere
parallel to the plate. The viscosity of the air in contact with the upper surface of
the liquid may be neglected. Determine the velocity profile parallel to the plate,
the shear stress at the wall, and the average velocity. (Hint: use a coordinate
system parallel (x) and perpendicular (y) to the inclined plane. Boundary
conditions: no slip at the wall, and no shear stress at the free surface)

)
3
sin
sin
) 2 (
2
sin
(
2
average
2

u
u t

u
gh
u
gh
y hy
g
u
w
=
=
=



(P13) Plane Poiseuille flow in a rectangular channel. (No body force,
pressure gradient drives the flow) We consider the steady flow of a viscous,
incompressible fluid in an infinitely long, two dimensional stationary channel of
breadth h with no body forces present. The flow is everywhere parallel to the x-
axis and the y-axis is placed at the bottom of the channel. The velocity profile
and shear stress distribution are to be determined.

Solution: With v = w = 0 the equations of motion become

(a) ,
1
0
2
2
y
u
v
x
p
o
c
c
+
c
c
=

(b) ,
1 1
0
z
p
y
p
c
c
=
c
c
=


in the x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively, and the continuity equation is

(c) . 0 =
c
c
x
u



14
In addition, we have the boundary conditions u = 0 at y = 0, h. From Eq. (c) it
follows that u can be a function of y only. Furthermore, Eq. (b) shows that p
cannot depend on y or z, but only on x. Finally, from (a) it is seen that

(d) |
.
|

\
|
= =

o
v
dy
u d
dx
dp
.
2
2


The right-hand side of this equation can only depend on y and the left side only
on x. These conflicting requirements can only be satisfied if both sides are
equal to the same constant. Thus the pressure gradient must be a constant for
this flow. Equation (d) is now easily integrated, and we obtain

,
2
1 2
B Ay y
dx
dp
u + + =

where A and B are constants. When these are evaluated with the use of the
boundary conditions, we obtain

. ) (
2
1 2
y hy
dx
dp
u =

Thus the velocity profile is parabolic with the maximum velocity at the center of
the channel. The shear stress is

), 2 (
2
1
y h
dx
dp
dy
du
yx
= = t

so that on the upper surface the stress dx dp h / ) 2 / (
0
= t acts on the fluid.
Similarly, on the lower surface the stress on the fluid is dx dp h / ) 2 / (
0
= t (recall
the convention of positive shear stresses). Of course, these stresses could have
been determined directly from static consideration since there is no acceleration
of the fluid.

The existence of the motion in this case depends on the pressure gradient dp/dx.
The volume flow rate per unit depth of channel is


}
= =
h
dx
dp h
dy u q
0
3
,
12


and we see that a discharge in the positive x-direction requires a negative
pressure gradient or a pressure that decreases in the direction of flow. The

15
pressure drop in a channel of length L can be expressed in terms of the average
velocity q/h =V as follows:

.
2
24 12
2
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
V
h
L
Vh
v
V
h
L
p

A


(P14) Poiseuille flow in a CIRCULAR channel (again no body force, pressure
gradient drives the flow, but the geometry is now cylindrical). Consider circular
pipe flow in a cylinder of radius a. Derive the corresponding formulae for
velocity profile and volume flow rate

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
= ) (
4
1 2 2
r a
dx
dp
u

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
L
p a
dx
dp a
Q
A

t

t
8
8
4
4


L = length of the pipe, Ap = (numerical value for the) drop in pressure


(P15) (A 2layer fluid, no body force, no pressure gradient, motion driven by a
moving plate, velocity profile piecewise linear) Consider the steady laminar
incompressible flow between two parallel plates. The upper plate moves at
velocity U
o
to the right and the lower plate is stationary. The pressure gradient
is zero. The lower half of the region between the plates (i.e., 0 s y s h/2) is
filled with a fluid with density
1
and viscosity
1
, and the upper half (h/2 s y s
h) is filled with a fluid of density
2
and viscosity
2
.

(a) State the condition that the shear stress must satisfy for 0 < y < h.

(b) State the conditions that must be satisfied by the fluid velocity at the
walls and at the interface of the two fluids.

(c) Obtain the velocity profile in each of the two regions and sketch the result
for
2 1
> .


16
(d) Calculate the shear stress at the lower wall.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ ) (
2
21 1
2 1


h
U
o


(t = constant; u = 0 at y = 0, u = U
o
at y = h, u is continuous at y = h/2;

< <
+

< <
+
=
h y
h
h
y h U U
h
y y
h
U
u
o o
o
2 ) (
) ( 2
2
0
) (
2
2 1
1
2 1
2







(P16) (Co- or counter- rotation cylinders) A cylinder of radius a rotates with
angular velocity O concentrically inside a larger stationary one of radius b.
Fluid of viscosity and constant density fills the gap between the cylinders.
Assume that the flow is steady and the motion is purely circular so that no
quantities change with angular position. Obtain the velocity distribution
between the cylinders and the shear stress on the two cylinders in two ways: (a)
by setting up the equations of equilibrium for an annulus consisting of the inner
cylinder and an outer one of arbitrary radius r or (b) by solution of the Navier-
Stokes equations in cylindrical coordinates.

(Perhaps it is easier to proceed directly with (b). The equation in v
u
is
equidimensional and can be solved by v
u
= r
n
. Solve for n)

) (

(
2
2 2
2
r
b
r
b a
a

=
u
u

t on inner cylinder
2 2
2
b 2
b a

t on outer cylinder )
a
2
2 2
2
b
a

(P17) (Stream function of planar flows) A viscous flow of viscosity is given
by the stream function

. Axy =


17
(a) Sketch the streamlines accurately near the point x = y = 0. Take A to be
positive.

(b) Assuming that there is no body force f, integrate the Navier-Stokes
equations for this special case and obtain a relationship between the pressure, A,
x, and y.

(c) If the average pressure at the point x = y = 0 is
0
p , what is the normal
stress
xx
o at the same point ?

(d) Assume that the line x = 0 is a solid surface. Can the stream function
above represent correctly the flow near x = y = 0 ? Explain very briefly. (Are
the no-slip and no penetration conditions satisfied?)

((b)
2
) (
2 2 2
y x A
p
+
=

(c) ) 2 A p
o xx
o =


(P18) Consider again the planar flow of an incompressible fluid given by

. Axyt =

Assume that the flow is inviscid and that there are no body forces. Find the
pressure, p, within the flow as a function of A, (fluid density), x, y, and t by
integrating the equations of motion. (The result contains an arbitrary constant
which could be evaluated by assuming that the pressure at any one point in the
flow for example, at the origin is known.)


(P19) (Flow outside of a rotating cylinder) An incompressible liquid is
contained in the annulus between an inner rotating cylinder of radius
i
r and an
outer stationary one. The outer radius
o
r is much larger than
i
r (
o
r may
essentially be taken to be infinite). The inner cylinder rotates at a constant
angular speed e, so that the surface velocity is
i i
r e
u
= V . The velocity at r = r
o

may be taken to be zero. The flow is steady, the components
z
u and
r
u are
assumed to be zero, and all derivatives with respect to u are also zero. The flow
is laminar and the viscosity is constant.

(a) Determine the velocity
u
u as a function of the radius r.


18
(b) What is the torque (surface force times radius) required to turn the
cylinder?
). 2 , (
2

e
u
r
r
v
i
=


(P20) (Vorticity, or the dynamics of rotation in fluids) Consider the two
equations of motion for the planar flow of an incompressible, frictionless fluid
under the action of conservative body forces (= body forces which are results of
a gradient vector of a scalar potential). By eliminating the pressure from these
two equations and using the equation of the continuity ) 0 / / ( = c c + c c y v x u , show
that

, 0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
t
e e e


where e is the magnitude of the vorticity ). / / ( y u x v c c c c = e What can you
conclude about the vorticity of a particular element of fluid in such a flow ?
(Material derivative of the vorticity = 0, or vorticity following a particle is
constant)























19
Supplementary Problems


(P21) (Acceleration) The velocity in a certain flow field is given by the
equation

k j i

3
2
y xz yz V + + =

Determine the expressions for the three rectangular components of acceleration.

(From expressions for velocity, , , 3
2
xz yz u = = v and y w= .

Since

z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
a
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
then

z y xz
yz y z xz yz a
x
2 3
2 2
6 3
) 6 ( ) ( ) 3 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) 3 ( 0
+ =
+ + + =

Similarly,
xz a xy yz a
z y
= + =
3
3 ).


(P22) (Vorticity) Determine an expression for the vorticity of the flow field
described by

j i

2 2
xy y x V =

Is the flow irrotational?

The vorticity is twice the rotation vector:

k

) ( ) v (
2 2
y x + = V



As this is non zero, the flow is rotational.


(P23) (Conservation of mass) For a certain incompressible, two-dimensional
flow field the velocity component in the y-direction is given by the equation

xy x v 2
2
+ =


20
Determine the velocity component in the x-direction so that the continuity
equation is satisfied
) (
2
y f x u + =

(where f(y) is an undetermined function of y.)


(P24) For a two dimensional flow in the x, y plane, the y component of the
velocity is given by v = y
2
2 x + 2 y . Determine a possible x component for
this steady, incompressible flow. ( u = 2 x y 2 x + f (y) )


(P25) The x component of velocity in a steady, incompressible flow field in the
x, y plane is u = A/x , where A is a constant. Find the simplest y component of
velocity in this flow field. (Ay/x
2
)


(P26) Are the following velocities fields consistent with the continuity
equations?
(a) u = U
0
(x
3
+ xy
2
), v = U
0
(y
3
+ yx
2
), (U
0
constant) (Yes)
(b) u = 10 x t, v = 10 y t. (Yes)


(P27) (Mass flow) Air entering a compressor has a density of 1.2 kg m
3
and
velocity 5 m s
1
. If the cross sectional area is 20 cm
2
, find the mass flow rate.
(1.2 10
2
kg s
1
)


(P28) (Acceleration) The velocity in a certain two-dimensional flow field is
given by the equation

j i

2 yt xt V =

Determine expressions for the local and convective components of acceleration
in the x and y directions.

21

Then

2
4
) (
2 ) (
xt
y
u
v
x
u
u convective a
x
t
u
local a
x
x
=
c
c
+
c
c
= =
=
c
c
= =

and

2
4
) (
2 ) (
yt
y
v
v
x
v
u convective a
y
t
v
local a
y
y
=
c
c
+
c
c
=
=
c
c
=



(P29) (Kinematic description of fluid motion) The three components of velocity
in a flow field are given by


4 2 / 3
2
2
2 2 2
+ =
+ + =
+ + =
z xz w
z yz xy v
z y x u


(a) Determine the volumetric dilatation rate, and interpret the results. (b)
Determine an expression for the rotation vector. Is this an irrotational flow
field?

(b) Volumetric dilatation rate = 0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u


This result indicates that there is no change in the volume of a fluid element as
it moves from one location to another.

0

2
5

2
) v (
2
1

= +
|
.
|

\
|
+ = V k j i
y z
z
y


No, this is not an irrotational field.


(P30) (Motion driven by moving boundaries in the absence of body forces and
pressure gradient, Couette flows) An incompressible viscous fluid is placed
between two large parallel plates. The bottom plate is fixed and the upped plate

22
moves with a constant velocity, U. For these conditions the velocity distribution
between the plates is linear, and can be expressed as


b
y
U u =

Determine: (a) the volumetric dilatation rate, (b) the rotation vector, (c) the
vorticity, and (d) the rate of angular deformation.
(a) Volumetric dilatation rate 0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
z
w
y
v
x
u

(b) k
b
U

2


(c) k
b
U

(d)
y
u
x
v
c
c
+
c
c
=

Thus,

b
U
=


(P31) (Irrotational flows) The velocity components of an incompressible, two-
dimensional velocity field are given by the equations


2 2
2
y x v
xy u
=
=


Show that the flow is irrotational and satisfies conservation of mass.

0 ( =
z
e and the flow is irrotational).