6 Detectors

If we want to collect information about the flow of road traffic, we have to do measurements. The only devices in the beginning of road traffic study were a stopwatch and manual counters. This chapter discusses the equipment to measure road vehicle data, the detectors. Traffic detectors are used to detect the presence and/or the passing of a vehicle. In these notes, emphasis is given to the measurement of individual vehicles. Detection is used to adapt traffic control to the traffic flow, to count the number of traffic units, and to measure traffic flow parameters. The detection of pedestrians and cyclists is mostly done with a push button (street crossings). A push button cannot be used to count the number of users. Detection of the weight of persons is hardly used.

6.1

Pneumatic road tube

A rubber tube with a diameter of about 1 cm is placed on the surface of the road. When a vehicle passes, the wheel presses the tube and the air inside the tube is pushed away. One end of the tube is connected to a box that contains a membrane and an electrical switch. The air pressure moves the membrane and engages the switch. The other end of the tube has a small opening, to prevent reflection of the air wave. The tube is cheap and reliable, but because the tube is on the surface of the road it wears out rapidly and must be checked regularly. The pressure box and the electrical contacts are susceptible to pollution. Also bouncing relay contacts can cause inaccurate counting. It is also possible to use a piezoelectric element instead of a contact, to detect the air pressure wave. This sensor is not sensitive to pollution, but the electrical pulse is very weak and has to be amplified before it can be used. The amplifier also suppresses bouncing, and delivers a digital signal. This makes the detector more reliable, but also more expensive. When two tubes are places at a short distance from each other it is possible to calculate the speed of the passing vehicle. The profile of the tires has influence on the accuracy of this measurement. Features: Application: mechanical pressure, axle detection, passing cars, no vehicle separation. simple counting, speed measurement.

6.2

Piezoelectric cable

A coax cable with an isolation that has piezoelectric properties can also be used to detect pressure. If the material is deformed, the molecular structure changes, which results in a small electrical charge. If the charge is caused by friction, this phenomenon is called triboelectricity. The Traffic and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) in the UK developed, in cooperation with Marconi, a special construction to be placed in the road surface. In The Netherlands a coax cable with a PVC coating is used.

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

39

The cable is less noticeable than the rubber tubes and therefore has less influence on the drivers behavior. The cable is also stronger than a rubber tube. The signal levels are very low, so the detection amplifier must have a high input impedance (> 1 M). The ends of the cable must be isolated properly to prevent short circuiting, or leaking of the electrical charge. To measure lanes separately, a small pin, containing a detection circuit, can be applied. Features: Application: reliable (if properly isolated), inexpensive, less noticeable than rubber tubes, axle detection, no vehicle separation, suited for mobile measurements. same as for rubber tube.

6.3

Pneumatic and hydraulic ramp

Instead of a simple tube on the road, a hollow rubber strip is inserted in the road surface. It can be filled with air or a fluid (so-called jenever detector). These detectors are not used anymore because the costs for installation and maintenance are too high. Features: the same as for rubber tube.

6.4

Axle pressure meters

A sensor that measures the axle pressure of a passing vehicle is placed in the road surface. The measured pressure can be used to classify the vehicle or to detect excessive axle pressure. The detector is sensitive to vertical suspension motions, caused by an uneven surface. Recent tests showed large errors in the measured values. Application: Weigh-in-motion

6.5

Capacitive detector (1)

When two conductors are placed in a flexible tube or strip, the capacity between the conductors changes when pressure is exerted on the detector. The capacity change can be measured and provides information about the axle pressure. This kind of detector is not used in The Netherlands.

6.6

Capacitive detector (2)

When a vehicle approaches one of more conductors, the metal of the car changes the capacity to the ground. This change can be measured with sensitive detectors. Features: Application: sensitive to changes in the surroundings, sensitive to weather changes. mostly military applications.

6.7
40

Interruption of environmental light

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

There are several devices that detect the interruption of daylight or artificial light. A photocell measures the amount of incoming light. When the lanes are measured separately, the photocell is mounted in the road surface. The mechanical stress is large, and the lens is sensitive to pollution. Enough artificial light has to be provided at night. The very large difference between direct sunlight and artificial light makes it very difficult to ensure a reliable detection in all light conditions.

6.8

Interruption of a light beam

This type of detector uses a light beam (infrared) that is interrupted by a passing vehicle. The beam can be measured directly, or via a reflector. A horizontal beam can be used to measure all lanes, or a vertical beam with a reflector on the surface to measure the lanes individually. Pollution is also a problem here. A horizontal beam needs poles on the side of the road and presents possible danger to the traffic. This type of detection is commonly used in combination with road activities, when the allowed vehicle height is temporarily limited. A distinction between lanes is not important, and the presence of obstacles at the side of the road is also less important.

6.9

Passive infrared-detector

This device detects the radiated energy in the infrared spectrum. This detection is working well and is used mostly for military purposes. The detector is expensive and not used for traffic detection.

6.10

Acoustic and seismic detectors

Attempts to construct a reliable vehicle detector using microphones and audio filters have not been very successful up to now.

6.11

Radar (continuous wave)

Continuous wave radar (Doppler radar) transmits continuously on a fixed frequency. The frequency difference between the transmitted signal and the received reflected signal depends on the speed of the vehicle and determines also the detection. The detection principle is based on the Doppler Effect, the frequency change of the reflected signal. The measured frequency difference is:

Df =

2v f c

(6.1)

where f is the transmitted frequency, v is the speed of the vehicle in the direction of the antenna, and c is the propagation speed of the radar wave (speed of light). The factor 2 is applied because the effect occurs twice: once towards the vehicle and again for the reflected signal.

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

41

Detection of standing vehicles is not possible. Also the distance cannot be measured. Selection between classes of vehicles is not used. Because the radar detector is most of the time situated besides the road, the radar bundle has a certain angle with the road axis, so to measured speed is the actual speed of the car multiplied with cos(). A small angle increases the probability of errors when many cars are in the antenna bundle at the same time. A large angle decreases the accuracy of the speed measurement. A typical value is 20. A 2.4 GHz radar system can measure vehicles with a speed higher than 10 km/h; a 9.4 GHz radar system can measure vehicles with speeds as low as 3 km/h. Gantries must be used for the measurement of separate lanes, unless an average speed is sufficient. Use of Doppler radar for the control of traffic lights is hardly used in The Netherlands, but quite common in other countries. Application: (mobile) speed control.

6.12

Radar (pulse)

When pulses are transmitted the time difference between transmission and reception of the radar pulse determines the distance between radar antenna and vehicle. The propagation speed of radar waves is approximately the speed of light, so a time difference of 1 s corresponds to a distance of about 150 m. Application: Accurate equipment is too expensive to be used in vehicle measurements

NB: A higher frequency gives a better bundling of the beam. This gives better reflections and the accuracy is less dependent on the speed. This goes for both types of radar equipment

6.13

Laser detector (LIDAR)

Laser pulses are also used to detect the presence and the speed of vehicles on the road. The principle is the same as for pulsed radar, but the laser beam is very narrow and the detectors are more handysized. The principle is called LIght Detection And Ranging LIDAR. Especially the hand-held laser speed guns are commonly used now. Because the beam is very narrow, it can be aimed precisely at a particular vehicle. After pulling the trigger, a light beam is sent to the vehicle and the reflection is received. The time difference gives the distance. This sequence is repeated many times and the speed is calculated from the changes in the measured distance. The devices are compact and lightweight. Application: mobile speed control, traffic monitoring

6.14

Ultrasonic (continuous wave)

42

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

The continuous wave ultrasonic detector uses ultrasonic sound waves instead of electromagnetic waves. The detection principle is the same as for the Doppler radar detector. This kind of detector can be used to measure speed (Doppler) of vehicles. Application: continuous speed measurements, for instance at bottlenecks.

6.15

Ultrasonic (pulse)

The principle is the same as for pulse radar, but the detector now uses ultrasonic sound pulses. The time difference between transmission of a pulse and the reception of the reflection indicates the distance to the vehicle. The propagation speed of sound waves is much lower (~335 m/s) than for radio waves, so short distances can be measured without the need of nanosecond accuracy. A distance of 17 m corresponds with a time delay of 0.1 s. A special application is the determination of the vehicle class, as shown in section 7.5. The detector is placed over the road on a bridge or a gantry. This is expensive when a dedicated gantry is needed. The pulse is transmitted vertically towards the road surface. The reflection can return late (no vehicle), sooner (low vehicle = passenger car) or very soon (high vehicle = truck). Application: Vehicle detection, vehicle class detection.

6.16

Magnetometer detector

The magnetometer detector measures the change in the earth magnetic field under influence of a passing vehicle. The earth magnetic field is focused by the ferrous metal of the car. The probe is shaped as a small can and placed in a drilled hole in the road surface. The earth magnetic field flows through a core of ferromagnetic material or a special permalloy1 strip. Two coils are winded around this core. The primary coil has two symmetrical parts and is connected to a sine wave power source. When there is no external magnetic field the two parts of the induced magnetic field are balanced, the resulting magnetic field is zero and the secondary coil produces no output current. The existing earth magnetic field is compensated by a direct current through the secondary coil. When a vehicle passes, the earth magnetic field changes, and the balance is disturbed. Now the primary current induces a voltage in the secondary coil. This voltage is measured and indicates the presence of the vehicle. The coverage area is a rather small cone of about 2 times 15. This detector can detect a stationary vehicle. The vicinity of metal parts that might wring or that have a bad and changing electrical contact can deteriorate the working of the detector. The response time depends on the frequency of the current. If a 50 Hz power source is used, the output is 100 Hz and the response time is 10 ms. This is not suitable for accurate speed measurements. Features:
1

robust, detection of stationary vehicles, well-defined coverage, no weather influences.

an 80/20 alloy of nickel and iron; easily magnetized and demagnetized

43

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

NB: In the Southern Hemisphere the direction of the earth magnetic field is reversed and the magnetometer must be installed upside down!

6.17

Video-image detection

Video-image detection systems use machine vision technology to analyze traffic data from closed circuit television systems. Those systems are widely used for manually monitoring the traffic conditions, but in this course we focus on the detection of vehicles and traffic stream parameters. The advantages of video surveillance are a non-intrusive installation of the system no cutting or drilling in the road-surface and the capability to scan a wide area of the road section, usually several lanes for one camera. This allows for detection of spatial traffic parameters, such as density, queue length, shock-waves and speed profiles. Some applications are Automatic Incident Detection (AID), vehicle classification, intersection monitoring, signal actuation and license plate reading. The video-image can be used in several ways, depending on the desired vehicle of traffic parameters: 1. Tripwire systems. The video image is used to emulate conventional road sensors by using small localized regions of the image as detector sites. The camera viewpoint has a large influence on the accuracy and the reliability of the measurements. 2. Tracking systems. These systems detect and track individual vehicles through the viewing range of the camera. This information provides for a microscopic description of the vehicle movements. The camera position is even more important here. 3. Spatial analysis. This approach does not look at individual vehicles but focuses on the description of the road utilization by the traffic streams. The change of this description over time can be used for the detection of disturbances in the traffic flow.

6.18

The loop detector

The inductive loop detector is a vehicle detector that is used often for permanent installations. A coil with a few windings of copper wire is installed under the road surface. The shape of the loop is mostly rectangular. The important electrical properties of the coil are the self-inductance L and the loss resistance R. The loop is connected to an alternating current source with a frequency in the range from 40 to 120 kHz. The loop creates an electromagnetic field above the road. When a vehicle enters this field, the following changes occur:

44

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

1. The electromagnetic field generates Eddy currents (Dutch: wervelstromen) in the metal of the vehicle. These currents itself generate an electromagnetic field that opposes the loop field. The Eddy currents cause an energy loss in the metal of the car. This loss is proportional to the square root of the frequency. The loss expresses itself with an increase of the loss resistance R and a decrease of the self-inductance L. 2. The ferrous metal of the car increases the flux density of the magnetic field. This effect causes an increase of the self-inductance L. However, the influence of the Eddy currents exceeds this effect, so overall the self-inductance still decreases. 3. The presence of the car will increase the capacity of the loop. In practice this effect can be neglected, especially when the loop is connected symmetrically with respect to the earth.

The changes in the loop properties, mainly caused by the Eddy currents, are: 1. An increase of the loss resistance R: +5% to +15% 2. A decrease of the self-inductance L: 1% to 6% An electronic circuit, connected to the loop, detects and measures these changes and indicates the presence of a vehicle. The measurement of these changes can be done by measuring the various properties of the loop: the change in resonance frequency or resonance voltage, the change in period time, the change in phase angle between voltage and current, etc.

Not only vehicles have influence on the loop parameters. Also changes in the environment are detected, like falling rain. To prevent the detection of such slow changes, a differentiator is added to the detection circuit. This differentiator blocks slow changes. But because of this differentiator, permanent changes are not detected anymore after a given amount of time. This can be an advantage, for instance when a car is parked partially on the loop, or a disadvantage, for instance when a car is blocked under the barrier of a parking lot. This time is called the recovery time of the detector and the duration depends on the chosen circuit and the magnitude of the permanent influence. The time can vary from a few minutes to more than one hour. The loop detector gives a presence signal as long as a vehicle is in the range of the loop. With two loops at a short distance from each other, the speed and the length of the vehicles can be measured. The detector is robust and reliable, because the loop is installed under the road surface and does not suffer from wear by the passing wheels. Only deformation of the surface and new layers of asphalt can disturb the functioning of the loop detector. But the cost of installation is high and the road must be closed to cut the grooves into the road surface. Also the electronic detector circuit is rather expensive.

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

45

6.18.1 The loop parameters

Figure 6-1 shows at the left the electrical diagram of the loop, including the connection cable and the detection circuit. After some transformations, the diagram can be simplified to the right part of the figure. The parameters L, R and C include all parameters shown at the left side. The detector capacity C includes often an external capacitor, to tune the circuit to a predefined resonance frequency 0. An important consideration is the influence of the cable. A passing vehicle affects the loop, but the measured L and C also include the connecting cable which is not affected by the vehicle. For large cables this invariant part plays an important role and decreases the change in terms of percentage.

Figure 6-1

Electrical diagram, including cable and detector

The detection can be based on the following properties: 1. the resonance frequency: 0, 2. the resonance period time: T0, 3. the resonance circuit quality: Q0, 4. the phase angle: , 5. the impedance: Z.

All those properties have been used and are being used by various manufacturers to detect a vehicle. The properties of the detection process depend on the chosen detection method. Also the oscillator frequency plays a role. We have to decide which property is important. If we need an accurate speed measurement, all detectors must behave in the same way, independent of the used frequency, or the environmental temperature. If we only need a reliable detection for an intersection control, the sensitivity is more important. The next table shows the recommended choice of detection variable. The conclusion is that the variables 0, T0, and offer a good performance for most situations. The use of Z and Q0 is less recommended.

46

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

Table 6-1 Property Sensitivity Climate independent Linearity Frequency independent

Preferred variable, depending on the desired detection property 1st 0, T0, Q0 Q0 Z 0, T0 Z 2nd 3rd 0, T0, Q0 Z Z 0, T0 Q0 4th

6.18.2 Loop configurations

Many different loop sizes and shapes have been used. The application determines which loop will perform best. Especially the length in the driving direction has a large influence on the reliability of the detection. The recommended specifications from various manufacturers show the following figures: Function Detection of bicycles Axle counters Detection passenger cars Detection articulated trucks Separation of truck and trailer Traffic flow detection 0.5 m 0.5 0.8 m 1.0 2.5 m 2.0 4.0 m 1.2 1.3 m ~10 m (at least 2 vehicle lengths) Loop length

A long loop can be used to detect the presence or absence of vehicles in a road section. This function is particularly useful in combination with intersection control. It is possible to use an analogue output of this detector (Figure 6-2). The output signal depends on the total amount of metal in the loop and can be used to indicate the number of vehicles inside the loop area. When the loop length equals the size of a bus, the signal level is at a maximum when a bus covers the loop. This property Figure 6-2 Analogue long loop can be used to detect buses.

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

47

Loop detectors use the absence of a vehicle to calibrate the detector and to compensate for environmental changes (temperature). With a long loop in dense traffic situations this can be a problem. When the loop is continuously occupied by vehicles, the calibration may fail and the output will not be accurate. Detection of bicycles is often difficult. The amount of metal is small and a loop with a standard (Dutch) dimension of 150 * 180 cm, will not detect bicycles reliably. Only at the corners of the loop, where the sensitivity is highest, detection might work. Several solutions are found to solve this problem. One solution is to install more windings in the area where the bicycles pass, this increases the sensitivity for that area. Another solution is to install the loop wires at an angle of 45 in relation to the road axis. This also increases the sensitivity. When the loop detector is used to determine the vehicle type or to retrace vehicles, the length of the loop is very important. The underside of the vehicle determines the (analogue) output of the detector. If the loop is short (in relation to the driving direction) it is possible to measure many details of the passing vehicle. However, a short loop will also detect an articulated truck as separate vehicles. This effect corrupts the vehicle count and is not advisable. Too many details are also not relevant in vehicle recognition. When the loop is too long, the details disappear, because we observe a large part of the vehicle at the same time. Although the optimal size for vehicle recognition is not investigated, the standard length of 1.5 m seems to produce enough details for recognition of vehicles. This loop length is used on the Dutch motorways. To install other loops with non-standard dimensions is not desirable.

6.18.3 Influence of vehicle position

This section shows the results of some measurement to determine the influence of the vehicle position on the output signal of a loop detector. Figure 6-3 shows the influence of a lateral displacement with respect to the center line of the loop.
0 cm 75 cm 150 cm 0 cm 75 cm 150 cm

Change in resistance [%]

Change in self-inductance [-%]

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

15

10

0 -100

0 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Position in driving direction [cm]

Position in driving direction [cm]

Figure 6-3

Influence of lateral displacement

48

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

The loop dimensions are 150 * 150 cm, and the loop is on top of the road surface. The used car was a Renault 4, with a length of 360 cm and a width of 150 cm. The measurements were done with the car passing at the center line, with a lateral displacement of 75 cm (halfway), and a displacement of 150 cm (just outside the loop). The variations in the measured resistance R show clearly the influence of engine and axles. With a displacement of 75 cm this characteristic shape is still visible. The change in self-inductance L shows less detail. Figure 6-4 shows the influence of the distance between the loop and the underside of the car. The car passes the loop at the center line. The top line shows the same measurement as in the previous figure, with the loop on top of the road surface. The second line shows the measurement when the loop is installed under the road tiles at a depth of about 7 cm. Not only the signal becomes weaker, but also the characteristic shape of the signal disappears.
road surface below tiles road surface below tiles

Change in resistance [%]

Change in self-inductance [-%]

15

10

0 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

0 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Position in driving direction [cm]

Position in driving direction [cm]

Figure 6-4

Influence of loop depth

6.18.4 Unwanted influences

Environmental properties, like temperature, have influence on the loop parameters. Also when the loop is covered with a rain puddle, especially with salt in winter, the parameters change a lot, and a vehicle is mistakenly detected. The environmental properties, together with the properties of the electronic circuit, cause a certain voltage level at the output of the detector when there is no vehicle: the so-called zero level. In most electronic circuits a differentiating element (R-C network) is applied to eliminate the variable influence of the environment. This network allows fast changes to pass, but very slow occurring changes, caused by temperature, rain, etc., change the zero level to reflect the new situation. An additional effect is that lasting changes, like a stationary car, are filtered away after some time. The output level changes slowly towards the new zero level. The time needed to reach this situation is called the recovery time. This time depends on the time constant of the differentiator, the electronic circuit of the detector, and the magnitude of the stationary change. After this recovery time the detector is ready to react on new changes of the loop parameters.

Loops that are installed close together can cause unwanted mutual influences. When one of the loops detects a vehicle, the changes can be transferred to the other loops with mutual inductance (like a

Et4-024 Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006

49

transformer). One solution is to keep a minimum distance between the loops. If that is not possible, the detectors are using different oscillator frequencies, and are only selective to their own frequency. Because loop detectors are designed to be used at a short distance from each other, for instance as double loops in each lane on a multi-lane motorway, most detectors are selective to their own frequency.

Vibrations in the loop can also cause detectable changes in the parameters. This can happen in some parts of The Netherlands with a soft soil. Loops that are installed below clinkers (cobble stones) are sometimes laid between reinforcement (consolidation) mats. Also movements of the road surface, leading to permanent deformation, cause rather large changes in L and R. This deformation eventually leads to breaking of the wires. The causes can be cracks in the surface, subsiding ground, damage by frost, pushing away by heavy trucks, especially in curves, etc. Reinforcement mats can be used here also.

Metal objects in the vicinity of the loop cause a large stationary de-tuning and damping. These objects can be concrete reinforcement, metal bridge parts, heating mats, pipes and cables. Information of Siemens and Ericsson indicate that the influence of a passing vehicle is halved when the reinforcement is 10 cm below the loop. Especially the crossing iron bars of concrete reinforcement can touch each other temporarily, caused by vibrations and temperature changes. This causes large unwanted temporary changes. The welding together of all iron bars is a strict requirement in the vicinity of loop detectors.

50

Et4-024 - Traffic Guidance Systems November 7, 2006