What are adjectives? Adjectives are descriptive words which are used to add detail to a sentence.

They can give important or necessary information (e.g. Please hand me the blue paper), or they can just make the sentence more interesting or detailed (e.g. A frigid, icy, painfully cold wind blew around the town). Adjectives modify (describe) nouns. Adjectives can usually be identified by asking what: - The girl is beautiful. - What is the girl? Shes beautiful.

What are adverbs? Adverbs are descriptive words which are used to add detail to a sentence. They can give important or necessary information (e.g. Please hand me the scalpel now), or they can just make the sentence more interesting or detailed (e.g. A wind blew violently and unceasingly around the town). Adverbs usually modify verbs, and they frequently end in -ly. Adverbs can be identified by how or where or when: The dog ran quickly. How did the dog run? It ran quickly.

Uses of adjectives
Adjectives can tell the reader how much or how many of something youre talking about, which thing you want passed to you, or which kind you want. Please use three white flowers in the arrangement. Three and white are modifying flowers. If you are using multiple adjectives which are commonly put together, theres no need for a comma between the adjectives. Look at that sweet little puppy! If the adjectives arent usually used together, separate them with a comma or conjunction. Im looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.

My new dog is small and good-tempered. Adjectives usually go before the noun (e.g. small child) unless one of the following verbs are involved: be, feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, seem. In these cases, the adjectives work more like adverbs. The child is small. The child seems small.

Uses of adverbs
Adverbs answer the question how (e.g. How is the dog running?), as well as when, and where. The dog ran quickly. Quickly is modifying the verb ran. The adverb doesnt have to go after the verb; feel free to vary the sentence structure to make it more interesting for your reader: Silently, the girl snuck past her parents room. Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. The dog ran fairly quickly. The adverb fairly is modifying the other adverb quickly. The weather report is almost always right. The adverb almost is modifying the adverb always. The woman is quite pretty. The adverb quite is modifying the adjective pretty. This book is more interesting than the last one. The adverb more is modifying the adjective interesting.

Adjectives modify nouns

Adjectives are words which modify (describe) a noun not verbs or adverbs or other adjectives. The girl is beautiful. Beautiful is modifying the noun girl. Tom Longboat was not a bad runner. (adjective) Its easy to identify the adjective in this sentence. The foundation seems good. (adjective used as adverb) This descriptive word is a little more difficult. Even though good is usually an adjective, its modifying seems (How does the foundation seem? It seems good.) so its an adverb. We cant answer the question what is the foundation because we havent shaken it around and tested it yet, so we dont know if its good foundation or bad foundation well find out for sure if the building falls down. N.B. Sometimes it may look like an adjective is modifying another adjective, as in the case of dark blue or bright yellow, but this is because modern writing has removed the hyphen from a compound adjective. The proper form is dark-blue and bright-yellow. The evolution of English will eventually change the rules so an adjective can modify another adjective, but formal writing standards dont allow it yet.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs

Adverbs are words which modify (adds description to) a verb. Often but not always they end in -ly. Tom Longboat did not run badly. (adverb) Its easy to identify the adverb in this sentence. That cake looks good. (adjective used as adverb)

My elderly neighbor looks well. (adverb) These two descriptive words are a little more difficult. Even though good is usually an adjective, its modifying looks (How does the cake look? It looks good.) so its an adverb. We cant answer the question what is the cake because we havent tasted it yet, so we dont know if its good cake or bad cake. Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. The woman is quite pretty. This book is more interesting than the last one. The weather report is almost always right. The adverb almost is modifying the adverb always, and theyre both modifying right.

Adverbs and Nouns

Adverbs can occasionally modify nouns. The effect is creative and informal, and is best not used in formal writing. I have lots of homework. The adverb lots is modifying homework, telling the reader how much you have. However, breaking grammar rules does wonders for adding emphasis: This book is altogether madness. Altogether is an adverb. Theres no argument here as to what the speaker thinks of the book. Im feeling more like myself after a hot bath. More like myself is an adverb phrase which is modifying feeling, even though it looks like more is modifying the pronoun myself. You should assess your own writing based on the audience: would your reader find this sentence structure interesting or disconcerting?

Adjectives and Verbs

There are two things to consider when contemplating the relationship between adjectives and verbs. The first is that adjectives can come after the verb: The rock star was crazy. The cats tail is long. I am furious with my business partner. The cookies smell awesome! That shirt looks great on you. Note that these are forms of to be or sense verbs: to look, to seem, to appear, to taste, to sound, to feel, to smell, etc. If these verbs are modifying the noun in front of them, an adjective will always be required so the noun is properly modified. The second thing to consider is verbs that turn into adjectives; these are called participles. Usually, the verb has -ing tacked onto the end of the root form, or its the past tense. The adjective can be placed before the noun or after the verb. The smiling baby is really cute. Smiling is used as an adjective here, as is cute. This is my new washing machine. Washing is acting like an adjective for machine. This is my broken washing machine. This washing machine is broken. Broken is an adjective which is modifying washing machine. In the summer, frozen popsicles are refreshing. The secretary handed the boss the translated document.

After washing all the teacups, she found a forgotten one in the living room.

An Adjective with the Verb To Be

If the verb to be is modifying the noun which is before it, you will always need an adjective after to be. For instance: The homeless man was hungry. The young kids will be tired after their field trip. Its alright to have multiple adjectives both before and after to be: The old homeless man was cold and hungry. All the young kids will be tired and cranky after their field trip. Make sure the verb is actually a form of to be in past, present or future tense rather than a verb tense using to be. If you have were going (e.g. The kids were going home after their field trip), theres no need for an adjective after the verb to be; thats the place for an adverb.

Misuse of Alike
The word alike is an adverb (even though it seems like an adjective), and shouldnt be used to modify a noun; instead, use an adjective (perhaps same or similar). My girlfriend and I have an alike hairstyle. Because hairstyle is being modified, an adjective is required here: My girlfriend and I have the same hairstyle. My girlfriend and I have a similar hairstyle. If you really want to use the word alike, change the wording of your sentence: Our hairstyles are alike. This sentence works because alike is modifying are, not hairstyles.

Misuse of Same
The adjective same should modify a noun. If same is modifying a verb, consider changing same to alike or similarly. It is common for people and their pets to look same. Same could modify people or pets, but not look; use an adverb instead. It is common for people and their pets to look alike. Of course, theres always the to be/sense verb rule to be considered: They are the same. There may be situations where the to be/sense verb rule doesnt apply (English is notorious for breaking rules), so try a couple of wordings to see which sounds better. In situations where youre writing informally, its alright to use same after a verb.

Misuse of Unlike
The adjective unlike does not make sense if used before a singular noun, because it is used in comparisons; a different adjective (e.g. different, dissimilar, contradictory, opposite) should be used instead. However unlike may be used before plural nouns. Some people would attempt to be polite, and describe her as an unlike person. Unlike is inappropriate in this sentence because there is no comparison being made. It would be better to describe her as an unusual person, or a unique person. Their unlike perspectives clash. Because a comparison is being made between the two perspectives (a plural noun), unlike is appropriately used. Remember that unlike can only modify a plural noun, so look for one in your sentence.

Anymore vs. Any More

Any more These two words are the traditional expression in English and may be preferable for formal writing, particularly in a negative expression when meaning any longer. I do not care for this author any more. I do not care for this author any longer. The two adverbs are interchangeable, and you can use them in formal and informal writing. Anymore Dialogue is not considered a reasonable method of education anymore. Anymore is a modern term (an evolution of any more) which may not be acceptable in the eyes of some readers. Consider your audience carefully before using this adverb. While certain dialects may use anymore at the beginning of a sentence (Anymore one can buy anything online), this is not considered acceptable in formal writing. In fact, its a fairly rare usage, so you may want to remove it from your writing altogether unless youre writing for a very specific audience.

Anytime vs. Any Time

As English is an ever-evolving language, words are often caught mid-change. The adverb anytime is currently evolving; in common usage, it may be written as one word, but in formal communication it should be left as two words. Quotation marks may be used any time a character is speaking. This sentence is obviously formal, so a compound word would be inappropriate here. My new bicycle allows me to go anywhere, anytime. In this sentence, anytime is acceptable as a compound word because the sentence in informal; its not the kind of thing one would write in an essay or proposal.

Anyway, Anyways, or Any Way

Anyways The adverb anyways is extremely informal, and indicates the speaker is resuming a narrative thread or changing the topic of discussion. Its not a word you should use in formal writing. I never did understand numbers very well. Anyways, Ive decided to move from financing into tech support. Anyway Anyway can be used to mean in any case. This adverb is acceptable in formal writing, but intentions may be better expressed by the use of a variation of in any case. Consider your audience when choosing the adverb. Paris is expensive, but many people would like to vacation there, anyway. Paris is expensive, but many people would like to vacation there, in any case. Any way When written as two words, any way can be replaced by in any manner or by by any means. To get students to read, teachers often bribe them any way they can. To get students to read, teachers often bribe them in any manner they can. To get students to read, teachers often bribe them by any means they can. All of these adverbs are acceptable in formal writing. I dont mind staying home from the party because I dont feel all that well, any way. Because any way cannot be replaced with in any manner, it should be written as one word: anyway.

Everyday vs. Every Day

Everyday**

As an adjective, this adverb means common or informal. Everyday is perfectly acceptable in formal writing. It is not appropriate to wear everyday clothes to ones convocation. Every day** This adverbial phrase can be replaced by each day. This term may also be used in formal writing. It is not synonymous with everyday. Homework must be left in the professors mailbox every day. Homework must be left in the professors mailbox each day. Homework must not be left on the professors lectern everyday. Because everyday cannot be replaced with each day, we know this usage is incorrect.

Everyone vs. Every One

Everyone The pronoun everyone may be replaced by everybody. It is used to refer to all the people in a group. The new protocols will affect everyone positively. The new protocols will affect everybody positively. Every one Written as two words, every one refers to each individual who makes up a group, and means each person. My mother would like to thank every one who offered assistance during her illness. My mother would like to thank each person who offered assistance during her illness. For emphasis, you can also add each to the sentence: Students may excel if each and every one is treated with dignity and respect.

Every Time
Everytime should be written as two separate words: every time. While some compound words like everywhere and everyone have become commonplace in the English language everytime is not considered an acceptable compound word. You dont need to remind me to do the dishes everytime. You dont need to remind me to do the dishes every time. Every time we breathe, we inhale pollutants.

Sometime, Sometimes, and Some Time

All three of these adverbs are considered acceptable for formal writing. Some time When using some time, some is an adjective. It is describing the amount of time, and frequently implies a long period. For some time, the world has been known to be round. He has been studying Aramaic for some time. It can also imply a fairly specific amount of time: I require another couple of hours to finish this project today. I require some time to finish this project today. Sometime When written as one word, this adverb implies a vague time in the future. It can frequently be replaced by someday. The cure for cancer will be found sometime.

Ill get around to finishing that book sometime later. Give me a call sometime, and well have coffee. Sometimes When written as one word and ending in s, this adverb implies occasionally. Sometimes, I just dont understand what that man is saying. English grammar sometimes follows its own rules, and sometimes it doesnt.

With Sense Verbs

Following a verb which refers to the senses (e.g. see or seem, taste, feel, sound), be sure to use an adjective to describe the noun in the clause, instead of an adverb. She felt badly about her behavior last evening. Badly is an adverb, which shouldnt be used after felt. She felt bad about her behavior last evening. The house appears sound, but it hasnt been inspected yet. The house appears soundly, but it hasnt been inspected yet. That old meat smells funnily. That old mead smells funny. Exception: When using the verb to look to mean to see with ones eyes, as opposed to to seem or to appear, use an adverb to describe the verb. I looked quickly at the mans face. The verb to look is used to mean to see with ones eyes, and so an adverb is used. I looked terrible after the long ordeal. The verb to look is used to mean to appear or to seem, so an adjective is used.

Double Negatives, Involving Negative Words and Adverbs

Certain adverbs which infer little, few or not often shouldnt be used in the same clause as a negative word, as this creates a double negative. Such adverbs include: scarcely, hardly, barely, rarely, and seldom The employees never scarcely had personal time, as the project deadline loomed. The employees scarcely had personal time, as the project deadline loomed. My professor doesnt rarely look at the work we hand in, but he doesnt send it to his assistant, either. My professor rarely looks at the work we hand in, but he doesnt send it to his assistant, either. The vocalist barely achieved the proper note.

Misuse of Much
When referring to a noun, if one can count multiples of that noun, its considered a countable noun. If the quantity is generally too many or too difficult to count, its called an uncountable noun. For example, a grain of sand is countable (one grain of sand, two grains of sand), but sand itself is uncountable. For countable nouns, use the adjective many. For uncountable nouns, use the term much. How much shoes are in this store? Shoes are countable, even if there are billions and billions of shoes; use the adjective many to modify shoes. How many shoes are in this store? How much are the shoes in this store? Are they expensive? In this sentence, how much is referring to the price of the shoes, not the quantity. Some nouns can be countable or uncountable.

There are many wines for sale. This sentence refers to the different types of wine which are available for sale. There are many wine for sale. There is much wine for sale. This sentence refers to the quantity of wine which is available for sale.

Misuse of Many
For countable nouns, use the term, many. For uncountable nouns, use the term, much. I cant attend the party because I have too many stuff to do. Stuff is an uncountable noun, so it cant be used with the adjective many. I cant attend the party because I have too much stuff to do. Some nouns can be countable or uncountable. There are many wines for sale. This sentence refers to the different types of wine which are available for sale. There are many wine for sale. There is much wine for sale. This sentence refers to the quantity of wine which is available for sale.

Many Without a Direct Noun

Many and much are be used as adjectives. When used to modify another adjective, much is used because the second adjective is always uncountable, just like a noun. Most of the time, it is used this way in comparisons, so look for words like more and less, or suffixes like -ier.

The white cat is many more amusing than the brown cat. Many is modifying more, but more is uncountable, so the first adjective needs to be changed to much. The white cat is much more amusing than the brown cat. Are these purple jeans many less expensive than the black ones? Are these purple jeans much less expensive than the black ones? Tom is many funnier than Mary. Tom is much funnier than Mary.

Agreement Errors
Adjectives such as many, several, few, and enough should be used to modify plural nouns. Singular nouns may be modified by words such as a, one, the,or that. The man reacted quickly, with few consideration for his own safety. Consideration is a singular noun, and it cant be used with few. The man reacted quickly, with little consideration for his own safety. The man reacted quickly, with no consideration for his own safety. However, thoughts is plural, so it can be used with few. The man reacted quickly, with few thoughts for his own safety. Do you have enough packet of sugar? In this sentence, well have to change the noun to make it agree with the adjective enough. We can use a countable or uncountable noun, just not a singular noun. Do you have enough packets of sugar? Do you have enough sugar?

Misuse of Like and As.

The confusion in using like or as is caused by a lack of understanding of the words role. Like is used as a preposition, telling where, when or how the noun in the sentence is doing whatever it may be doing. As is used like a conjunction, joining two clauses. A general rule-of-thumb is that like should be followed by an object (to make a prepositional phrase), and as should be followed by a clause containing a verb. Like Most of the time, like compares two things. Imagine a grown woman acting as a child. Here, were comparing two things (the woman and the child), so like should be used. Imagine a grown woman acting like a child. The same goes for this next sentence where were comparing the mother and the girl: The little girl, as her mother, has bright red hair. Even though this sentence has a verb after as, the verb has belongs to the first clause, The little girl has bright red hair. We need the adverb like to modify her mother. The little girl, like her mother, has bright red hair. As Frequently, as can be replaced by the way. No one makes chocolate cake like my mother does. Because there is a verb after like (does), the conjunction as should be used. Its easy to say that about this sentence because as can be replaced by the way. No one makes chocolate cake the way my mother does. No one makes chocolate cake as my mother does. He cant play cricket like he used to.

At first glance, there appears to be no verb after like. However, when speaking, we often leave out verbs which are already implied. The implied verb is play, as in he used to play cricket. Like should be changed to as. He cant play cricket as he used to before he got so old.

Other and Another

If the noun is singular, we use another to modify it; if it is plural, we use other. Another means one other, so it should only be used with the singular. If the weather doesnt change soon, we may have a drought in another parts of the country. Another is modifying parts which is a plural noun so we have to change something. If the weather doesnt change soon, we may have a drought in another part of the country. If the weather doesnt change soon, we may have a drought in other parts of the country. I want to learn from many another teachers, not just one. I want to learn from many other teachers, not just one.

An Adverb Between a Verb and Its Direct Object

An adverb should not be placed between the verb it is modifying, and the direct object (whatever the verb may be modifying). Most adverbs end in -ly, but not all of them, so they can be difficult to identify. Be sure to look for words which may be nouns or adjectives but are acting like adverbs. The woman applied smoothly the lipstick.

The adverb (smoothly) should not be between the verb (applied) and the direct object (the lipstick). We need to re-write the sentence so the adverb is in the right spot, preferably right beside the verb. The woman applied the lipstick smoothly. (better) The woman smoothly applied the lipstick. (best) I poured slowly the milk into the glass. I poured the milk into the glass slowly. (better) I slowly poured the milk into the glass. (best) Remember to look for adverbs that dont end in -ly. Mary just went yesterday to the market. Mary just went to the market yesterday.

Wrong Participle
See: Adjectives and Verbs Verbs can be used as adjectives; this is called a participle. Some examples of participles are The Flying Dutchman and a loved one. Participles can be either the past-tense form of the verb or the progressive tense (ending in -ing). There is no clear way to determine which verb uses which form (although intransitive verbs do not use the progressive tense). Some verbs can use both but each will have a different meaning. The dog looks like a sleeped baby. The dog looks like a sleeping baby. I saw a really bored movie last night. The participle should be boring; movies cannot be bored. I saw a really boring movie last night

Make sure you have the right verb form: participles dont use the present tense. The frighten girl ran away from the dog. The frightened girl ran away from the dog.

Common Errors in English: Bad or Badly

Bad is an adjective; badly is an adverb. Dont get them confused. I did bad on my English exam. I did badly on my English exam. By the time the speech ended, he wanted to go home bad. This sentence is possible, if he wants to become a criminal before going home. (Perhaps hes going to murder the speaker?) By the time the speech ended, he badly wanted to go home. But remember the rule about sense verbs. If you want to talk about how something looks or smells, or how someone feels, use bad. She felt bad about forgetting her brothers birthday.

Common Errors in English: Good or Well

Good is an adjective; well is an adverb but can also be used as an adjective. Did you do good on your exam? Did you do well on your exam? Did you do a good job on your exam?

Good is modifying job not the verb to do. Thats well cake. Thats good cake. That cake tastes good. Remember the rule about sense verbs? Because tastes is used, we need an adjective instead of an adverb. The same rule applies to to be. Be good! This sentence refers to your behaviour. As an adjective, well is also used to mean in good health, so dont get it confused with the adverb. Be well. This sentence refers to your health and well-being.

Common Errors in English: Sure or Surely

Sure is an adjective; surely is an adverb. Are you sure the lecture is today? Mary is surely finished the painting by now. Surely, Mary will be finished the painting tomorrow. This is sure to be the best party ever. Here, sure to be is an idiomatic phrase which is modifying party, so its working like an adjective.

Common Errors in English: Near or Nearly

Nearly is an adverb, which means almost; near is a flexible little word which can be an adjective, verb, adverb or preposition. I have nearly finished this essay. (adverb) Is the park near the school? (adverb) As we neared the restaurant, we could hear the loud music and voices. (verb) We have a house on the near side of the lake. (adjective)

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Adjectives can be used to compare two things, or more than two things. Comparatives When comparing two things, youre likely to get adjectives like smaller, bigger, taller, more interesting, and less expensive. Notice the -er ending, and the words more and less. Make sure you have used the proper ending, or the proper comparative adjective. Mike is more funny than Isaac. Mike is funnier than Isaac. Notice the spelling change for adjectives ending in -y: the comparative ends in -ier. This book is boringer than the last one. This book is more boring than the last one. Advertising encourages women to be more thin.

Advertising encourages women to be thinner. Superlatives When comparing more than two things, youll get words like smallest, biggest, tallest, most interesting, and least interesting. Notice the -est ending, and the words most and least. Make sure you use the proper ending or superlative adjective. Frequently, youll find the article the before the superlative (e.g. the coldest winter). Martha is the elder of the four sisters. If there were only two sisters, we could use the comparative elder here. Because there are four sisters, we need a superlative. Martha is the eldest of the four sisters. I think his last book is his least interesting; his third book was the most interesting. That must be the weirdest play ever written. Remember that adjectives which end in -y have their spelling changed if -est is added. That is the sleepyest puppy of the litter. That is the sleepiest puppy of the litter.

Compound Adjectives
Compound adjectives are usually hyphenated (although we sometimes dont bother putting in the hyphen unless we need it for purposes of comprehension). British and American English differ greatly on this, so its safer to put the hyphen in if youre writing for British readers. She doesnt have any post-secondary education, but she is very well-read. I prefer the light blue sweater. Mr. Lake is teaching an under-water photography course. Their courses are sub-standard.

You dont need to hyphenate them if theyre capitalized, though. Did you get the Super-Saver coupons? Did you get the Super Saver coupons? You can also create a compound adjective by combining an adverb and an adjective. Again, the British sometimes hyphenate these, while the Americans dont usually bother. She is a remarkably-intelligent girl. He looks like a well-fed baby. While formal writing is not likely to use compound adjectives like the following ones, you can use them in less-formal compositions and creative writing. Quotation marks or italics can be used. She gave me a youre gonna die look. Hes away so often, he was given an in absentia award.

Nouns
During the 1970s, 80s and 90s, there was a famous TV program called Schoolhouse Rock. Most of us who grew up in North America at that time can still sing the songs; if you ask us what a noun is, well sing, Its a person, place or thing, yeah! A person, place or thing is probably the best definition for the word noun. English is a noun-based language; its estimated that about 50% of the language is nouns. When children are learning to speak, they can say Apple? and well know what they mean. This applies to most of our communication: if we have the noun, we can get the gist of any sentence, and the verbs, adjectives, etc. are merely extra bits for context. Because nouns are the main part of a sentence, all the other words work to describe that noun and what its doing or whats being done to it.

What Are Nouns?

The easy way to remember nouns is that they refer to a person, place or thing. Even intangible or abstract concepts like ideas or thoughts are things. A mother North America The table A plan A wish The use of nouns is fairly obvious; its difficult to make an actual mistake with a noun. Errors usually involve the words around the noun, or perhaps a singular/plural mistake. Most nouns which refer to people are gender neutral (teacher, doctor, lawyer) but a few are gender specific (actor/actress, waiter/waitress). Modern English has adjusted to accommodate gender; a fireman is male, a firewoman is female, and a firefighter is gender neutral.

Uses of Nouns

In a sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective. Maria is happy. Maria is the subject. Give the books to her. Books is a direct object; her is the indirect object. Mary is a teacher. Teacher is a subject complement. I now pronounce you husband and wife. Husband and wife are object complements. My brother Michael is six years old. Michael is an appositive. He is a speed demon. Speed is a noun which is modifying demon; speed is acting like an adjective.

Plural Nouns
To make regular nouns plural, add -s to the end. Cat cats House houses If the singular noun ends in -s, add -es to the end to pluralize it. Truss trusses Bus buses

If the noun ends with -f or -fe, the f is often changed to -ve. Wife wives Wolf wolves Exception: roof roofs If the singular noun ends in -y, change the ending to -ies. City cities Puppy puppies If the singular noun ends in -o, add -es to make it plural. Potato potatoes Tomato tomatoes If the singular noun ends in -us, the plural ending is frequently -i. Cactus cacti Octopus octopi If the singular noun ends in -is, the plural ending is -es. Analysis Analyses Ellipsis Ellipses If the singular noun ends in -on, the plural ending is -a. Phenomenon phenomena Criterion criteria Irregular nouns should be checked in the dictionary because they follow no specific rules. Child children

Goose geese Man men Some nouns dont change at all when theyre pluralized: Sheep Moose You need to see these nouns in context to understand whether theyre singular or plural. Mark caught one fish, but I caught three fish.

Types of Nouns

Abstract nouns Collective nouns Common nouns Concrete nouns Generic nouns Countable and uncountable nouns Possessive nouns Proper nouns Irregular nouns Compound nouns

Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which cannot be identified using one of the five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, smelling). We cant imagine the courage it took to do that. Courage is an abstract noun. The stupidity of the dinosaurs is assumed because of their relatively small brains. Higher education is strongly recommended.

Collective Nouns
The term collective nouns refers to a noun which is refers to a group of nouns. The nouns can be people, places or things. Some collective nouns are non-specific and can refer to any noun (e.g. group: group of people, group of photographs, group of chairs), and some can refer to only one thing (e.g. a pride of lions; you cant have a pride of chairs or a pride of birds). Hand me that bouquet of flowers, please. The teacher brought in a bunch of books for us to look at. The grandmother fed her grandson a whole pile of cookies. The collective noun may mean something entirely different when used as a common noun: Theres a murder of crows in that field. Have a look at that school of fish. Alex walked right into a bed of snakes. Generally, collective nouns are followed by of: e.g. a herd of cows. Sometimes, though, we get lazy and leave out the of ___. For instance, we would usually just say an audience because we know that an audience is comprised of people (not too many Martians in an audience, one hopes). We will side with the majority (of voters). Please hand these papers out to the class (of students). In formal writing, collective nouns can be replaced by a singular pronoun. The herd is going to the watering hole. The herd are going to the watering hole.

Common Nouns
Common nouns are words for people, places or things that arent specific (as opposed to a proper noun which refers to only one person, place or thing). Common nouns can be countable or uncountable, singular or plural. There are cows are in the field. We dont know which cows those are, nor do we know the name of the field; these are common nouns because they can be replaced with any other cows and any other field, and the sentence would retain the same meaning. I need some paper. Would someone please answer the phone? Does anyone have any ideas? Where is that book I was reading? Even though Im looking for a specific book, I havent used the name of that book, i.e. the title, so the first letter should remain in lower case. Where is Lord of the Flies? The title is a proper noun, not a common noun.

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which can be identified through one of the five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, smell). Would someone please answer the phone? Phone is a concrete noun: I can touch it, see it, hear it, and maybe even smell it or taste it. What is that noise?

Even though noise cant be touched and the noise may even be coming from several places I can hear the noise, so its a concrete noun. After his retirement, Mr. Bond pursued his dream of photographing rainbows. Rainbows is a concrete noun: it can be seen. Mr. Bond is also a concrete noun, but dream and retirement are not. (See Abstract Nouns.)

Generic Nouns
Generic nouns are nouns which are part of a generic statement. Theyre different from definite nouns (e.g. the book) and indefinite nouns (e.g. a book) in that the sentence theyre must be a blanket statement or question. Generic nouns can be singular or plural. Make sure the verb which is modifying the generic noun agrees with the generic noun (e.g. the gang of boys was, the gangs of boys were) The opposite of generic nouns is collective nouns (see Collective Nouns). If it refers to a specific group, its not generic. The pride of lions are cats. Pride is a collective noun which is modifying lions; cats is generic. Cats are animals. Both cat and animals are generic nouns. A cat is an animal. Despite the indefinite article, this noun is still generic because were not talking about a specific cat. The cat has been an integral part of civilization. While there is a definite article in front of cat, this sentence refers to cats in a general sense, so its a generic noun. Civilization has always included cats.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many. Here is a cat. Cat is singular and obviously countable. Here are a few cats. Here are some cats. Some more examples of countable nouns would be house, idea, hand, car, flower, and paper. Uncountable Nouns Uncountable nouns are nouns which come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things which act like liquids (sand, air) Theyre always considered to be singular, and can be used with a, some, any, a little, and much. An I.Q. test measures intelligence. Intelligence is an uncountable noun. Students dont seem to have many homework these days. Because homework is an uncountable noun, it should be modified by much or a lot of. Students dont seem to have much homework these days. A lot of equipment is required to play hockey safely. Some more examples of uncountable nouns would be water, soil, love, literature, and dust. Both Countable and Uncountable

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable: e.g. light, hair, room, gear, art, and science. Did you have a good time at the party? Here, time is countable (a time). I dont think I have time to do my hair before I leave. In this sentence, time is uncountable. There is some juice on the table. There are some juices on the table.

Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e. they have something. Of course, the thing the noun possesses is another noun. You can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an s. The cats toy was missing. The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of -s at the end of cat. Is this Brandons book? I pulled a feather from the gooses tail. If the noun ends in an s, we generally use only an apostrophe after the noun, although it is acceptable to use -s. The problem is that it looks funny with all those Ss, which would detract from reading. Ive been invited to the bosss house for dinner. Ive been invited to the boss house for dinner. The trainer flipped a fish into the walrus open mouth.

Proper Nouns
Proper nouns are the names of specific people or places. They should always begin with a capital. Please give this to Mary, not to Anna. George is going to California. Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands. The girls name is Catherine. Catherine is a proper noun because its the name of a specific girl. Girl is not a proper noun. (See Common Nouns.)

Irregular Nouns
Irregular nouns are nouns which dont follow a spelling pattern when pluralized. Child children See Plural Nouns.

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are words where two nouns have been stuck together to make a new noun. Compound nouns should be written as one word, without a hyphen. There are many different brands of toothpaste. tooth + paste = toothpaste (a compound noun) Polishing the silver candlesticks is a dull chore. We make chocolate cupcakes for the party. When we moved, we had a whole truckload of furniture.

Noun Strings
A long string of nouns one noun after the other makes for difficult reading. This includes nouns that are bing used as adjectives. This happens frequently in cases where technical jargon is used. Unnecessary nouns can be removed, or perhaps some of the nouns can be changed to verbs or adjectives. The company is considering branching into electromagnetic radiation assistive astronomical technology. Um what? Only someone who is in this field would be able to understand this noun string without re-reading the sentence several times. The company is considering branching into an astronomical technology which would aid in the study of electromagnetic radiation. This is better; the sentence uses the same number of nouns, but the noun string has been split up so the reader can easily process the information. The city could certainly use a fleet of public operation transportation vehicles. The city could certainly use a fleet for public transport. Even turning one noun into a verb (transportation/transport) or turning one noun into a clear adjective (public operation/public) makes this sentence a little simpler to understand. Notice, also, that we have broken up the nouns to make the sentence clearer.

Nouns with Adjectives and Adverbs

Nouns should be modified by adjectives, not by adverbs. That man is the most sanctimoniously person I have ever met. The adverb sanctimoniously is modifying the noun man; it should be changed to an adjective. That man is the most sanctimonious person I have ever met.

While waiting for his life to unfold, Martin was an anxiously person; this changed after he met his wife. While waiting for his life to unfold, Martin was an anxious person; this changed after he met his wife. The dress was an ugly dress, perhaps the ugliest ever to exist. Despite ending in -ly, the word ugly is an adjective and can be used to modify the noun dress.

Noun and Pronoun Agreement: These/Those

The demonstrative pronouns these and those are plural pronouns, and should refer to plural nouns. Mistakes frequently occur in situations where many things are put into one group, such as a pair of shoes, or a bag of marbles. In such cases, the pronoun should agree with pair, or bag. Mistakes can also occur when an accent or dialect makes this and these sound similar; while this can be charming to hear, it is considered incorrect in formal writing. Please move these box of books to the other table. The pronoun should refer to the box, not the books. Please move this box of books to the other table. What is all these noise? Even though there may be several sources of noise, the verb is tells the reader that the sentence should be in the singular. What is all this noise?

Countable and Uncountable Nouns with Adjectives

(See Countable and Uncountable Nouns)

These adjectives can be used with plural countable nouns: Few The manager had a few inspiration for the project. Inspiration is uncountable, so it cant be used with few. We need to find a countable noun to use with few. The manager had a few inspired ideas for the project. Ideas is countable, so we can use that with few. We can change inspiration to an adjective so the meaning is still there. Many I have many books. If a lot of or lots of is used with a countable noun, it means many. I have lots of books. These adjectives can be used with uncountable nouns: Little She got little sleep last night. A little bit of She only got a little bit of sleep last night. Much She didnt get much sleep last night. If a lot of or lots of is used with an uncountable noun, it means much. She didnt get a lot of sleep last night. She hopes to get lots of sleep tonight.

These adjective can be used with both countable plural nouns and uncountable nouns: Some Could we please have some bottles of water? Could we please have some water? Bottles is countable, and water is uncountable. Any Do we have any bottles of water? Do we have any water? Plenty of We have plenty of water bottles. We have plenty of water. Enough Do we have enough water bottles? Do we have enough water? No I just checked: we have no water bottles. I just checked: we have no water.

Capitalization of Nouns
Nouns get capitalized when theyre at the beginning of a sentence, or if theyre proper nouns. The red squirrel is endangered.

Red squirrels are endangered. How many cookies do you want, Andrew? Some nouns can be common or proper; capitalize the proper nouns and leave the common nouns in lower case. My mother made me a cake. Mother made me a cake. Did you make me a cake, Mother? The Earth is round. Spades are for digging in the earth.