Solving Nonlinear Wave Equations and Lattices

with Mathematica
Willy Hereman
Department of Mathematical and Computer Sciences
Colorado School of Mines
Golden, Colorado, USA
http://www.mines.edu/fs home/whereman/
whereman@mines.edu
Departement Toegepaste Wiskunde
Universiteit Stellenbosch
Matieland, Zuid-Afrika
Woensdag, 21 Februarie 2001, 16:00
Collaborators:

Unal Goktas (WRI), Doug Baldwin (CSM)
Ryan Martino, Joel Miller, Linda Hong (REUNSF 99)
Steve Formenac, Andrew Menz (REUNSF 00)
Research supported in part by NSF under Grant CCR-9901929
1
OUTLINE
Purpose & Motivation
Typical Examples
Algorithm for Tanh Solutions
Algorithm for Sech Solutions
Extension: Tanh Solutions for Dierential-dierence Equations (DDEs)
Solving/Analyzing Systems of Algebraic Equations with Parameters
Implementation Issues Demo Mathematica Software Package
Future Work
2
Purpose & Motivation
Develop various symbolic algorithms to compute exact solutions
of nonlinear (systems) of partial dierential equations (PDEs) and
dierential-dierence equations (DDEs, lattices).
Fully automate the tanh and sech methods to compute closed
form solitary wave solutions.
Solutions of tanh or sech type model solitary waves in uid dy-
namics, plasmas, electrical circuits, optical bers, bio-genetics, etc.
Class of nonlinear PDEs and DDEs solvable with the tanh/sech
method includes famous evolution and wave equations.
Typical examples: Korteweg-de Vries, Fisher and Boussinesq PDEs,
Toda and Volterra lattices (DDEs).
Research aspect: Design a high-quality application package for
the computation of exact solitary wave solutions of large classes of
nonlinear evolution and wave equations.
Educational aspect: Software as course ware for courses in non-
linear PDEs, theory of nonlinear waves, integrability, dynamical sys-
tems, and modeling with symbolic software.
Users: scientists working on nonlinear wave phenomena in uid dy-
namics, nonlinear networks, elastic media, chemical kinetics, mate-
rial science, bio-sciences, plasma physics, and nonlinear optics.
3
Typical Examples of Single PDEs and Systems of PDEs
The Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) equation:
u
t
+ uu
x
+ u
3x
= 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, t) =
8c
3
1
c
2
6c
1

2c
2
1

tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ] ,
or, equivalently,
u(x, t) =
4c
3
1
+ c
2
6c
1
+
2c
2
1

sech
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ] .
The modied Korteweg-de Vries (mKdV) equation:
u
t
+ u
2
u
x
+ u
3x
= 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, t) =

_
6

c
1
sech
_
c
1
x c
3
1
t +
_
.
The Fisher equation:
u
t
u
xx
u(1 u) = 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, t) =
1
4

1
2
tanh +
1
4
tanh
2
,
with
=
1
2

6
x
5
12
t + .
4
The generalized Kuramoto-Sivashinski equation:
u
t
+ uu
x
+ u
xx
+ u
3x
+ u
4x
= 0.
Solitary wave solutions
(ignoring symmetry u u, x x, ) :
For = 4 :
u(x, t) = 9 2c
2
15 tanh (1 + tanh tanh
2
),
with =
x
2
+ c
2
t + .
For = 0 :
u(x, t) = 2

_
19
11
c
2

135
19

_
11
19
tanh +
165
19

_
11
19
tanh
3
,
with =
1
2
_
11
19
x + c
2
t + .
For =
12

47
:
u(x, t) =
45 4418c
2
47

47

45
47

47
tanh

45
47

47
tanh
2

15
47

47
tanh
3
,
with =
1
2

47
x + c
2
t + .
For = 16/

73 :
u(x, t) =
2 (30 5329c
2
)
73

73

75
73

73
tanh

60
73

73
tanh
2

15
73

73
tanh
3
,
with =
1
2

73
x + c
2
t + .
5
Three-dimensional modied Korteweg-de Vries equation:
u
t
+ 6u
2
u
x
+ u
xyz
= 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, y, z, t) =

c
2
c
3
sech [c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
z c
1
c
2
c
3
t + ] .
The Boussinesq (wave) equation:
u
tt
u
2x
+ 3uu
2x
+ 3u
x
2
+ u
4x
= 0,
or written as a rst-order system (v auxiliary variable):
u
t
+ v
x
= 0,
v
t
+ u
x
3uu
x
u
3x
= 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, t) =
c
2
1
c
2
2
+ 8c
4
1
3c
2
1
4c
2
1
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ]
v(x, t) = b
0
+ 4c
1
c
2
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ] .
The Broer-Kaup system:
u
ty
+ 2(uu
x
)
y
+ 2v
xx
u
xxy
= 0,
v
t
+ 2(uv)
x
+ v
xx
= 0.
Solitary wave solution:
u(x, t) =
c
3
2c
1
+ c
1
tanh [c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
t + ]
v(x, t) = c
1
c
2
c
1
c
2
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
t + ]
6
Typical Examples of DDEs (lattices)
The Toda lattice:
u
n
= (1 + u
n
) (u
n1
2u
n
+ u
n+1
) .
Solitary wave solution:
u
n
(t) = a
0
sinh(c
1
) tanh [c
1
n sinh(c
1
) t + ] .
The Volterra lattice:
u
n
= u
n
(v
n
v
n1
)
v
n
= v
n
(u
n+1
u
n
).
Solitary wave solution:
u
n
(t) = c
2
coth(c
1
) + c
2
tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ]
v
n
(t) = c
2
coth(c
1
) c
2
tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ] .
The Relativistic Toda lattice:
u
n
= (1 + u
n
)(v
n
v
n1
)
v
n
= v
n
(u
n+1
u
n
+ v
n+1
v
n1
).
Solitary wave solution:
u
n
(t) = c
2
coth(c
1
)
1

+ c
2
tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ]
v
n
(t) =
c
2
coth(c
1
)

c
2

tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ] .
7
Algorithm for Tanh Solutions for PDE system
Given is a system of PDEs of order n
(u(x), u

(x), u

(x), u
(n)
(x)) = 0.
Dependent variable u has components u
i
(or u, v, w, ...)
Independent variable x has components x
i
(or x, y, z, t)
Step 1:
Seek solution of the form u
i
(x) = U
i
(T), with
T = tanh [c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
z + c
4
t] = tanh .
Observe cosh
2
sinh
2
= 1, ( tanh)

= 1 tanh
2

or T

= 1 T
2
.
Repeatedly apply the operator rule

x
i
c
i
(1 T
2
)
d
dT
This produces a coupled system of Legendre equations of type
P(T, U
i
, U

i
, . . . , U
(n)
i
) = 0
for U
i
(T).
Example: For Boussinesq system
u
t
+ v
x
= 0
v
t
+ u
x
3uu
x
u
3x
= 0,
we obtain after cancelling common factors 1 T
2
c
2
U

+ c
1
V

= 0
c
2
V

+ c
1
U

3c
1
UU

+c
3
1
_
2(1 3T
2
)U

+ 6T(1 T
2
)U

(1 T
2
)
2
U

_
= 0
8
Step 2:
Seek polynomial solutions
U
i
(T) =
M
i

j=0
a
ij
T
j
Balance the highest power terms in T to determine M
i
.
Example: Powers for Boussinesq system
M
1
1 = M
2
1, 2M
1
1 = M
1
+ 1
gives M
1
= M
2
= 2.
Hence, U
1
(T) = a
10
+a
11
T +a
12
T
2
, U
2
(T) = a
20
+a
21
T +a
22
T
2
.
Step 3:
Determine the algebraic system for the unknown coecients a
ij
by
balancing the coecients of the various powers of T.
Example: Boussinesq system
a
11
c
1
(3a
12
+ 2c
2
1
) = 0
a
12
c
1
(a
12
+ 4c
2
1
) = 0
a
21
c
1
+ a
11
c
2
= 0
a
22
c
1
+ a
12
c
2
= 0
a
11
c
1
3a
10
a
11
c
1
+ 2a
11
c
3
1
+ a
21
c
2
= 0
3a
2
11
c
1
+ 2 a
12
c
1
6a
10
a
12
c
1
+ 16a
12
c
3
1
+ 2a
22
c
2
= 0.
9
Step 4:
Solve the nonlinear algebraic system with parameters.
Reject complex solutions? Test the solutions.
Example: Solution for Boussinesq case
a
10
=
c
2
1
c
2
2
+ 8c
4
1
3c
2
1
a
11
= 0
a
12
= 4c
2
1
a
20
= free
a
21
= 0
a
22
= 4c
1
c
2
.
Step 5:
Return to the original variables.
Test the nal solution in the original equations
Example: Solitary wave solution for Boussinesq system:
u(x, t) =
c
2
1
c
2
2
+ 8c
4
1
3c
2
1
4c
2
1
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ]
v(x, t) = a
20
+ 4c
1
c
2
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ] .
10
Algorithm for Sech Solutions for PDE system
Given is a system of PDEs of order n
(u(x), u

(x), u

(x), u
(n)
(x)) = 0.
Dependent variable u has components u
i
(or u, v, w, ...)
Independent variable x has components x
i
(or x, y, z, t)
Step 1:
Seek solution of the form u
i
(x) = U
i
(S), with
S = sech [c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
z + c
4
t] = tanh .
Observe ( sech )

= tanh sech or S

= TS =

1 S
2
S.
Also, cosh
2
sinh
2
= 1, hence, T
2
+ S
2
= 1 and
dT
dS
=
S
T
.
Repeatedly apply the operator rule

x
i
c
i

1 S
2
S
d
dS
This produces a coupled system of Legendre type equations of type
P(S, U
i
, U

i
, . . . , U
(m)
i
) +

1 S
2
Q(S, U
i
, U

i
, . . . , U
(n)
i
) = 0
for U
i
(S).
For every equation one must have P
i
= 0 or Q
i
= 0. Only odd
derivatives produce the extra factor

1 S
2
.
Conclusion: The total number of derivatives in each term in the
given system should be either even or odd. No mismatch is allowed.
Example: For the 3D mKdV equation
u
t
+ 6u
2
u
x
+ u
xyz
= 0.
11
we obtain after cancelling a common factor

1 S
2
S
c
4
U

+6c
1
U
2
U

+c
1
c
2
c
3
[(16S
2
)U

+3S(12S
2
)U

+S
2
(1S
2
)U

] = 0
Step 2:
Seek polynomial solutions
U
i
(S) =
M
i

j=0
a
ij
S
j
Balance the highest power terms in S to determine M
i
.
Example: Powers for the 3D mKdV case
3M
1
1 = M
1
+ 1
gives M
1
= 1. Hence, U(S) = a
10
+ a
11
S.
Step 3:
Determine the algebraic system for the unknown coecients a
ij
by
balancing the coecients of the various powers of S.
Example: System for 3D mKdV case
a
11
c
1
(a
2
11
c
2
c
3
) = 0
a
11
(6a
2
10
c
1
+ c
1
c
2
c
3
+ c
4
) = 0
a
10
a
2
11
c
1
== 0
12
Step 4:
Solve the nonlinear algebraic system with parameters.
Reject complex solutions? Test the solutions.
Example: Solution for 3D mKdV case
a
10
= 0
a
11
=

c
1
c
3
c
4
= c
1
c
2
c
3
Step 5:
Return to the original variables.
Test the nal solution in the original equations
Example: Solitary wave solution for the 3D mKdV equation
u(x, y, z, t) =

c
2
c
3
sech(c
1
x + c
2
y + c
3
z c
1
c
2
c
3
t).
13
Extension: Tanh Solutions for DDE system
Given is a system of dierential-dierence equations (DDEs) of order n
(..., u
n1
, u
n
, u
n+1
, ..., u
n
, ..., u
(m)
n
, ...) = 0.
Dependent variable u
n
has components u
i,n
(or u
n
, v
n
, w
n
, ...)
Independent variable x has components x
i
(or n, t).
No derivatives on shifted variables are allowed!
Step 1:
Seek solution of the form u
i,n
(x) = U
i,n
(T(n)), with
T(n) = tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ] = tanh .
Note that the argument T depends on n. Complicates matters.
Repeatedly apply the operator rule on u
i,n

t
c
2
(1 T
2
)
d
dT
This produces a coupled system of Legendre equations of type
P(T, U
i,n
, U

i,n
, . . .) = 0
for U
i,n
(T).
Example: Toda lattice
u
n
= (1 + u
n
) (u
n1
2u
n
+ u
n+1
) .
transforms into
c
2
2
(1 T
2
)
_
2TU

n
(1 T
2
)U

n
_
+
_
1 + c
2
(1 T
2
)U

n
_
[U
n1
2U
n
+ U
n+1
] = 0
14
Step 2:
Seek polynomial solutions
U
i,n
(T(n)) =
M
i

j=0
a
ij
T(n)
j
For U
n+p
, p = 0, there is a phase shift:
U
i,np
(T(n p) =
M
i

j=0
a
i,j
[T(n + p)]
j
=
M
i

j=0
a
i,j
_

_
T(n) tanh(pc
1
)
1 T(n) tanh(pc
1
)
_

_
j
Balance the highest power terms in T(n) to determine M
i
.
Example: Powers for Toda lattice
2M
1
1 = M
1
+ 1
gives M
1
= 1.
Hence,
U
n
(T(n)) = a
10
+ a
11
T(n)
U
n1
(T(n 1)) = a
10
+ a
11
T(n 1) = a
10
+ a
11
T(n) tanh(c
1
)
1 T(n) tanh(c
1
)
U
n+1
(T(n + 1)) = a
10
+ a
11
T(n + 1) = a
10
+ a
11
T(n) + tanh(c
1
)
1 + T(n) tanh(c
1
)
.
Step 3:
Determine the algebraic system for the unknown coecients a
ij
by
balancing the coecients of the various powers of T(n).
Example: Algebraic system for Toda lattice
c
2
2
tanh
2
(c
1
) a
11
c
2
tanh
2
(c
1
) = 0, c
2
a
11
= 0
15
Step 4:
Solve the nonlinear algebraic system with parameters.
Reject complex solutions? Test the solutions.
Example: Solution of algebraic system for Toda lattice
a
10
= free, a
11
= c
2
= sinh(c
1
)
Step 5:
Return to the original variables.
Test the nal solution in the original equations
Example: Solitary wave solution for Toda lattice:
u
n
(t) = a
0
sinh(c
1
) tanh [c
1
n sinh(c
1
) t + ] .
16
Example: System of DDEs: Relativistic Toda lattice
u
n
= (1 + u
n
)(v
n
v
n1
)
v
n
= v
n
(u
n+1
u
n
+ v
n+1
v
n1
).
Step 1: Change of variables
u
n
(x, t) = U
n
(T(n)), v
n
(x, t) = V
n
(T(n)),
with
T(n) = tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ] = tanh .
gives
c
2
(1 T
2
)U

n
(1 + U
n
)(V
n
V
n1
) = 0
c
2
(1 T
2
)V

n
V
n
(U
n+1
U
n
+ V
n+1
V
n1
) = 0.
Step 2: Seek polynomial solutions
U
n
(T(n)) =
M
1

j=0
a
1j
T(n)
j
V
n
(T(n)) =
M
2

j=0
a
2j
T(n)
j
.
Balance the highest power terms in T(n) to determine M
1
, and M
2
:
M
1
+ 1 = M
1
+ M
2
, M
2
+ 1 = M
1
+ M
2
gives M
1
= M
2
= 1.
Hence,
U
n
= a
10
+ a
11
T(n), V
n
= a
20
+ a
21
T(n).
17
Step 3: Algebraic system for a
ij
:
a
11
c
2
+ a
21
tanh(c
1
) + a
10
a
21
tanh(c
1
) = 0
a
11
tanh(c
1
) (a
21
+ c
2
) = 0
a
21
c
2
+ a
11
a
20
tanh(c
1
) + 2a
20
a
21
tanh(c
1
) = 0
tanh(c
1
) (a
11
a
21
+ 2a
2
21
a
11
a
20
tanh(c
1
)) = 0
a
21
tanh
2
(c
1
) (c
2
a
11
) = 0
Step 4: Solution of the algebraic system
a
10
= c
2
coth(c
1
)
1

, a
11
= c
2
, a
20
=
c
2
coth(c
1
)

, a
21
=
c
2

.
Step 5: Solitary wave solution in original variables:
u
n
(t) = c
2
coth(c
1
)
1

+ c
2
tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ]
v
n
(t) =
c
2
coth(c
1
)

c
2

tanh [c
1
n + c
2
t + ] .
18
Solving/Analyzing Systems of Algebraic Equations with Parameters
Class of fth-order evolution equations with parameters:
u
t
+
2
u
2
u
x
+ u
x
u
2x
+ uu
3x
+ u
5x
= 0.
Well-Known Special cases
Lax case: =
3
10
, = 2, = 10. Two solutions:
u(x, t) = 4c
2
1
6c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x 56c
5
1
t +
_
and
u(x, t) = a
0
2c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x 2(15a
2
0
c
1
40a
0
c
3
1
+ 28c
5
1
)t +
_
where a
0
is arbitrary.
Sawada-Kotera case: =
1
5
, = 1, = 5. Two solutions:
u(x, t) = 8c
2
1
12c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x 16c
5
1
t +
_
and
u(x, t) = a
0
6c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x (5a
2
0
c
1
40a
0
c
3
1
+ 76c
5
1
)t +
_
where a
0
is arbitrary.
Kaup-Kupershmidt case: =
1
5
, =
5
2
, = 10. Two solutions:
u(x, t) = c
2
1

3
2
c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x c
5
1
t +
_
and
u(x, t) = 8c
2
1
12c
2
tanh
2
_
c
1
x 176c
5
1
t +
_
,
no free constants!
Ito case: =
2
9
, = 2, = 3. One solution:
u(x, t) = 20c
2
1
30c
2
1
tanh
2
_
c
1
x 96c
5
1
t +
_
.
19
What about the General case?
Q1: Can we retrieve the special solutions?
Q2: What are the condition(s) on the parameters , , for solutions
of tanh-type to exist?
Tanh solutions:
u(x, t) = a
0
+ a
1
tanh [c
1
x + c
2
t + ] + a
2
tanh
2
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ] .
Nonlinear algebraic system must be analyzed, solved (or reduced!):
a
1
(
2
a
2
2
+ 6a
2
c
2
1
+ 2a
2
c
2
1
+ 24c
4
1
) = 0
a
1
(
2
a
2
1
+ 6
2
a
0
a
2
+ 6a
0
c
2
1
18a
2
c
2
1
12a
2
c
2
1
120c
4
1
) = 0

2
a
2
2
+ 12a
2
c
2
1
+ 6a
2
c
2
1
+ 360c
4
1
= 0
2
2
a
2
1
a
2
+ 2
2
a
0
a
2
2
+ 3a
2
1
c
2
1
+ a
2
1
c
2
1
+ 12a
0
a
2
c
2
1
8a
2
2
c
2
1
8a
2
2
c
2
1
480a
2
c
4
1
= 0
a
1
(
2
a
2
0
c
1
2a
0
c
3
1
+ 2a
2
c
3
1
+ 16c
5
1
+ c
2
) = 0

2
a
0
a
2
1
c
1
+
2
a
2
0
a
2
c
1
a
2
1
c
3
1
a
2
1
c
3
1
8a
0
a
2
c
3
1
+ 2a
2
2
c
3
1
+136a
2
c
5
1
+ a
2
c
2
= 0
Unknowns: a
0
, a
1
, a
2
.
Parameters: c
1
, c
2
, , , .
Solve and Reduce cannot be used on the whole system!
20
Strategy to Solve/Reduce Nonlinear Systems
Assumptions:
All c
i
= 0
Parameters (, , , ...) are nonzero. Otherwise the highest powers
M
i
may change.
All a
j M
i
= 0. Coecients of highest power in U
i
are present.
Solve for a
ij
, then c
i
, then nd conditions on parameters.
Strategy followed by hand:
Solve all linear equations in a
ij
rst (cost: branching). Start with
the ones without parameters. Capture constraints in the process.
Solve linear equations in c
i
if they are free of a
ij
.
Solve linear equations in parameters if they free of a
ij
, c
i
.
Solve quasi-linear equations for a
ij
, c
i
, parameters.
Solve quadratic equations for a
ij
, c
i
, parameters.
Eliminate cubic terms for a
ij
, c
i
, parameters, without solving.
Show remaining equations, if any.
Alternatives:
Use (adapted) Grobner Basis Techniques.
Use combinatorics on coecients a
ij
= 0 or a
ij
= 0.
21
Actual Solution: Two major cases:
CASE 1: a
1
= 0, two subcases
Subcase 1-a:
a
2
=
3
2
a
0
c
2
= c
3
1
(24c
2
1
a
0
)
where a
0
is one of the two roots of the quadratic equation:

2
a
2
0
8a
0
c
2
1
4a
0
c
2
1
+ 160c
4
1
= 0.
Subcase 1-b: If = 10 1, then
a
2
=
6

c
2
1
c
2
=
1

(
2

2
a
2
0
c
1
8a
0
c
3
1
+ 12c
5
1
+ 16c
5
1
)
where a
0
is arbitrary.
CASE 2: a
1
= 0, then
=
1
392
(39 + 38 + 8
2
)
and
a
2
=
168
(3 + 2)
c
2
1
provided is one of the roots of
(104
2
+ 886 + 1487)(520
3
+ 2158
2
1103 8871) = 0
22
Subcase 2-a: If
2
=
1
104
(886 + 1487), then
=
2 + 5
26
a
0
=
49c
2
1
(9983 + 4378)
26(8 + 3)(3 + 2)
2
a
1
=
336c
2
1
(3 + 2)
a
2
=
168c
2
1
(3 + 2)
c
2
=
364 c
5
1
(3851 + 1634)
6715 + 2946
.
Subcase 2-b: If
3
=
1
520
(8871 + 1103 2158
2
), then
=
39 + 38 + 8
2
392
a
0
=
28 c
2
1
(6483 + 5529 + 1066
2
)
(3 + 2)(23 + 6)(81 + 26)
a
2
1
=
28224 c
4
1
(4 1)(26 17)
(3 + 2)
2
(23 + 6)(81 + 26)
2
a
2
=
168c
2
1
(3 + 2)
c
2
=
8 c
5
1
(1792261977 + 1161063881 + 188900114
2
)
959833473 + 632954969 + 105176786
2
.
23
Implementation Issues Software Demo Future Work
Demonstration of Mathematica package for tanh/sech methods.
Long term goal: Develop PDESolve for closed form solutions of
nonlinear PDEs and DDEs.
Implement various methods: Lie symmetry (similarity) methods.
Look at other types of explicit solutions involving
hyperbolic functions sinh, cosh, tanh, ...
other special functions.
complex exponentials combined with sech or tanh.
Example: Set of ODEs from quantum eld theory
u
xx
= u + u
3
+ auv
2
v
xx
= bv + cv
3
+ av(u
2
1).
Try solutions (c
2
= 0 for ODEs)
u
i
(x, t) =
M
i

j=0
a
ij
tanh
j
[c
1
x +c
2
t +] +
N
i

j=0
b
ij
sech
2j+1
[c
1
x +c
2
t +].
or
u
i
(x, t) =
M
i

j=0
( a
ij
+

b
ij
sech[c
1
x + c
2
t + ]) tanh
j
[c
1
x + c
2
t + ].
Solitary wave solutions:
u = tanh[

_
a
2
c
2(a c)
x + ]
v =

_
1 a
a c
sech[

_
a
2
c
2(a c)
x + ],
provided b =

a
2
c
2(ac)
.
24
Example: Nonlinear Schrodinger equation (focusing/defocusing):
i u
t
+ u
xx
|u|
2
u = 0.
Bright soliton solution (+ sign):
u(x, t) =
k

2
exp[i (
c
2
x + (k
2

c
2
4
)t)] sech[k(x ct x
0
)]
Dark soliton solution ( sign):
u(x, t) =
1

2
exp[i(Kx (2k
2
+ 3K
2
2Kc +
c
2
2
)t)]
_
k tanh[k(x ct x
0
)] i(K
c
2
)
_
.
Example: Nonlinear sine-Gordon equation (light cone coordinates):
u
xt
= sin u.
Setting = u
x
, = cos(u) 1, gives

xt
= 0
2 +
2
+
2
t
= 0.
Solitary wave solution (kink):
= u
x
=
1

c
sech[
1

c
(x ct) + ],
= cos(u) 1 = 1 2 sech
2
[
1

c
(x ct) + ],
in nal form:
u(x, t) = 4 arctan
_
_
exp(
1

c
(x ct) + )
_
_
.
25
Example: Coupled nonlinear Schrodinger equations:
i u
t
= u
xx
+ u(|u|
2
+ h|v|
2
)
i v
t
= v
xx
+ v(|v|
2
+ h|u|
2
)
Seek particular solutions
u(x, t) = a tanh(x) exp(iAt)
v(x, t) = b sech(x) exp(iBt).
Seek solutions u(x, t) = U(F()), where derivatives of F() are
polynomial in F.
Now,
F

() = 1 F
2
() F = tanh().
Other choices are possible.
Add the constraining dierential equations to the system of PDEs
directly.
Why are tanh and sech solutions so prevalent?
Other applications:
Computation of conservation laws, symmetries, rst integrals, etc.
leading to linear parameterized systems for unknowns coecients
(see InvariantsSymmetries by Goktas and Hereman).
26