OFFICE MONITORING SYSTEM.

doc (Size: 23 KB / Downloads: 2) This system can be used in offices or hotels to call an attendant from seven different locations. The circuit provides audio indication of the calling location to the attendant on a speaker, and video indication through a seven-segment display. The locations are provided with separate switches to log requests for the services of the attendant. Fig. 1 shows the circuit, which is built around the transformer X1, voltage regulator 7805(IC1),eight input priority encoder IC CD4532 (IC2),shift register 74LS96 (IC3),triple three input OR gate CD4075 (IC4), BCD to seven segment decoder or driver 74LC47 (IC5), common anode seven-segment display LTS542, melody generator UM66 and a speaker, along with some discrete components. The circuit can be divided into four sections.

Power supply section. To derive power supply for the circuit, the 230V, 50Hz mains is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver a secondary output of 9V-0-9V, 500mA. The secondary output of X1 is rectified by a full-wave rectifier comprising diodes D1 and D2. It is filtered by capacitor C1 and regulated by IC 7805. The regulated 5V obtained is used to power the circuit. Input logging section. Switches S1 through S7 are interfaced as input to the system through IC 4532. For loading the input data through switches to the IC2, enable interrupt (EI) pin 5 of IC2 must be high. Register and control section. It is used to store the binary output of the encoder until it is reset. To reset the data stored on the shift register, press reset switch S8 momentarily. For controlling the input data a threeinput OR gate IC CD4075 is used. The high output of IC4 is used for switching transistors T1 and T3. Transistor T3 is used to control the display LTS542 (DIS1) and transistor T1 is used to latch input data by keeping pin 5 of IC2 low. Display and melody section. It is built around decoder driver 74LS47, a common anode seven-segment display LTS542 and melody generatorIC UM66, DIS1 is driven by IC5. The input of a particular location is shown on DIS1. IC6 and transistor T2 are used to drive the loudspeaker. The audio output is obtained from the loudspeaker when you press any switch from S1 through S7. Working of the circuit is simple. When any of the seven callers presses the switch (S1 through S7), respective binary code is generated at the output of the IC2, which is further given to IC3. These binary codes at data pins 2, 3 and 4 of IC3 ensure that at least one

of its output pins 13, 14 or 15-is high. This makes the output pin 6 of OR gate (N1) high, which performs three tasks:
1. Provides power supply to seven-segment display DIS1 to display callers number through transistor T3. 2. Blocks the acceptance of further input due to low voltage at EI pin 5 of encoder IC2, as transistor T1conducts. 3. Provides input power supply to IC4 to produce sound to alert the attendant. After the attendant responds and presses reset switch S8 momentarily, all the outputs of IC2 go low. This makes the output of OR gate IC4 low. This, in turn, results in cutting off the power supply to the seven-segment display and melody generator IC6. The encoder IC2 is permitted to accept next input through switches S1 through S7 by providing high voltage to its EI pin 5. Assemble the circuit on a general purpose PCB. After assembling the circuit, enclose it in a suitable cabinet along with reset switch S8, DIS1 and speaker, and place it in the attendants room. Extend all switches, S1 through S8, to respective rooms using two wire cables for each switch. Fix the transformer inside the cabinet. Fix power-on LED1 at front panel of the cabinet. Connect a power cable to the primary of the transformer for providing the mains supply to the circuit. Alternatively, if you wish to demonstrate the circuit as a project, the switches can be fixed on the top of enclosure as shown in authors prototype (Fig.3) Reference: http://seminarprojects.com/Thread-office-monitoring-system? pid=84253#ixzz1u9XVMWoa

DC power supply:

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to one or more electric loads. The term is most commonly applied to devices that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source. Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:

Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage. Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells. Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators. Solar power.

A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices. Commonly specified power supply attributes include:

The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load. How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions. How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources).

DC power supply

A home-made linear power supply (used here to power amateur radio equipment) An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct voltage, followed by a filter, comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of the pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage component at mains or twice mains power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-wave rectification is used)rippleis unavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage. For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplest unregulated mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer driving a single diode in series with a resistor. Before the introduction of solid-state electronics, equipment used valves (vacuum tubes) which required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and filters to generate one or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low alternating voltage for filaments. Only the most advanced equipment used expensive and bulky regulated power supplies.

AC power supply
An AC power supply typically takes the voltage from a wall outlet (mains supply) and lowers it to the desired voltage (e.g. 9 VAC), some filtering may take place as well.

Linear regulated power supply

The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and on variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linear regulator may be used to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and

load. The regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators often provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and attached circuit from overcurrent. Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment, allowing the output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For example, a bench power supply used by circuit designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by an external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed output

Battery
Main article: Battery (electricity)

Alkaline batteries A battery is a device that converts stored chemical energy to electrical energy. Batteries are commonly used as energy sources in many household and industrial applications. There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are designed to be used once and discarded, and secondary batteries (rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times. Batteries come in many sizes, from miniature cells used in hearing aids and wristwatches to room-size battery banks that serve as backup power supplies in telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

7805 Regulator Description

The 7805 voltage regulators employ built-in current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safeoperating area protection which makes them virtually immune to damage from output overloads. 7805 is a three-terminal positive voltage regulator. With adequate heatsinking, it can deliver in excess of 0.5A output current. Typical applications would include local (on-card) regulators which can eliminate the noise and degraded performance associated with single-point regulation. 7805 regulator comes from the 78xx family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated power supply, due to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to provide (for example, the 7805 voltage regulator has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary. 7805 ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are also available from some manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which can be anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating). The 7805 series has several key advantages over many other voltage regulator circuits which have resulted in its popularity:

7805 series ICs do not require any additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical, and also efficient uses of circuit board real estate. By contrast, most other voltage regulators require several additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switching power supply) can require not only a large number of components but also substantial engineering expertise to implement correctly as well. 7805 series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They also have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the currentlimiting features of the 7805 devices can provide protection not only for the 7805 itself, but also for other parts of the circuit it is used in, preventing other components from being damaged as well.

7805 Regulator Circuit

7805 Voltage Regulator Pinout

Cross Reference 7805 vs LM317 Voltage Regulators

For a regulated 5V supply, is there any reason to use a LM317 circuit rather than the 7805 regulator?

If it's for digital, consider a switching power supply; they're far more efficient. If it's for linear, you really need a linear supply.

The 7805 and LM317 ICs have been around for a long time, and they still work. However, they have a minimum Vdrop of about 1.7V across them, which means they consume power and generate heat. "Low dropout voltage" it means that the difference between the input and output voltage is lower than the typical 1.7V. Those regulators use a more efficient scheme to pass current through than traditional linear regulators.

Project: 7805 Regulator in an Uninterruptible Power Supply for a Burglar Alarm

Although this Power Supply was designed for the Modular Burglar Alarm - it has other applications. It provides an output of 12-volts - at a current of up to 1-amp. In the event of a mains failure - the back-up battery takes over immediately. And when mains power is restored the battery recharges automatically. The 7805 needs the larger heatsink because it has to dissipate a lot of energy - especially when called upon to recharge a flat battery. Its heatsink is at 9v1 - and must NOT be connected to ground. The 7812 never has to dissipate more than 2-watts - so its heatsink can be smaller. Many of the components, which are shown lying flat on the board, are actually mounted standing upright. The links are bare copper wire on the component side of the board. The heatsinks are folded strips of aluminium, about 2mm thick. Use a well-insulated panel mounted fuse holder for the mains supply to the transformer - and fit it with a 1-amp fuse. Use a genuine alarm type back-up battery. They are maintenance-free. Their terminals can be held at 13v8 for many years - with no apparent ill effects. They have a life expectancy of about five years. However, they tend not to recover from a very deep discharge. If you wish - you can use a smaller or larger capacity battery.

7805 voltage regulator circuit diagram

Components values R1 = 6.8 R2 = 0.22/3W R3 = 10 R4 = 150/1W C1 = C2 = 100nF T1 = BD240C with heatsink T2 = 2N2955 with heatsink IC1 = 7805 Switches:

In electronics, an electronic switch is an electronic component or device that can switch an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. Typically, electronic switches use solid state devices such as transistors, though vacuum tubes can be used as well in high voltage applications. An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit. Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on ("closed") or completely off ("open"). There are many different types of switches, and we will explore some of these types in this chapter.

Though it may seem strange to cover this elementary electrical topic at such a late stage in this book series, I do so because the chapters that follow explore an older realm of digital technology based on mechanical switch contacts rather than solid-state gate circuits, and a thorough understanding of switch types is necessary for the undertaking. Learning the function of switchbased circuits at the same time that you learn about solid-state logic gates makes both topics easier to grasp, and sets the stage for an enhanced learning experience in Boolean algebra, the mathematics behind digital logic circuits. The simplest type of switch is one where two electrical conductors are brought in contact with each other by the motion of an actuating mechanism. Other switches are more complex, containing electronic circuits able to turn on or off depending on some physical stimulus (such as light or magnetic field) sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be (at least) a pair of wire-connection terminals that will either be connected together by the switch's internal contact mechanism ("closed"), or not connected together ("open"). Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand switch, and they are manufactured in several varieties:

Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions. The common light switch used in household wiring is an example of a toggle switch. Most toggle switches will come to rest in any of their lever positions, while others have an internal spring mechanism returning the lever to a certain normal position, allowing for what is called "momentary" operation.

Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring mechanism returning the button to its "out," or "unpressed," position, for momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will latch alternately on or off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in their "in," or "pressed," position until the button is pulled back out. This last type of pushbutton switches usually have a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action.

Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select one of two or more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector switches can either rest in any of their positions or contain spring-return mechanisms for momentary operation.

A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch symbol represents the direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact. Joystick hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control. Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than by the hand of a human operator. These motion-operated switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning off the actuating power to a component if it moves too far. As with hand switches, limit switches come in several varieties:

These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Often, the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.

Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by a magnetic or highfrequency electromagnetic field. Simple proximity switches use a permanent magnet to actuate a sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets close (typically 1 inch or less). More complex proximity switches work like a metal detector, energizing a coil of wire with a highfrequency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. If a metallic part (not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase, and trip the monitoring circuit. The symbol shown here for the proximity switch is of the electronic variety, as indicated by the diamond-shaped box surrounding the switch. A non-electronic proximity switch would use the same symbol as the lever-actuated limit switch.

Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light source and photocell. Machine position is detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light beam. Optical switches are also useful in safety applications, where beams of light can be used to detect personnel entry into a dangerous area. In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical quantities with switches. Such switches can be used to sound alarms, indicating that a process variable has exceeded normal parameters, or they can be used to shut down processes or equipment if those variables have reached dangerous or destructive levels. There are many different types of process switches:

These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal weight mechanism mounted on the shaft, or by some kind of non-contact detection of shaft motion such as optical or magnetic.

Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied to a piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure to mechanical force.

An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the "bimetallic strip:" a thin strip of two metals, joined back-to-back, each metal having a different rate of thermal expansion. When the strip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal expansion between the two metals causes it to bend. The bending of the strip can then be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism. Other temperature switches use a brass bulb filled with either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube connecting the bulb to a pressure-sensing switch. As the bulb is heated, the gas or liquid expands, generating a pressure increase which then actuates the switch mechanism.

A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid level in an tank rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically conductive, the liquid itself can be used as a conductor to bridge between two metal probes inserted into the tank at the required depth. The conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of relay triggered by a small amount of current through the conductive liquid. In most cases it is impractical and dangerous to switch the full load current of the circuit through a liquid. Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid materials such as wood chips, grain, coal, or animal feed in a storage silo, bin, or hopper. A common design for this application is a small paddle wheel, inserted into the bin at the desired height, which is slowly turned by a small electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height, the material prevents the paddle wheel from turning. The torque response of the small motor than trips the switch mechanism. Another design uses a "tuning fork" shaped metal prong, inserted into the bin from the outside at the desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant frequency by an electronic circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil assembly. When the bin fills to that height, the solid material dampens the vibration of the fork, the change in vibration amplitude and/or frequency detected by the electronic circuit.

Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in excess of a certain threshold, usually with a small paddle or vane which is pushed by the flow. Other flow switches are constructed as differential pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop across a restriction built into the pipe. Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection, is the nuclear switch. Composed of a radioactive source material and a radiation detector, the two are mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for either solid or liquid material. Any height of material beyond the level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the strength of radiation reaching the detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector can be used to trigger a relay mechanism to provide a switch contact for measurement, alarm point, or even control of the vessel level.

Both source and detector are outside of the vessel, with no intrusion at all except the radiation flux itself. The radioactive sources used are fairly weak and pose no immediate health threat to operations or maintenance personnel. As usual, there is usually more than one way to implement a switch to monitor a physical process or serve as an operator control. There is usually no single "perfect" switch for any application, although some obviously exhibit certain advantages over others. Switches must be intelligently matched to the task for efficient and reliable operation.

REVIEW: A switch is an electrical device, usually electromechanical, used to control continuity between two points. Hand switches are actuated by human touch. Limit switches are actuated by machine motion. Process switches are actuated by changes in some physical process (temperature, level, flow, etc.).

CAPACITOR: A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge

on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

Capacitor types
Main article: Types of capacitor

Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications. Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors. Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of their small size and low cost compared with other technologies, unless their relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbonbased electrode material.

Applications
Main article: Applications of capacitors

This mylar-film, oil-filled capacitor has very low inductance and low resistance, to provide the high-power (70 megawatt) and high speed (1.2 microsecond) discharge needed to operate a dye laser.

Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.) Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy density, while capacitors using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52 kilojoules per kilogram. [25] However, a conventional alkaline battery has a density of 590 kJ/kg. In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also for a flash tube a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage.

Pulsed power and weapons

Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks) are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators. Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridgewire detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons. Experimental work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and electromagnetic railguns and coilguns.

Power conditioning

A 10 millifarad capacitor in an amplifier power supply

Reservoir capacitors are used in power supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage. Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery. RESISTANCE / RESISTOR ENCODER/PRIORITY ENCODER A priority encoder is a circuit or algorithm that compresses multiple binary inputs into a smaller number of outputs. The output of a priority encoder is the binary representation of the ordinal number starting from zero of the most significant input bit. They are often used to control interrupt requests by acting on the highest priority request.

If two or more inputs are given at the same time, the input having the highest priority will take precedence [1]. An example of a single bit 4 to 2 encoder is shown, where I I I O I3 O1 V highest-priority inputs are to the left and "x" indicates an irrelevant value - i.e. 2 1 0 0 any input value there yields the same output since it is superseded by higher0 0 0 0 x x 0 priority input. The output V indicates if the input is valid.
0 0010 0 1 0 01x0 1 1 4 to 2 Priority Encoder

Priority encoders can be easily connected in arrays to make larger encoders, such as one 16-to-4 encoder made from six 4-to-2 priority encoders - four 4-to0 1xx1 0 1 2 encoders having the signal source connected to their inputs, and the two [citation needed] 1 x x x 1 1 1 remaining encoders take the output of the first four as input. The priority encoder is an improvement on a simple encoder circuit, in terms of handling all possible input configurations.

Simple encoder
A simple encoder circuit is one-hot to binary converter. That is, if there are of 2n input lines at the input, whereas only one of them is in 1, binary code of this 'hot' line is produced a on the n'bit output. For example a single bit 4 to 2 encoder takes in 4 bits and outputs 2 bits. The illustrated gate

Gate level circuit diagram of a single bit 4-to-2 line encoder

level example implements the simple encoder defined by the truth table, but it MUST be understood that for all the non-explicitly defined input combinations (i.e. inputs containing 0, 2, 3, or 4 high bits) the outputs are treated as don't cares. It makes no sense to infer the priority encoder if input circuit guarantees one and only one bit high in the input or if it is understood that non-single-active-inputs will produce garbage encodings.
A A A A F F
3 2 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 x x 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 4 to 2 Encoder

Digital Encoders
A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or by decoding a set of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute position measurements. Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most common type is rotary. Rotary encoders are manufactured in two basic forms: the absolute encoder where a unique digital word corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft, and the incremental encoder, which produces digital pulses as the shaft rotates, allowing measurement of relative position of shaft. Most rotary encoders are composed of a glass or plastic code disk with a photographically deposited radial pattern organized in tracks. As radial lines in each track interrupt the beam between a photoemitter-detector pair, digital pulses are produced.
An ordinary encoder has a number of input lines that only one of which is activated at a given time while a priority encoder can have more than one input activated at a time.

CD4532 - CD4532 8-Bit Priority Encoder

Features

Encodes the Highest Priority Input to a 3-bit Binary Code Cascading to Handle any Number of Inputs Group Select Indicates One or More Priority Inputs Wide Operating Voltage

Range

Low Power TTL

Part Summary Manufacturer Various Manufacturer's Part Number CD4532 Manufacturer's Web Site Futurlec Part Number CD4532 Department Integrated Circuits Category 4000 Series RoHS Compliant Package Type 16 Pin DIP Technical Data CD4532 Datasheet DECODER 74LS47 Each segemnt of the display has associated with it a Boolean equation that determines weather the segment is on or off. For a single digit there will be seven equations, with each equation using four inputs. The equations can be written as a Sum of Products (SOP) or as a Product of Sums (POS) depending on which is easier to implement. Here is the important point. A decoder is a combinatorial circuit with NO memory elements.

CD4075

CD4075 - CD4075 Triple 3-input OR Gate

Features

Three Independent 3-input OR Gates Medium Speed Operation Wide Operating Voltage Range Operating Temperature to

85oC

Low Power TTL

SPEAKER A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube made loudspeakers more generally useful. The most common form of loudspeaker uses a paper cone supporting a voice coil electromagnet acting on a permanent magnet, but many other types exist. Where accurate reproduction of sound is required, multiple loudspeakers may be used, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range. Miniature loudspeakers are found in devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many forms of music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems. A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring instruments.

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Transistor as an amplifier

Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout. Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are

Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices. Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered applications. No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 50 years. Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementarysymmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.

Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of microphonics in audio applications.

Limitations

Silicon transistors typically do not operate at voltages higher than about 1000 volts (SiC devices can be operated as high as 3000 volts). In contrast, vacuum tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts. High-power, high-frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better achieved in vacuum tubes due to improved electron mobility in a vacuum. Silicon transistors are much more vulnerable than vacuum tubes to an electromagnetic pulse generated by a high-altitude nuclear explosion. Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-called tube sound, that is more tolerable to the ear.[citation needed]

Types
PN P Pchannel

NP N

Nchannel

BJT

JFET

BJT and JFET symbols

Pchannel

Nchannel

JFET

MOSFET enh

MOSFET dep

JFET and IGFET symbols

Transistors are categorized by

Semiconductor material (date first used): the metalloids germanium (1947) and silicon (1954) in amorphous, polycrystalline and monocrystalline form; the compounds gallium arsenide (1966) and silicon carbide (1997), the alloy silicon-germanium (1989), the allotrope of carbon graphene (research ongoing since 2004), etc.see Semiconductor material Structure: BJT, JFET, IGFET (MOSFET), IGBT, "other types" Electrical polarity (positive and negative) : NPN, PNP (BJTs); N-channel, Pchannel (FETs) Maximum power rating: low, medium, high Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, radio frequency (RF), microwave (The maximum effective frequency of a transistor is denoted by the term , an abbreviation for transition frequencythe frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor yields unity gain) Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair Physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array, power modulessee Packaging Amplification factor hfe or F (transistor beta)[22]

Thus, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface mount, BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.

The Transistor as an Amplifier

Amplification A

is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal.

transistor can act as an amplifier directly using the gain, . in mind that when a transistor is biased in the active (linear) region, the BE junction has a low resistance due to forward bias and the BC junction has a high resistance due to reverse bias.

Keep

i) DC and AC quantities
Amplifier Capital

circuits have both ac and dc quantities.

letters are used will be used for both ac and dc currents. will be capital for dc quantities.

Subscript

 Subscript

will be lowercase for ac quantities.

ii) Transistor amplification

A transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the base current multiplied by the current gain, . current (IB) is small compared to IC and IE. almost equal to IE.

Base

Thus, IC is Consider

the following circuit.

An DC

ac voltage, Vin, is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB. bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector through the collector resistance, RC.

The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much larger ac collector current.

 The

ac collector current produces an ac voltage across RC, thus producing an amplified, but inverted, reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region.

The This

forward biased base-emitter junction present low resistance to the ac wave. internal ac emitter resistance is designated re. Ie ? Ic = Vb/ re

The

ac collector voltage, Vc = IcRC. ? Ic, the ac collector voltage is Vc ? IeRC.

Since Ie Vb

can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb = Vin IbRB.

 Vc can The

be considered the transistor ac output voltage.

ratio of Vc to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor circuit. Av = Vc/Vb

Substituting IeRC

for Vc and Ie re for Vb yields Av = Vc/Vb ? (IeRC)/(Ie re) = RC/ re

Thus, RC

amplification depends on the ratio of RC and re.

is always considerably larger in value than re, thus the output voltage is larger than the input voltage.

Example: Determine the voltage gain and the ac output voltage for the following circuit if re = 50 .

Solution: The voltage gain is Av ? RC/re = 1 k /50 = 20 Thus the output voltage is Vout = AvVb = (20)(100 mV) = 2 Vrms
UM66

This circuit is suitable for Musical bell for door, Home security alarm system and burglar alarms etc. The main part of this alarm circuit is UM66, it is a melody generator IC. It is very small almost looks like a transistor, it has an inbuilt tone and a beat generator. The IC is programmed to generate certain frequencies.When power is turned on, the melody generator is reset and melody begins from the first note. Many versions of UM66T are available which generate tone of different songs.

Circuit Diagram

Components Requiered
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. UM66 Musical IC Resistor 100 Transistor BC547 Speaker 3V Battery

Working

When power is switched On, UM66 starts to generate the melody current. The output from the UM66 IC has no sufficient power in order to drive a speaker. So we are using an NPN transistor as an amplifier. The operating voltage of UM66 is 1.5V to 3V. The supply voltage should not exceed 3V, If is happens, the IC will damage.

Components Pin out

i-St@r Lab
Here is the assembled form of above circuit in i-St@r Lab. The Zener diode is used for protecting UM66 from high voltage

DIODES

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two electrical terminals.[1] A vacuum tube diode, now rarely used except in some high-power technologies and by enthusiasts, is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate (anode) and cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers. However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action. Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference. Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the semiconductor materials and introducing impurities into (doping) the materials. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits. Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used.[2]

Currentvoltage characteristic
A semiconductor diodes behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or I V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the pn junction between differing semiconductors. When a pn junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor

(dopant) on the P side. The region around the pn junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator. However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For each electronhole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in" potential across the depletion zone. If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron/hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light. see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial electric current through the pn junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.7 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias. A diodes IV characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation.

Figure 5: IV characteristics of a pn junction diode (not to scale the current in the reverse region is magnified compared to the forward region, resulting in the apparent slope discontinuity at the origin; the actual IV curve is smooth across the origin).

At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in the avalanche region. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped pn junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation current. In the reverse bias region for a normal PN rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more). The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is conducted. As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined "cut-in voltage" or "onvoltage" or "diode forward voltage drop (Vd)", the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered "appreciable" and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the diode presents a very low resistance. The currentvoltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the arbitrary cut-in voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types Schottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes 0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V respectively. At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes. A diode is a two-terminal device, having two active electrodes, between which it allows the transfer of current in one direction only. Diodes are known for their unidirectional current property, wherein, the electric current is allowed to flow in one direction. Basically, diodes are used for the purpose of rectifying waveforms, and can be used within power supplies or within radio detectors. They can also be used in circuits where 'one way' effect of diode is required. Most diodes are made from semiconductors such as silicon, however, germanium is also used sometimes. Diodes transmit electric currents in one direction, however, the manner in which they do so can vary. Several types of diodes are available for use in electronics design. Some of the different types of diodes are: Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of diodes and when this diode permits the transfer of electric current between the electrodes, light is produced. In most of the diodes, the light (infrared) cannot be seen as they are at frequencies that do not permit visibility. When the diode is switched on or forward biased, the electrons recombine with the holes and

release energy in the form of light (electroluminescence). The color of light depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor. Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and used avalanche effect for its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is constant and is independent of current. Generally, the avalanche diode is used for photo-detection, wherein high levels of sensitivity can be obtained by the avalanche process. Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it produces coherent light. These diodes find their application in DVD and CD drives, laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes are more expensive than LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms of laser generators. Moreover, these laser diodes have limited life. Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as compared to the ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. The voltage drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at low currents, as compared to the 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. In order to achieve this performance, these diodes are constructed differently from normal diodes, with metal to semiconductor contact. Schottky diodes are used in RF applications, rectifier applications and clamping diodes. Zener diode: This type of diode provides a stable reference voltage, thus is a very useful type and is used in vast quantities. The diode runs in reverse bias, and breaks down on the arrival of a certain voltage. A stable voltage is produced, if the current through the resistor is limited. In power supplies, these diodes are widely used to provide a reference voltage. Photodiode: Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature wide, transparent junctions. Generally, these diodes operate in reverse bias, wherein even small amounts of current flow, resulting from the light, can be detected with ease. Photodiodes can also be used to generate electricity, used as solar cells and even in photometry. Varicap Diode or Varactor Diode: This type of diode feature a reverse bias placed upon it, which varies the width of the depletion layer as per the voltage placed across the diode. This diode acts as a capacitor and capacitor plates are formed by the extent of conduction regions and the depletion region as the insulating dielectric. By altering the bias on the diode, the width of the depletion region changes, thereby varying the capacitance. Rectifier Diode: These diodes are used to rectify alternating power inputs in power supplies. They can rectify current levels that range from an amp upwards. If low voltage drops are required, then Schottky diodes can be used, however, generally these diodes are PN junction diodes. Diodes are used widely in the electronics industry, right from electronics design to production, to repair. Besides the above mentioned types of diodes, the other diodes are PIN diode, point contact diode, signal diode, step recovery diode, tunnel diode and gold doped diodes. The type of diode to transfer electric current depends on the type and amount of transmission, as well as on specific applications.

ZENER DIODE A zener diode is a special kind of diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "zener knee voltage" or "zener voltage." The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. Many diodes described as "zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types are used. Common applications include providing a reference voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect other semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses.

A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged due to overheating. A zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the zener diode close to the zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will exhibit a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.[1] Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode. [1] The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the zener effect is the predominant effect and shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.[2]

TC depending on zener voltage

In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is the component of choice in temperature-critical

applications. Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher voltage devices are encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. All such diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "zener diode".
A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage.

The Zener voltage of a standard diode is high, but if a reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it, the diode is permanently damaged. Zener diodes are designed so that their zener voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts. When a reverse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode, there is a controlled breakdown which does not damage the diode. The voltage drop across the Zener diode is equal to the Zener voltage of that diode no matter how high the reverse bias voltage is above the Zener voltage.

The illustration above shows this phenomenon in a Current vs. Voltage graph. With a zener diode connected in the forward direction, it behaves exactly the same as a standard diode - i.e. a small voltage drop of 0.3 to 0.7V with current flowing through pretty much unrestricted. In the reverse direction however there is a very small leakage current between 0V and the Zener voltage - i.e. just a tiny amount of current is able to flow. Then, when the voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz), suddenly current can flow freely through it.

Uses of Zener Diodes

Since the voltage dropped across a Zener Diode is a known and fixed value, Zener diodes are typically used to regulate the voltage in electric circuits. Using a resistor to ensure that the current passing through the Zener diode is at least 5mA (0.005 Amps), the circuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the diode is exactly equal to the Zener voltage of the diode. NEW Click here to visit Zener-Diode.co.uk for a site dedicated to zener diodes, their characteristics, usage, and other information.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit

A zener diode can be used to make a simple voltage regulation circuit as pictured above. The output voltage is fixed at the zener voltage of the zener diode used and so can be used to power devices requiring a fixed voltage. Click here to find out more about the Zener Diode Voltage Regulator and how you go about selecting the resistor and zener diode. NEW The above mentioned article on zener diode voltage regulators has now been updated and a handy calculator has been added to help you select the correct resistor and zener diode values and power ratings. "The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides." If you want to understand this further you need to pursue a course in solid state physics. Tunneling itself is a failry recent discovery and the theory lagged the discovery by quite a while. Breakdown voltage, zener voltage and peak reverse voltage are nominally the same.

Zener breakdown is due to the high electric field present at the junction.Because of the high E , a sufficiently

strong force exerted on a bound electron by the field to tear it out of its covalent bond . The new holeelectron pair created increases the reverse current.(for highly doped diodes) Avalanche breakdown is due to collisions . A thermally generated carrier falls down the junction barrier and acquires energy from the applied potential . This carrier collides with a crystal ion and imparts sufficient energy to disrupt a covalent bond . In addition to original carrier a new electron-hole pair is generated . This cumulative process is referred to as avalanche multiplication .

7 SEGMENT DISPLAY A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical information.[1] The idea of the seven-segment display is quite old. In 1910, for example, a seven-segment display illuminated by incandescent bulbs was used on a power-plant boiler room signal panel.[2] A seven segment display, as its name indicates, is composed of seven elements. Individually on or off, they can be combined to produce simplified representations of the arabic numerals. Often the seven segments are arranged in an oblique (slanted) arrangement, which aids readability. In most applications, the seven segments are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually elongated hexagons, though trapezoids and rectangles can also be used), though in the case of adding machines, the vertical segments are longer and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to further enhance readability. Each of the numbers 0, 6, 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different glyphs on sevensegment displays. The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on each side with one horizontal segment on the top, middle, and bottom. Additionally, the seventh segment bisects the rectangle horizontally. There are also fourteen-segment displays and sixteen-segment displays (for full alphanumerics); however, these have mostly been replaced by dot-matrix displays.

The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G, as shown to the right, where the optional DP decimal point (an "eighth segment") is used for the display of non-integer numbers.[citation needed]

Numbers to 7-segment-code
A single byte can encode the full state of a 7-segment-display. The most popular bit encodings are gfedcba and abcdefg - both usually assume 0 is off and 1 is on.