Learning Objectives

Knowledge
Know the structure of a cell, its components, and their respective functions

The Cell
Structure and Function

Skills
Be able to integrate the concepts of the cell with the succeeding lectures in this class

Attitude
Be able to appreciate the complexity and organization of life

Robert Hooke

Microscopes
Create detailed images of something that is otherwise too small to see Light microscopes
Simple or compound

Ocular lens enlarges primary image formed by objective lenses. Objective lenses (those closest to specimen) form the primary image. Most compound light microscopes have several.

path of light rays (bottom to top) to eye

prism that directs rays to ocular lens

stage (holds microscope slide in position) Condenser lenses focus light rays through specimen.

illuminator

Electron microscopes
Transmission EM or Scanning EM
source of illumination (housed in the base of the microscope)

Fig. 4-7a, p.54

Limitations of Light Microscopy

Wavelengths of light are 400-750 nm 400If a structure is less than one-half of a onewavelength long, it will not be visible Light microscopes can resolve objects down to about 200 nm in size

Fig. 4-7b, p.54

Electron Microscopy
Uses streams of accelerated electrons rather than light Electrons are focused by magnets rather than glass lenses

Electron Microscope
condenser lens (focuses a beam of electrons onto specimen)

incoming electron beam

specimen objective lens

intermediate lens

Can resolve structures down to 0.5 nm

projector lens viewing screen (or photographic film)

Fig. 4-8b, p.54

Different Microscopes
Different microscopes reveal different aspects of this Green Algae

Fig. 4-8a, p.54

Light micrograph

Transmission electron micrograph, thin section

Fig. 4-10b, p.55

Fig. 4-10c, p.55

Size Comparison
Scanning electron micrograph

Fig. 4-10d, p.55

Fig. 4-9, p.55

The Cell
Smallest unit of life
25 trillion red blood cells and 75 trillion other cells

Types of Cells
Presence of membrane-bound organelles membraneEukaryotes Prokaryotes

Ability to reproduce
Labile Quiescent/Stable Permanent/NonPermanent/Non-dividing

Is highly organized for metabolism Senses and responds to environment Has potential to reproduce

Tissue origin
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous

Prokaryotic Cells
Bacteria DNA is not enclosed in nucleus Generally the smallest, simplest cells No organelles

Examples of Prokaryotic Cells

Fig. 4-11c, p.56

Prokaryotic Structure
bacterial flagellum
plasma membrane pilus

Eukaryotic Cells
Have a nucleus and other organelles Eukaryotic organisms
Plants Animals Protistans Fungi

bacterial flagellum

Most prokaryotic cells have a cell wall outside the plasma membrane, and many have a thick, jellylike capsule around the wall. cytoplasm, with ribosomes DNA in nucleoid region

Plant Cell

Plant Cell Features

CELL WALL CHLOROPLAST CENTRAL VACUOLE NUCLEUS CYTOSKELETON

RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION

ROUGH ER

SMOOTH ER PLASMODESMA

GOLGI BODY PLASMA MEMBRANE LYSOSOMELIKE VESICLE

Fig. 4-13, p.58

Animal Cell

Animal Cell Features

NUCLEUS CYTOSKELETON RIBOSOMES

MITOCHONDRION

ROUGH ER

SMOOTH ER

CENTRIOLES GOLGI BODY PLASMA MEMBRANE LYSOSOME

Fig. 4-14, p.58

Protoplasm
Substances that make up a cell Cytoplasm vs nucleoplasm Water (70-80%) (70 Except adipose tissue Proteins (10-20%) (10 Structural (e.g. Collagen) Globular (e.g. Enzymes) Lipids (2%) Phospholipids, Cholesterol Ions K+, Mg+, Na+, ClCarbohydrates Glycoprotein molecules, glucose, glycogen

PARTS OF THE CELL

Nucleus
Cookbook Container of the cell Has inner and outer nuclear membrane continuous with the ER Has nuclear pores, nucleoplasm, and nucleoplasm, nucleolus Has DNA, Histone and Chromosomes Almost all nucleated cells in the body contain the same set of chromosomes and DNA

Functions of Nucleus
Keeps the DNA molecules of eukaryotic cells separated from metabolic machinery of cytoplasm Makes it easier to organize DNA and to copy it before parent cells divide into daughter cells

Nucleus
Transmission electron micrograph of a pancreatic cells nucleus

cytoplasm nucleus

Nucleus

Nucleus

plasma membrane

nuclear envelope nucleoplasm nucleolus chromatin

Fig. 4-16a, p.60 Fig. 4-16b, p.60

Chromatin
Cells collection of DNA and associated proteins Chromosome is one DNA molecule and its associated proteins Appearance changes as cell divides

Nuclear Envelope
Two outer membranes (lipid bilayers) Innermost surface has DNA attachment sites Pores span bilayer

one of two lipid bilayers (facing nucleoplasm)

nuclear pore (protein complex that spans both lipid bilayers)

one of two lipid bilayers (facing nucleoplasm)

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

Nuclear Envelope
Pores of the Nuclear Envelope

Nucleolus
Dense mass of material in nucleus May be one or more Cluster of DNA and proteins Materials from which ribosomal subunits are built Subunits must pass through nuclear pores to reach cytoplasm

Fig. 4-17a, p.61

Nuclear DNA
The changing appearance of a chromosome

Nuclear DNA

one chromosome (one dispersed DNA molecule + proteins; not duplicated)

one chromosome (threadlike and now duplicated; two DNA molecules + proteins)

one chromosome (duplicated and also condensed tightly)

p.61 p.61

Mitochondria
ATPATP-producing powerhouses Membrane transport Synthesis of chemicals Mechanical work DoubleDouble-membrane system Carry out the most efficient energy-releasing energyreactions These reactions require oxygen

Mitochondria

Fig. 4-19c, p.64

Mitochondria

Outer mitochondrial membrane

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Mitochondria

outer compartment Mitochondrion in the cytoplasm of an animal cell

Fig. 4-19a, p.64

inner compartment
Fig. 4-19b, p.64

Mitochondrial Structure
Outer membrane faces cytoplasm Inner membrane folds back on itself Membranes form two distinct compartments ATPATP-making machinery is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane

Chloroplasts
Convert sunlight energy to ATP through photosynthesis

Chloroplast

chloroplast in the cytoplasm of a plant cell

central vacuole

Thylakoid membrane, a muchfolded single flattened compartment inside the stroma stroma (semifluid interior)

two outer membranes

Fig. 4-20, p.65

Structure of a Chloroplast
Two outer membranes around semifluid interior (stroma) bathes inner membrane Often, this single membrane is folded back on itself as a series of stacked, flattened disks Each stack is called a thylakoid, which contains chlorophylls and other substances involved in photosynthesis

Like Bacteria?
Both mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble bacteria Have own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes

Endomembrane System
Group of related organelles in which lipids are assembled and new polypeptide chains are modified Products are sorted and shipped to various destinations

Components of Endomembrane System

Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi bodies Vesicles

Endoplasmic Reticulum
In animal cells, continuous with nuclear membrane Extends throughout cytoplasm Two regions: rough and smooth

Rough ER
Arranged into flattened sacs Ribosomes on surface give it a rough appearance Some polypeptide chains enter rough ER and are modified Cells that specialize in secreting proteins have lots of rough ER

Ribosomes
RER vs Free-Floating Ribosomes FreeRibosomes bound to the RER
Cell membrane Lysosomes Any protein secreted out of the cell (e.g. hormones, neurotransmitters)

Smooth ER
A series of interconnected tubules No ribosomes on surface Lipids assembled inside tubules Smooth ER of liver inactivates wastes, drugs Sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle is a specialized form

FreeFree-floating ribosomes
Cytoplasm Mitochondria

Golgi Bodies
Put finishing touches on proteins and lipids that arrive from ER Package finished material for shipment to final destinations Material arrives and leaves in vesicles

Vesicles
Membranous sacs that move through the cytoplasm Lysosomes Peroxisomes

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Lysosomes
Comes from the Golgi apparatus Digests:
Damaged cellular structures Food particles ingested by the cell Foreign bodies (e.g. bacteria)

Peroxisomes
Physically similar to lysosomes but with different functions:
Formed by self-replication or budding off from selfSER Contains oxidases (catalase) rather than catalase) hydrolases Oxidises many poisons (e.g. Alcohol)

Intracellular digestive enzymes (hydrolases) hydrolases)

NUCLEUS

chromatin

ribosome

ROUGH ER
pore

RNA messages are translated into poltpeptide chains on ribosomes. many chains are stockpiled in the cytoplasm or used at once. Others enter the rough ER.

SMOOTH ER

nucleolus
GOLGI BODY VESICLES

nuclear envelope (two lipid bilayers)

cytoplasm

vesicle

THE CELL NUCLEUS

ROUGH ER

smooth ER channel, cross-section

Plasma Membrane
Defines the cell as a distinct entity
Secretory Pathway Ends

Endocytic Pathway Begins

budding vesicle PLASMA MEMBRANE SMOOTH ER GOLGI BODY

Fig. 4-4, p.52

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Plasma Membrane
extracellular environment

Recognition protein

Receptor protein

Plasma Membrane
enlarged area

cytoplasm
lipid bilayer cytoplasm Protein pump across bilayer Protein channel across bilayer Protein pump

plasma membrane

Fig. 4-5a, p.53

Lipid Bilayer
Main component of cell membranes Gives the membrane its fluid properties Two layers of phospholipids

Fluid Mosaic Model

Membrane is a mosaic of
Phospholipids Glycolipids Sterols Proteins

Most phospholipids and some proteins can drift through membrane

Membrane Proteins
Adhesion proteins Communication proteins Receptor proteins Recognition proteins

Endocytosis vs Exocytosis
Pinocytosis For proteins; requires ATP Phagocytosis Usually by WBCs and Macrophages for larger substances (e.g. bacteria, cell debris, dead cell) Exocytosis Secretion of hormones Excretion of residual body

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Cell Wall
Structural component that wraps around the plasma membrane Occurs in plants, some fungi, some protistans

Plasma membrane

Matrixes between Animal Cells

Animal cells have no cell walls Some are surrounded by a matrix of cell secretions and other material

Primary cell wall of a young plant

Cell Junctions
Plants Plasmodesmata Animals Tight junctions Adhering junctions Gap junctions plasmodesma

Junctional Complexes
Tight junctions
Uroepithelium, Uroepithelium, alimentary and brain tissue capillaries

Adhering Junctions
Intercalated disks of cardiac muscle

Gap junctions
Cardiac and smooth muscle cells

Cell Junctions

Animal Cell Junctions

free surface of epithelial tissue

examples of proteins

adhering junction gap junctions

basement membrane
Fig. 4-23, p.67

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Cytoskeleton
Present in all eukaryotic cells Basis for cell shape and internal organization Allows organelle movement within cells and, in some cases, cell motility

Cytoskeletal Elements

microtubule

microfilament

intermediate filament

Microtubules
Largest elements Composed of the protein tubulin Arise from microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) Polar and dynamic Involved in shape, motility, cell division

tubulin subunits

5-7 nm

one polypeptide chain

8-12 nm

actin subunit
Fig. 4-24, p.68

Microfilaments
Thinnest cytoskeletal elements Composed of the protein actin Polar and dynamic Take part in movement, formation and maintenance of cell shape

Actin Filaments

Fig. 4-25a,b, p.69

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Accessory Proteins
Attach to tubulin and actin Motor proteins Crosslinking proteins

Intermediate Filaments
Present only in animal cells of certain tissues Most stable cytoskeletal elements Six known groups
Desmins, vimentins, lamins, etc.

Different cell types usually have 1-2 1different kinds

Intermediate Filaments

Mechanisms of Movement
Length of microtubules or microfilaments can change Parallel rows of microtubules or microfilaments actively slide in a specific direction Microtubules or microfilaments can shunt organelles to different parts of cell
Fig. 4-25c, p.69

Flagella and Cilia

Structures for cell motility 9+2 internal structure
plasma membrane spokes, rings of connective system central sheath one central pair of microtubules

False Feet
Some free-living cells, such as freeamoebas, form pseudopods (false feet) These temporary, irregular lobes project from the cell and function in locomotion and prey capture Pseudopods move as microfilaments elongate inside them motor proteins attached to the microfilaments drag the plasma membrane with them

one of nine pairs of microtubules with dynein arms down their length plasma membrane

microtubules near base of flagellum or cilium

basal body (embedded in the cytoplasm)

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Cilia

Flagellum

Fig. 4-28a, p.70

Fig. 4-28b,c, p.70

False Feet

Cilia

Fig. 4-28b,c, p.70

Fig. 4-29a, p.71

spokes, rings of connective system

central sheath

one central pair of microtubules

plasma membrane

one of nine pairs of microtubules with dynein arms down their length plasma membrane

microtubules near base of flagellum or cilium

basal body (embedded in the cytoplasm)

Fig. 4-29b,c, p.71

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Flagellum
Fig. 4-30, p.73

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