Introduction :

The first electronic flip-flop was invented in 1918 by William Eccles and Jordan. It was initially called the EcclesJordan trigger circuit and consisted of two active elements (vacuum tubes). Such circuits and their transistorized versions were common in computers even after the introduction of integrated circuits, though flip-flops made from logic gates are also common now. Early flip-flops were known variously as trigger circuits or multivibrators. A multivibrator is a two-state circuit; they come in several varieties, based on whether each state is stable or not: an astable multivibrator is not stable in either state, so it acts as a relaxation oscillator; a monostable multivibrator makes a pulse while in the unstable state, then returns to the stable state, and is known as a one-shot; a bistable multivibrator has two stable states, and this is the one usually known as a flip-flop. However, this terminology has been somewhat variable, historically. An astable multivibrator is also known as a free-running multivibrator. It is called free running because it alternates between two different output voltage levels during the time it is on. The output remains at each voltage level for a definite period of time. If you looked at this output on an oscilloscope, you would see continuous square or rectangular waveforms. The astable multivibrator has two outputs, but NO inputs. A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. An astable multivibrator has two states, neither one stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an oscillator with the time spent in each state controlled by the charging or discharging of a capacitor through a resistor. The astable multivibrator may be created directly with transistors or with use of integrated circuits such as operational amplifiers (op amps) or the 555 timers. A positive and negative rail voltage, the output never able to exceed these rail voltages, powers most operational amplifiers. Depending upon initial conditions, the op amps output will drive to either positive or negative rail. Upon this occurrence, the capacitor will either charge or discharge through the resistor R2, its voltage slowly rising or falling. As soon as the voltage at the op amps inverting terminal reaches that at the non-inverting terminal (the op amps output voltage divided by R1 and R2), the output will drive to the

opposing rail and this process will repeat with the capacitor discharging if it had previously charged and vice versa. Once the inverting terminal reaches the voltage of the non-inverting terminal the output again drives to the opposing rail voltage and the cycle begins again. Thus, the astable multivibrator creates a square wave with no inputs. Period of astable multivibrator displayed. An astable multivibrator generates a string of pulses.

Astable Microvibrator

Problem Statement :
Most astable multivibrator fabricated on chips require more power to drive loads. This could affect system performance since the generated heat has adverse effects on the ICs and other surrounding components. Moreover these astable ICs have poor voltage regulation and require input clock pulse to activate them. However, astable multivibrators fabricated with discrete components have excellent voltage regulations and require no clock activation.

Objective: To design and construct a BJT astable multivibrator as a flasher. Significance of Term Paper: This project aims at developing an astable multivibrator that will: * Provide less power to drive a load. *Produce an accurate voltage regulation and no input clock pulse for its activation. CHAPTER 2 2.0 Literature Review. 2.1The 555 Timer IC One of the most common linear integrated circuits is the 555 timers. SE 555/NE 555 IC was first introduced in early 1970 by Signetics Corporation and was called "The IC Time Machine" and was also the very first and only commercial timer IC available. It provided circuit designers and hobby tinkerers with a relatively cheap, stable, and user-friendly integrated circuit for both monostable and astable applications. Since this device was first made commercially available, a myrad of novel and unique circuits have been developed and presented in several trade, professional, and hobby publications. The past ten years some manufacturers stopped making these timers because of competition or other reasons. Yet other companies, like NTE (a subdivision of Philips) picked up where some left off. Some typical application of the 555 timer is monostable and astable multivibrator, DC-DC converter, digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog frequency meter and tachometers, temperature measurement and control, infrared transmitters, burglar toxic gas alarms, voltage regulators, etc. The 555 timers is a monolithic timing circuit that is showing accurate and highly stable time delays and oscillations. The 555 timers are reliable, easy to use and economical. The 555 timer is available as 8pin metal can, 8-pin mini DIP or 14-pin DIP. The SE 555 is having large operating

temperature range (-55 oC to 125 oC) whereas other version of timer IC, NE 555 is having small operating temperature (0 oC to 70 oC). When the low signal input is applied to the reset terminal, the timer output remains low regardless of the threshold voltage or the trigger voltage. Only when the high signal is applied to the reset terminal, the timer's output changes according to threshold voltage and trigger voltage. When the threshold voltage exceeds 2/3 of the supply voltage while the timer output is high, the timer's internal discharge Tr. turns on, lowering the threshold voltage to below 1/3 of the supply voltage. During this time, the timer output is maintained low. Later, if a low signal is applied to the trigger voltage so that it becomes 1/3 of the supply voltage, the timer's internal discharge Tr. turns off, increasing the threshold voltage and driving the timer output again at high. 2.1.1 555 Timers in Astable Multivibrator Mode The 555 timers can generate a very wide frequency range, depending on the values of R1, R2 and C. The following figure shows how to choose the timing resistors. The designing equation is given as, charge time (output high): 0.693*(R1+R2)*CDischarge time (output low): 0.693*(R2)*C, Period: 0.693*(R1+2*R2), Frequency: 1.44 / ((R1+2*R2)*C). Duty cycle: Time High / Time Low: (R1+R2) / R2With a 5-volt supply, the resistors can range from 1K (minimum value of R1 or R2) through 3.3M (maximum value of R1 and R2 in series) Fig 2.1 Capacitance-Frequency graph Credit: www.tele.pitt.edu/resources/lab_manuals/555Timer.pdf FIG 2.2 555 connected as an astable multivibrator Credit: www.tele.pitt.edu/resources/lab_manuals/555Timer.pdf Best results are obtained with capacitors of 1000pF or larger, but smaller values can be used with lower values of R1 and R2. The maximum operating frequency is around 1 MHz, but best operation is obtained below 300 kHz. The minimum operating frequency is limited only by the size and leakage of the capacitor you use. For instance, a 10F capacitor and a 3.3 resistor will give a time interval of 23.1 seconds if the leakage of the capacitor is low enough. By making R2 large with respect to R1, we can get an

essentially symmetrical square-wave output. For instance, if R1 is 1K and R2 is 1M, the difference in charging and discharging resistance is only 0.1%, and good symmetry results. Any symmetry you want from 50% through 99.9% can be obtained by a selection of the ratio of R1 and R2. Only a small frequency variation occurs due to power supply variation but variation due to temperature changes is large, so any precise instrumentation projects require more stable crystal clock. An astable timer operation is achieved by adding resistor RB to and configuring as shown. In the astable operation, the trigger terminal and the threshold terminal are connected so that a self-trigger is formed, operating as a multi vibrator. When the timer output is high, its internal discharging Tr turns off and the VC1 increases by exponential function with the time constant (RA+RB)*C. When the VC1, or the threshold voltage, reaches 2Vcc/3, the comparator output on the trigger terminal becomes high, resetting the F/F and causing the timer output to become low. This in turn turns on the discharging Tr. and the C1 discharges through the discharging channel formed by RB and the discharging Tr. When the VC1 falls below Vcc/3, the comparator output on the trigger terminal becomes high and the timer output becomes high again. The discharging Tr. turns off and the VC1 rises again. In the above process, the section where the timer output is high is the time it takes for the VC1 to rise from Vcc/3 to 2Vcc/3, and the section where the timer output is low is the time it takes for the VC1 to drop from 2Vcc/3 to Vcc/3. Important Features The 555 timers basically operate in one of the two modes either as a monostable (one shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free running) multivibrator. In the one-shot mode, the 555 acts like a monostable multivibrator. A monostable is said to have a single stable state that is the off state. Whenever an input pulse triggers it, the monostable switches to its temporary state. It remains in that state for a period of time determined by an RC

network. It then returns to its stable state. In other words, the monostable circuit generates a single pulse of fixed time duration each time it receives and input trigger pulse. Thus the name one-shot, One-shot multivibrators are used for turning some circuit or external component on or off for a specific length of time. It is also used to generate delays. When multiple one-shots are cascaded, a variety of sequential timing pulses can be generated. Those pulses will allow you to time and sequence a number of related operations. The other basic operational mode of the 555 is as and astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator is simply and oscillator. The astable multivibrator generates a continuous stream of rectangular off-on pulses that switch between two voltage levels. The frequency of the pulses and their duty cycle are dependent upon the RC network values. The important features of the 555 timer are as follows: (a) Can operate on +5V to +18V supply voltage. (b) Having adjustable duty cycle. (c) Timing from microseconds to hours. (d) Producing high current output. (e) Having capacity to source or sink current of 200 mA. (f) Output can drive TTL.
(g) Having temperature stability of 50 ppm per oC change in temperature

or 0.005% per C. (h) Is reliable, easy to use, and low cost. The NE 555 timer is the bipolar version of timer. This primer is about this fantastic timer, which is after 30 years still very popular and used in many schematics. Although these days the CMOS version of this IC, like the Motorola MC1455, is mostly used, the regular type is still available; however there have been many improvements and variations in the

circuitry. But all types are pin-for-pin plug compatible. This can operate over a supply voltage range of +2V to +18V and has output current sinking and sourcing capabilities of 100 mA and 10 mA. Advantages of CMOS version timer are low power requirement and very high input impedance. 2.2 NAND Gate Astable Multivibrators Fig 2.3 NAND gates in Astable Mode Credit: www.electronics-tutorials.ws/waveforms/bistable.html The astable multivibrator circuit uses two CMOS NOT gates such as the CD4069 or the 74HC04 hex inverter ICs, or as in our simple circuit below a pair of CMOS NAND such as the CD4011 or the 74LS132 and an RC timing network. The two NAND gates are connected as inverting NOT gates. Suppose that initially the output from the NAND gate U2 is HIGH at logic level "1", then the input must therefore be LOW at logic level "0" (NAND gate principles) as will be the output from the first NAND gate U1. Capacitor, C is connected between the output of the second NAND gate U2 and its input via the timing resistor, R2. The capacitor now charges up at a rate determined by the time constant of R2 and C. As the capacitor, C charges up, the junction between the resistor R2 and the capacitor, C, which is also connected to the input of the NAND gate U1 via the stabilizing resistor, R2 decreases until the lower threshold value of U1 is reached at which point U1 changes state and the output of U1 now becomes HIGH. This causes NAND gate U2 to also change state as its input has now changed from logic "0" to logic "1" resulting in the output of NAND gate U2 becoming LOW, logic level "0". Capacitor C is now reverse biased and discharges itself through the input of NAND gate U1. Capacitor, C charges up again in the opposite direction determined by the time constant of both R2 and C as before until it reaches the upper threshold value of NAND gate U1. This causes U1 to change state and the cycle repeats itself over again. Fig 2.4 Output of the NAND gate. Credit: www.electronics-tutorials.ws/waveforms/bistable.html

2.5 CMOS Astable Multivibrator Fig 2.5 CMOS in Astable mode Credit: www.googleimages.com The LM556 Dual timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or oscillation. The 556 is a dual 555. An external resistor and capacitor for each timing function provide timing. The two timers operate independently of each other sharing only VCC and ground. The circuits may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms. The output structures may sink or source 200mA.It results in providing effective solutions for timing and pulse circuit applications. Applications such as: Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation Pulse position modulation 0 Linear ramp generator Operation With the output high (+Vs.) the capacitor C1 is charged by current flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V. The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the capacitor to start charging again. This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V which forces the output low while reset is 0V.An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as counters. A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz will produce a series of 'clicks' (one

for each low/high transition) and this can be used to make a simple metronome. An audio frequency astable (20Hz to 20kHz) can be used to produce a sound from a loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for buzzes and beeps. The natural (resonant) frequency of most piezo transducers is about 3kHz and this will make them produce a particularly loud sound. Duty cycle The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a percentage. For a standard 555/556-astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%: 2.6 OP- Amp Astable multivibrator The 741 chip: An important and very useful group of integrated circuits is the operational amplifier or op-amp group. These devices have a very high gain, an inverting input and a non-inverting input. There are many op-amps but we look at the 741 which has an open-loop gain of 1000,000 times. All operational amplifiers work in the same way in theory. The way they operate in a circuit is controlled by the external components attached to them. They can operate as inverting amplifier, a non-inverting amplifier (buffer), a comparator, an Astable multivibrator and many more. . Credit: circuittoday.com Fig-2.6 is the circuit of the 741 in astable mode A capacitor C is connected to the inverting terminal (2) of the operational amplifier from the ground. Similarly a resistance R1 is connected to the non-inverting terminal (3) of the operational amplifier from the ground. The output terminal (6) of the amplifier is fed back to inverting and non-inverting terminals of operational amplifier through resistors R and R2 respectively. Here R2 is fixed resistor and R is variable resistor. To observe the output waveform, the output terminal (6) is connected to CRO Y- Plates phase terminal

and the other terminal of CRO is grounded. The terminals (7) and (4) of the op. amp are connected to +12 V and -12 V of the D.C. power supplies separately. The output terminal (6) is also grounded through a series combination of two zener diodes connected in reverse order as shown in the fig2.6. Theory: - First the inverting terminal (2) is at zero potential (V2 = 0, the inverting terminal 2 is virtually grounded) and the input at the non-inverting terminal (3) has some potential V1 i.e. the voltage across R1. This occurs due to the power supply of the operational amplifier. This + ve voltage drives the output of operational amplifier into + ve saturation voltage (+Vsat). This large saturation voltage is due to the high gain of the operational amplifier i.e. the comparator character of the amplifier. When the + Vsat is fed back to the inverting terminal (2) through the resistor R, the capacitor C gets charged and the potential of the right side plate of the capacitor gradually rises (or) the V2 value rises (Even though the inverting terminal 2 is virtually grounded but it is not mechanically grounded). When V2 becomes slightly more than V1, the input (Vi = V1 V2) becomes ve' and immediately this ve voltage drives the output of the operational amplifier in to ve saturation voltage (- Vsat). Now the capacitor discharges gradually. When V2 becomes less than V1 and (V1 V2) becomes +ve and the output drives to +Vsat. The same process is repeated and the output of the operational amplifier swings between two saturation voltages i.e. between + Vsat and - Vsat. The output eo of the operational amplifier is square wave. So, operational amplifier can function as a square wave generator. The wave shape is as shown in Fig2.7. Fig2.7 Square wave output of the op-amp Credit: cicuirttoday.com CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY Overview The purpose of this section is to outline and examine the design requirement and process

of Implementation based on the requirement analysis. This section will also give explicit information about the system under development. The design stage produces a prototype that includes performance, reliability, constraint and all relevant information about the system. A systematic examination and evaluation of data or information, by breaking it into its component parts to uncover their interrelationships and also the breakdown of the topic into simpler units in order to achieve a better understanding. 3.1 Design Methods Approaches that will enhance the design of a two state device. *Getting a suitable circuit diagram that will function as an astable multivibrator. * Simulating to get the right components that will meet our design or requirement. *Implementing our design *Observing the output waveforms from generated by every module. *Observing the final output waveforms from the structure. 3.2 Modules design During this stage of the module the charging of the LED1 depends on the transistor Q1 being connected to the negative plate of the C1. The period of the square wave at the Q1 Outputs in this mode of operation is a function of the external components employed. 3.2.1 During this stage of the module the charging of the LED2 depends on the transistor Q2 being connected to the negative plate of the C2. The period of the square wave at the Q1 Outputs in this mode of operation is a function of the external Components employed 3.3 Design structure
R2 10k R3 10k R1 390 R4 390 C1 22F C2 22F V1 12 V LED1 LED2 Q2 Q1 2SC945 2SC945

36 red LEDs 40Green

LEDs

A high level on the ASTABLE input enables Astable operation. The Period of the square wave at the Q1 and Q2 Outputs in this mode of operation is a function of the external components employed. "True" input pulses on the ASTABLE input or "Complement" pulses on the ASTABLE input allow the circuit to be used as a getable multivibrator. The OSCILLATOR output Period will be half of the Q terminal output in the astable mode. However, a 50% duty cycle is guaranteed at this output. The characteristics of the two transistors are not exactly the same. When the circuit is first switched on, the current through one transistor, say Q1, will increase faster than the current through Q2. Due to the rise of current through R1, the voltage across it will increase, causing the collector voltage of Q1 to fall. This fall in voltage is coupled to the base of Q2. This causes the collector current of Q2 to fall, and its collector voltage to rise, due to less voltage being dropped across R4. This rise in collector voltage is cross-coupled to the base of Q1, increasing the forward bias of Q1 and increasing its collector current. Since the collector current was already rising, its rise is aided by this rising forward bias. The effect is cumulative and Q1 becomes rapidly fully on and Q2 completely off. The collector voltage of Q1 is now low, and that of Q2 is high. C1 now begins to charge from the supply rail, via R2. As the voltage on the right hand side of C1 starts to rise, Q2 starts to conduct. Again we have the cumulative effect and Q2 rapidly comes on and Q1 goes off. The collector voltage of Tr1 is now high and that of Q2 low. It is now the turn of C2 to charge from the supply via R3. As the voltage on the left hand side of C2 begins to rise, the base voltage of Q1 increases, turning it on and turning Q2 off. 3.4 Electronic Component
NAME COMPONENTUSED DESCRIPTION NO OF COMPONENTS REQUIRED 2SC945 2SC945 TRANSISTOR 2 RES 1,4 RES 2,3 RC390 RC 10K RESISTOR

2 2 CAP Electrolyte (22uf) CAPACITORS 2 VDC VDC DC VOLTAGE 1 LED (2mA) GREEN, RED LED 2

3.4.1 Transistor (2SC945) A BJT transistor is an electronic device made by doped semiconductor material and can be made use of in amplifying or switching functions. It is a three-terminal electronic device. 2SC945 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals. 2SC945 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the emitter 3.4.2 Electrolytic capacitor (22uf) Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume than other types. They are often referred to in electronics usage simply as "electrolytic". They are used in relatively high current and low frequency electrical circuits, particularly in power supply filters, where they store charge needed to moderate output voltage and current fluctuations in rectifier output. . Electrolytic capacitors also have relatively low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter lifetimes compared to other types of capacitors. 3.4.3 LEDs An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and is easily populated onto printed circuit boards, and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation

pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. The low energy consumption, low maintenance and small size of modern LEDs has led to uses as status indicators and displays on a variety of equipment and installations. Their efficiency is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes 3.5 Hardware resources and procurement ITEM QTY UNIT PRICE TOTAL AMOUNT TRANSISTOR (2SC945) 2 50p Gh1
RESISTOR (390 ohms) (10K ohms)

2 2 50p 50p Gh1 Gh1

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS (22UF)

2 50p Gh1 DC VOLTAGE 1 GH5 Gh5 LED 80 10 Gh10 BREAD BOARD 1 Gh2 Gh2 Total Ghc 21 3.6 Construction After we have designed your circuit, perhaps even bread boarded a working prototype, and now it's time to turn it into a nice Bread Circuit Board design. * The four resistors fit flat against the board. To make them sit neatly, bend the leads to 90 with a sharp bend and push them up to the board before soldering. * The two 100u electrolytic are next. The positive hole is marked on the board for each

electro. This is the longer lead. The negative lead is marked on the component with a black stripe. *Fit the two NPN transistors. We have used 2SC 945 but any general-purpose NPN low-power transistor will be suitable. They are pushed to the board. *The red and green LEDs can be fitted to either position on the board. The short lead is Cathode and this is the bar on the symbol. * The project is now ready to turn on CHAPTER 4 Result And Analysis
390 R 390 R 10k 10k

22 uf 22 uf 40 green

4.1 Simulation results on Q1 The entire normal range of silicon transistor operation involves a change in base-emitter voltage of only about two-tenths of a volt. This is because the base-emitter diode is forward biased. One of the constraints on transistor action is that this voltage remains at about 0.6-0.7 volts.
Fig 4.1 Multimeter showing Emitter-Base Voltage (VEBO )

Multimeter showing a voltage reading of 0.73volts which means that the transistor is operating at normal range. 4.1.2 Waveform signal of Q1 The graph below depicts the the 0.73v waveform signal on the oscilloscope. Fig 4.2 Oscilloscope showing the signal of Q1 4.2 Simulation results on Q2 Multimeter showing a voltage reading of 0.73volts which means that the transistor is operating between the normal range of 0.6-0.7 volts on Q2. Fig 4.3 Multimeter showing Emitter-Base Voltage (VEBO ) 4.2.1 Waveform signal of Q1 The graph below depicts the the 0.73v waveform signal on the oscilloscope. Fig 4.4 Oscilloscope showing the signal of Q1