EXERCISE NO. 11: VASCULAR TISSUE A. Characteristics of Vascular tissue A fluid or liquid tissue.

. Consists of: - a liquid part called PLASMA. - formed elements called cells ( erythrocytes and leucocytes)

B. Functions of Vascular tissue Transports and distributes food materials, gases(oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones and other
waste products.

C. Formed elements or cells in Vascular tissue. Erythrocytes or Red Blood Cells(RBC)

-carries oxygen -Number: Frogs RBC- oval larger, and with a nucleus. Humans RBC- disc-shaped, smaller and without a nucleus >>MALE- 5, 500, 000 per cubic mm of blood. >>FEMALE- 5, 000, 000 per cubic mm of blood. -origin- red bone marrow of long bones. Leucocytes or White Blood Cells(WBC) -the soldiers of the body^fight infections. -origin^lymph glands and some from the bone marrow TYPES OF LEUCOCYTES A. Granulocytes(polyphonuclear leococytes)- with granules in the cytoplasm; nucleus in varies shape. NEUTROPHIL- nucleus consists of three(3) or more lobes. - granules in the cytoplasm are fine and numerous. - not stained by acidic and basic dye. - 60%-70% of the total number of WBC EOSINOPHIL- nucleus consist of two(2) lobes. - granules in the cytoplasm are fewer but coarser. - stained by asidic dye. - 3-4% of the total number of WBC. BASOPHIL- one-lobed nucleus that is usually twisted like an S. - granules in the cytoplasm are very large but few. - stained by basic dye. - 0.5% of the total number of WBC.

B. Agranulocytes(mononuclear leucocytes)- with no granules in the cytoplasm. LYMPHOCYTES- smaller spherical cell with the nucleus almost occupying the entire cell;
cytoplasm is very small in amount. - 20-25% of the total number of WBC. MONOCYTES- bigger spherical cell; nucleus is bean-shaped( with indentation) - 2-6% of the total number of WBC,

THROMBOCYTES or BLOOD PLATELETS -related to blood clotting. -they are tiny bodies about the diameter of the RBC, colorless and non-nucleated. -number- 250, 000 to 300, 000 oer cubic mm of the blood.

EXERCISE NO. 12: NERVOUS TISSUE

A. Functions of Nervous Tissue To receive and transmit impulses. B. Parts of Neuron Neuron or Nerve cell- the structural and functional unit of nervous tissue.
a. Cell body or cytosomal body- large, with a conspicuous nucleus and two or more thin protoplasmic processes or cytoplasmic extensions that grow out of the cell body to form fibers, the dendrites and axon. b. Dendrites- the shorter, much branched(tree-liked) protoplasmic process that transmits impulses towards the cell body. c. Axon- the short or long unbranched protoplasmic process that transmits impulses away from the cell body.

C. Types of Neurons according to structure Unipolar neuron- with one cell body and one axon. Ex: found in the earthworm. Bipolar neuron- with one cell body, one axon, and one dendrites. Ex: found in the nose. Multipolar neuron- with one cell body, one axon, and several dendrites. Ex: roots in the spinal
nerves.

D. Types of Neurons according to functions Sensory neurons- pick up impulses from sensory receptors(skin or sense organ) and transmit them to

nerve centers(brain and spinal chord). Motor neurons- carry impulses from the nerve centers to effectors like muscles or glands. Association neurons- form various connections between other neurons(between sensory and motor neurons. Synapse- the point of contact between neurons. Ganglion- a group of nerve cell bodies(with conspicuous nuclei)outside the central nervous system. Nerve fibers- elongated outgrowths or a dendrite. As the nerve fibers extend away from the cell body, they become surrounded with sheaths.

E. Types of Nerve fibers (AXON) Myelinated or medullated nerve fiber(white fiber)- the axon is surrounded by a sheath of myelin, a
semi-fluid fatty material that appear white. Ex: peripheral and sympathetic nervous system. Non-myelinated or non-myelinated nerve fiber- the axon is with out any surrounding sheath of myelin; gray in appearance. Ex: brain and spinal chord ( central nervous system).

F. Parts of a medullated nerve fiber. Axis cylinder- the central core and is the cell process. Myelin sheath- the semi-fluid fatty materials which makes the fiber appear white, functions for the
conduction of nerve impulses.

EXERCISE NO. 13: MUSCULAR TISSUE Characteristics of muscular tissue Muscle cells are long, elongated, slender cells thus are more appropriately called MUSCLE FIBERS. The delicate membrane covering of a muscle fiber is called SARCOLEMMA. A muscle fiber contains minute, highly contractile fibrils called myofibrils, which under an electron microscope consist of two sets of fibers: MYOSIN & ACTIN. A muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibers enveloped by a connective tissue, The EPIMYSIUM. Each muscle bundle is further enclosed by a connective tissue, the PERIMYSIUM, inner extension of the epimysium. Four or more muscle fbers are in turn enclosed by the ENDOMYSIUM, an inner extension of the pereimysion. B. Functions of muscular tissue For movement and locomotion Gives shape to the body C. Types of muscle tissue Striated voluntary muscle or skeletal muscle. Ex.- all attached to the skeleton. Unstriated(smooth) involuntary muscle tissue. Ex.- muscles of the digestive tract. Cardiac or striated involuntary muscle tissue. Ex.- muscles of the heart.

EXERCISE NO. 14: EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG Anatomical regions of the frogs body: BASIS OF COMPARISON SKELETAL MUSCLE LOCATION Attach to the skeleton SHAPE OF THE FIBER NUMBER OF NUCLEI POSITION OF NUCLEI CROSS STRIATIONS (Alternation of dark & light striation) SPEED OF CONTRACTION TYPE OF NERVOUS CONTROL Elongate or filamentous Many per muscle cell Peripheral Present Most rapid Voluntary

SMOOTH MUSCLE WallS of the stomach and intestine Fusifrom One per muscle cell Central Absent Slowest Involuntary

CARDIAC MUSCLE Walls of the heart Net-like Syncytial Central Present Intermediate Involuntary

Dorsally: Head Trunk Anterior limbs Posterior limbs

Ventrally: Throat Pectoral region Abdominal region Pelvic region

Body parts on the dorsal surface: Parts External nares/nostrils Nictitating membrane Tympanum Brow spot Neck Anus Forelimbs/anterior limbs

Description Anterior opening Third eyelid w/c is transparent membrane Hearing organs of the frog Located between the eyes Connected to the trunk continuously Located at the mid-posterior end of the trunk bet. the thighs Directly connected to the trunk much weaker and smaller Larger and more muscular compared to the forelimbs. Has five toes and are webbed.

Function For entry and exit of air Protects and moistens the eye For receiving sound waves For insertion of the dissecting pin For movement of the head Aids in eliminating wastes For flexion and it also increased strength used for jumping and hopping Permits frog to leap 20x their body length

Hindlimbs/posterior limbs

Dorsal view of the frog

EXERCISE NO. 15: DISSETION AND INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG Organs Heart Lungs Kidney Liver Gall bladder Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Cloaca Pancreas Spleen Adrenal glands Urinary bladder Testes(male) organs present in the coelom Description three-chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle Found at the anterior end of the body cavity Major organ for excretion elongated, brownishcolored organs large, brownish colored organ covering most of the body cavity Small greenish sac Function directs the flow of blood Allows breathing on land Filters the blood Produces called bile a substance

Stores a substance called bile Tube leading to the Connects the mouth to the stomach stomach large, firm, sac-like organ breaks down food long, folded, tube-like organ absorb nutrients from food part of the digestive tract Removes excess water from between the small intestine the waste materials and and the cloaca collects waste Common opening Where sperm, eggs, urine, and feces exit Gland near the stomach, Makes insulin (aids in thin, yellowish ribbon digestion) small, round reddish organ stores blood small gland on top of the kidney empty sac located at the lowest part of the body cavity tan-colored, bean-shaped organs near the anterior end of each kidney dark organs which may fill most of the frog's body cavity yellowish, coiled tubes near the back surface of the ovaries hollow, pear-shaped organ Produces hormones Stores Urine Makes sperm

Ovaries (female)

makes egg (usually visible on frog)

not

Oviducts Uterus

Passage through which the egg leaves the body of the frog. holds the fertilized egg during its development

Other parts found in the mouth Parts Tongue

Description long and sticky and attachment is at the front

Function the For grasping a flying insect.

internal nostrils

Found inside the mouth and opens inside the mouth very small teeth lining the margins of the upper jaw two small teeth found near the internal openings of the nasal passages A tube; opening of the larynx Also a tube; opening at throat level that is connected to the ear

Used for breathing

maxillary teeth vomerine teeth

For holding the prey For holding the prey

Glottis Eustachian tube

Leads to the lungs connect the pharynx to the ear equalize the pressure in the frog's inner ear

EXERCISE NO. 16: HUMAN INTERNAL ORGANS Major cavities and subdivisions: Major cavity Subdivisions dorsal protects the nervous system ventral houses the internal organs (visceral) Cranial cavity Vertebral cavity Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity

Organs found in each cavity Within the skull and encases the brain Vertebral column and spinal cord Heart , lungs , trachea, major blood vessels , esophagus and some endocrine glands Stomach, intestines , spleen, liver and other organs that lies w/in the pelvis, urinary bladder, reproductive organs and rectum

Differences between human and frogs visceral organs Human Frog Human heart is as big as human fist As big as the size of a dime Has for chambered heart 3 chambered heart 3 parts of small intestine consisting of : 2 parts of small intestine Jejunum, ileum, and duodenum Ileum and duodenum Genitalia where wastes are eliminated , and Large intestine of frogs is for the exit of wastes , entry of sperm/egg and exit of urine sperm/egg and urine Major visceral organs of human Description Function Hollow muscular organ Pumps blood through the cardiovascular system Paired cone-shaped organs Allows breathing (exchange of carbon and oxygen happens) Hollow organ composed of several strong muscular layers Stores, mixes and digest food Acts to protect us from infectious organisms that may have been ingested Large intestine Function for bacterial digestion Collects resultant mixtures of the bile acid and undigested contents Small intestine Food enters and nutrients are absorbed into the blood functions as part of the immune system circulatory system: Contributes to the production of blood cells And storage of blood cells As exocrine organ: Produce

Organ Heart Lungs Stomach

Intestines

Portion of the digestive tract

Spleen

About the size of a fist , found in the abdomen

Pancreas

Small organ found near the

lower part of the stomach

Kidneys

Paired reddish organ located in the lumbar region

digestive enzymes As endocrine organ: produce hormones Ex. Insulin most important hormone produced by it Regulates composition, volume and pressure of blood Produces urine

EXERCISE NO. 17: THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM histological layers common to the human skin and the frog skin Epidermis stratum germinatum stratum corneum 1. differences between the human skin and the frog skin. Criteria Human skin A. Microscopic a. Additional histological Stratum spinosum layers Stratum lucidum Stratum granulosum b. Cell form of stratum corneum c. Thickness of stratum corneum d. Pigment distribution e. Type of glands present f. Formation of papillae Squamous keratinized epithelial Thick layer Scattered throughout Sweat glands Oil glands Present Present Hair

Frog skin Stratum compactum Stratum spongiosum

Squamous epithelial Thin layer Compact together Mucus glands Poison glands Absent Absent Web

g. Subcutaneous layer h. Other skin derivatives B. Microscopic a. Skin texture b. Skin color c. Pigment distribution d. Skin attachment e. Skin derivatives visible

Smooth and soft Varies from pale yellow/ reddish-brown to black Scattered evenly Attached to the muscles Hair and nails

Moist, slimy (frog skin), and drier, wartier (toad skin) Variety of color ; can change for temp. adaptation Unevenly scattered Loosely attached to the muscles Phalanges and web

EXERISE NO. 18: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 1. Enumerate 5 superficial muscles common to both man and the frog , visible on their : a. Dorsal surface of the trunk Latissimus dorsi Obliquus externus Rhomboids Deltoid Triceps brachii b. Dorsal surface of the hindlimbs Gastrocnemius Gracilis Sartorius Semimembranosus Achilles tendon/ calcaneal tendon c. Ventral surface of the trunk Obliquus externus Pectoralis Rectus abdominis Deltoid Latissimus dorsi d. Ventral surface of the hindlimbs Gastrocnemius Gracilis Sartorius Abductor longus Abductor magnus e. Dorsal and ventral surfaces of anterior limb Deltoid Triceps brachii Anconeus Pectoralis Extensor carpi ulnaris 2. Give the point of insertion and origin of the following muscles: Muscle Point of origin Point of insertion Masseter Maxilla and zygomatic Angle and ramus of arch mandible Mylohyoid Medial surface of the Median raphe mandible Deltoid scapula Deltoid ridge Latissimus dorsi Lumbo-dorsal fascia Lateral side of the proximal end of the humerus Biceps brachii Long head originates from Radial tuberosity of radius tubercle and bacipital aponeurosis Short head originates from coracoids process of scapula Rectus abdominis Antero-ventral surface of Posterior half of the

Sartorius Gastrocnemius

the pelvic girdle Ilium , in front of the pubis 2 heads : Small head w/c is connected to the tendon of the triceps femorisand passes over the knee Big head w/c originates from the distal end of the femur and proximal end of the tibio fibula Posterior part of the ischium

sternum By means of tendon on the tibio-fibula just below the head Tendon of the Achilles that passes behind the ankle unto the planter or flat surface of the foot.

Semimembranosus

Proximal end of the tibiofibula

differences observed regarding the presence and number of muscles in these 2 organs. CRITERIA/ Part HUMAN FROG HEAD MUSCLES Humans have more Lesser number of muscles number of muscles found than the humans muscle in the head; there are of the head. Muscles presences of different found are functioning for kinds of muscle for more the movement of the complicated function like jaw/floor of the during making of facial swallowing and breathing expressions. HINDLIMBS Humans have more Less number of muscles evolved or advance found in the frogs muscles; abundant in compared to the humans muscles compared to the but it has more muscles frog and compared to the found in the hindlimbs head. than in the head. The differences of the 2 organs in the number and presence of muscles would be relating on the functions that it does wherein the limbs portray more movements and effort than the head that explains such presence of muscles in that particular organ compared to the head. And for the fact that the muscles maintain balance through the weight it has, allowing man to stand straight.

EXERCISE NO. 19: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 1. main regions of the digestive track common to both man and frog. Main regions Description Function Mouth First portion of the alimentary Receives food and saliva canal Esophagus Also known as gullet, consists Passage for food of mascular tube Stomach Small Intestine Large intestine Pancreas Most expanded , large , bag shaped portion f the digestive tube Longest portion of the digestive tube A short dilated tube Elongated , irregular shaped gland Breaks down food Final digestion and absorption takes place Temporary storage of wastes products of digestion Secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes

2.

digestive glands are present in both human and frogs digestive system Liver : secretes bile, a digestive juice Gastric glands: secretes gastric juice which contains HCL and protein digesting enzymes Pancreas : secretes an enzyme containing pancreatic juice : pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest starch(pancreatic amylase), proteins(trypsin,chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase ,and alastase) Intestinal glands : produces intestinal juice containing enzymes that helps in digestion 3. 6 anatomical differences between the human and the frogs digestive system. Criteria Humans Frogs Small intestine 3 divisions : the duodenum, Only 2 divisions; the ileum , jejunum duodenum and the ileum Omentum Present Absent Cloaca Absent Present Sigmoid colon Present Absent Appendix Present Absent Submandibular gland Present Absent

EXERCISE NO. 20: HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM histological layers were common to all the specimens Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis Serosa

glands present in the tunica mucosa of the stomach , small intestine and large intestine Stomach Gastric glands Small intestine Intestinal glands Large intestine Intestinal glands

Criteria Mucosal folds Length Width Abundance

Stomach Rugae Half of the length of the organ Folds are wider / thicker Many

Small intestine Circular folds 10mm (4 in) 2/3 of the circumference of a gut Many / numerous

Large intestine Ileocecal sphincter Shorter compared to the two folds Thin Few

differences among the histological layers of the stomach, small intestine. Criteria Stomach Small intestine Thickness of layers a. Mucosa Thickest Thick b. Submucosa Thicker than the small intestine but thinner than the large intestine Thicker than the small intestine but thinner than the large intestine Thickest of the three 3 layers of smooth muscle : outer longitudinal layer, middle circular layer, inner oblique layer Rugae Gastric glands None Thinnest

Large intestine Thinnest of the three Thickest of the three

c. Muscularis Outer: thicker Inner : thinner Thinner than the large intestine 2 layers of smooth muscle : outer thinner layer and the inner , thicker layer Circular folds Intestinal glands Duodenal glands Present Thickest of the three

d. Serosa Presence of additional sub layers

Type of mucosal folds Specific glands present Presence of lacteal system

Thicker than the small intestine External layer of longitudinal smooth muscle and internal of circular smooth muscle Ileocecal sphincter Intestinal glands None

EXERCISE NO. 21: HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE GLANDS Digestive glands Cellular composition Liver Hepatic cells Description: Arranged in irregular branching interconnected plates around a vein Function : - secretes substance called bile. -functions in carbohydrate ,lipid and protein metabolism; processing of drugs and hormones ;excretion of bilirubin ; storage of minerals and vitamins phagocytosis & activation of vit. D Stellate reticuloendothelial cells Description: present in sinusoid Function: destroys worn-out white blood cells , bacteria ,and other foreign matter in the venous blood draining from the gastrointestinal tract. Pancreas Islets of Langerhans (A,B,C,D AND CELLS) Description: polyhedral cells which are arraned in irregular cords Function: secretes hormones ; insulin, glucagon, somastostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. Exocrine acini Description: pyramidal cells within the acini Function : secretes a mixture of fluid and digestive enzymes called pancreatic juice. Salivary glands Acini (mucous and serous ) - Group of cells that secretes digestive enzymes

Histological composition Liver lobule Description: which are hexagonal structures that consists f specialized cells called hepatic cells. Blood vessels Description: large ,thin walled cavities with numerous RBC

Acini Description: appears as individual hollow tubules lined with tall, pyramidal cells

Parotid gland - Secretes saliva into the oral cavity via a parotid duct Submandibular - The submandibular ducts run under the mucosa on either side of the mid line of the floor of the mouth and enter the oral cavity proper lateral to lingual frenulum. Sublingual - Lesser sublingual ducts , opens into the floor of the mouth in the oral cavity proper

Gastric glands

Parietal cells - secretes HCL and intrinsic factor Chief cells- secretes pepsinogen and gastric lipase Surface mucous cells and mucous neck cells secretes mucus and for absorption G cells secretes gastrin

Gastric pit Description: where the secretion s from several gastric glands flow Lamina propia Description: holds the gastric glands together Lumen of the stomach Description: space where the secretions from the gastric glands reside Lamina propia Description: Holds the duodenal glands together Villi Description : finger like projections of the mucosa that vastly increases the surface area of the epithelium

Duodenal glands

Goblet cells arranged at irregular intervals between the columnar cells which secrete mucus

EXERCISE NO. 22: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Oragans common to man and frog: Lungs cite of exchange of gases Larynx passage Nose entrance of gases Mouth Glottis Eustachian tube Describe the connection of the human and the frogs nasal cavity to the mouth. Human The nasal cavity and the mouth do not connect directly but meet together at the pharynx. The mouth and the nasal cavity are divided by the palatine bone. Frog The nasal cavity connects directly to the mouth. From the external nares air enters the internal nares and directly to the mouth, because of the absence of pharynx.

Enumerate structural differences between the human and the frogs respiratory organs. Criteria Accessory structure in the nose Structure of the larynx (composition) Human Hair Composed of nine pieces of cartilages: the thyroid , epiglottis , cricoid cartilage , arytenoid, cuneiform and corniculate cartilage Present It is enclosed and protected by a membrane called pleural membrane , with a spongy texture and honeycombed with epithelium. Also an elastic air bag filled with small chambers of alveoli. Circulatory organs , organs of the urinary system, digestive system, endocrine system. Etc. Nose mouth Pharynx Trachea Bronchi ,larynx Frog None Composed of two pieces of cartilage : Arytenoids and cricoid cartilage Absent Thin-walled , spongy sacs, contains a bubble like structure the alveoli abundantly supplied by blood vessels. Connected directly to the mouth .

Presence of trachea Texture and nature of the lungs

Other organs associated with the respiratory system Other respiratory organs aside from the lungs

Skin and mouth lining, Circulatory organs Nose Mouth lining Glottis Skin

EXERCISE NO. 23: THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Heart - Hollow organ, pumps blood throughout the body Blood vessels: - Composed of three: Arteries carries oxygenated blood away from the heart (indicated by re color) Arteries and arterioles the smallest version of arteries form the arterial system Veins carries deoxygenated blood into the heart (indicated by blue color) Veins and venules smaller veins form the venous system Capillaries where exchange of substances from the tissues occur Man and Frog: 1. a)five major similarities Both human and frog have closed system of circulation Blood travels in the vessels There is exchange of deoxygenated and oxygenated blood The circulatory system is composing of the heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood. Composed of two systems : arterial and venous b) five major differences . Human Frog Human heart has four chambers Frog heart has only three chambers More number of blood vessels Lesser number of blood vessels Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood are not Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood are mixed mixed in the single ventricle Blood vessels are associated with more organs Blood vessels are associated with limited organs and parts of the body and part Arteries and veins have more branches Lesser branches of arteries and veins are found compared to the frog 2. 5 major arteries and 5 major veins Human Major arteries Organs/parts Major veins Organs/ parts associated associated Carotid arteries Brain and eyes Neck into facial lines Retromandibular Vein Femoral artery Subclavian artery Brachiocephalic artery Pulmonary artery Frog Major arteries Coeliacomesenteric artery Mesenteric artery Coeliac artery Parietal arteries Common alliac ateries Upper thigh Right arm brain and the head Portal vein gastric veins superior mesenteric vein jugular veins stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen Stomach small intestine, ascending colon, and transverse colon head to the heart

Heart

Organs/parts associated Stomach , intestines and liver Intestines and the spleen Stomach and pancreas Tissues of the back Lower limbs, walls of the pelvis , ureter regions

Major veins Ventral abdominal vein Posterior vena cava Renal veins Hepatic portal Femoral vein

Organs/parts associated Body wall and urinary bladder Liver, kidney and the gonads Kidney Intestines and liver Muscles and tissues of the Thigh

EXERCISE NO. 24: THE HEART (A) the physical characteristics and (B) histological layers common to the human heart and the Frogs heart. a. The human and frog heart is a hollow elastic and muscular pumping organ found between the lungs. The heart is branched with blood vessels that transport blood throughout the body and protected by a membrane called pericardium. b. Human and frog heart have Histological layers Description Epicardium A thin, transparent outer layer wherein serves to protect externally. It is made up of mesothelium and connective tissues that imparts smooth, slipper texture of the heart. Myocardium Is a cardiac muscle tissue make up 95 % of the heart ,and is responsible for the pumping action. Endocardium A layer of endothelium , overlying a thin layer of connective tissue. 1. Enumerate as many differences observed between the human heart and the frogs heart . consider the following: Criteria Human Frog Number of chambers 4 chambers : 2 ventricles (left 3 chambers: 2 atria (left and and right ventricle) and 2 right) and 1 ventricle atria (the left and right atria) Number of valves 4 valves 3 valves Types of valves Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid valve,Aortic valve, valve Pulmonary valve. Pulmonary valve. Major blood vessels Superior vena cava Right and left pulmonary Inferior vena cava vein Descending aorta Posterior vena cava Ascending aorta Right and left anterior vena Left and right Pulmonary cava veins Left and right carotid arch Left common carotid artery Truncus arteriosus Left subclavian artery Brachiocephalic trunk

EXERCISE NO. 25: HISTORY OF BLOOD VESSELS

1. Enumerate the different histological layers common to arteries and veins. Describe each layer in relation to their arrangement, thickness and composition. Histological layers Artery Vein Tunica interna It has well defined internal Endothelium and has elastic lamina , thicker than basement membrane ; no the vein. Composed of thick internal elastic lamina ; smooth muscle and elastic contain valves ; lumen is fibers. much larger than in accompanying artery. Thin layer of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. Tunica media Composed of thick tunica Much thinner than the media dominated by elastic arteries , composed of little fibers and thick smooth smooth muscle and elastic muscle ;there is presence of muscles ; no external elastic external elastic lamina lamina Tunica externa Thicker than the vein, The thickest layer consists of composed of collagen and collagen and elastic fibers elastic fibers. 2. In tabulated form , differentiate an artery from a vein considering the following aspects: Criteria Artery Vein Thickness of layers The tunica interna is thicker Tunica interna is thinner than than vein;tunica media is the arteries; the tunica much thicker than the 3 media is much thinner than layers has muscular to elastic those of the arteries; tunica layer; tunica externa ticker externa is the thickest layer than the vein. of the vein but still thinner than the artery. Presences of valves Absent Present Form /shape when empty Constricted or squeezed Appears to be flattened because of the stimulation fibers General function Carries blood away from the Carries blood into the heart heart except for pulmonary artery and umbilical arteries Location in the body Head regions; lower regions Deep within the muscle, of the body and the heart near the surface of the skin, itself. near a corresponding artery with the same name Type of blood contained Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood

EXERCISE NO. 26: TH HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM 1. Trace the pathway of urine from the kidney to the urethra. From the Collecting ducts (urine drains to the) Papillary ducts Minor calyces (join to) Major calyces (form renal pelvis) (urine passes through ) Renal pelvis urine drains into the ureters urinary bladder discharges to the Urethra 2. Describe the structures macroscopically visible in the cortex and medulla layers of the kidney. Criteria Description Cortex A light red are found at the superficial region of the internal of the kidney. A smooth textured area extending from the renal capsule to the bases of the renal pyramids and into the spaces between them. Medulla Deep region, a dark reddish brown in the inner region. Consists of several cone-shaped renal pyramids. The base faces the cortex and its apex called renal papilla 3. Describe the structures microscopically observed in the cortex and medulla layers of the kidney. Criteria Description Cortex The cortex region contains the distal and proximal convoluted tubules. It also consists of renal corpuscles having glomerulus surrounded by Bowman s capsule. Medulla The medulla region, contain loops of Henie and collecting ducts . no renal corpuscles present all tubules are approximately parallel

EXERCISE NO. 27: THE FROGS UROGENITAL SYSTEM 1. organs of the frogs urinary system Urinary Organ Description Kidney A pair of reddish , elongated , flattened organ that are lined ventrally by the parietal peritoneum. Adrenal glands A pair of yellowish , irregularly shape glands on the ventral surface of the kidney Mesonephric ducts A pair of slender, straight , white tubes on the poster lateral edge of the kidney, but medial to a dark blood vessel Urinary bladder A bilobed outgrowth on the ventral surface of the cloaca that served as temporary storage of urine Ureter tube that carries the urine from the kidneys to the bladder Uteri A hollow muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity of female mammals Cloaca the body cavity into which the intestinal, urinary, and genital canals empty

Function filter the blood and remove the wastes to make urine which secrete hormones. Serves as a passage way

collects and stores urine until released. carries the urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Exit way or passage way of wastes into the outside

2. female and male frogs reproductive system. Female organs Description Ovaries paired lobulated , vascular organ on the ventral wall of the kidney Oviduct Highly ovulated, white, long tubes on each side of the ovary and lying close to the abdominal wall Male organs Testes Vasa deferentia(sperm duct) Description A pair of elongated , yellowish structures on the ventral surface of the kidney A pair of slender, straight , white tubes on the poster lateral edge of the kidney, but medial to a dark blood vessel Minute slender tubules lying on the mesorchium

Function produce the eggs

carry eggs from the ovaries to the cloaca

Function produce sex cells (sperm) Passage way for the sperms

Vasa efferentia

carry semen from the testis to the epididymis

Cloaca

the body cavity into which the intestinal, urinary, and genital canals empty

Exit way or passage way of wastes into the outside

3. How does the relationship of the excretory and reproductive organs in the female differ from that of the male? In the male excretory and reproductive organs, it joins together, wherein an excretory organ secretes FSH and LH. LH stimulates to produce testosterone, wherein it controls the growth, development and maintenance of sex organs. While in the female processes, FSH and LH stimulate the development of follicles and the secretion of estrogens, female hormones that maintain female reproductive structures, stimulate growth. 4. Trace the path of (a) an egg from the ovary to the anus (b.)A sperm from the testis to the external environment. a) Egg produced in the ovary oviduct uterus cloaca anus b) Sperm produced in the testes urine ducts/vas deferens cloaca anus

Activity 28: human Female Reproductive System 1. external features general appearance, size or shape, location, attachment to the body wall of the following organs. Organs Description Ovary Paired glands that resemble unshelled almonds in size and shape. Series of ligaments hold the ovaries in position joint together by the fallopian tubes Found on both sides of the uterus Fallopian tubes / uterine tubules/ oviducts Tubes that measure about 10 cm long Lies between the folds of the broad ligaments of the uterus Uterus At the size and shape of an inverted pear Larger in women who are recently pregnant and smaller when sex hormone is low. Found between the urinary bladder and rectum. Vagina Elastic muscular canal that extends from the cervix to the vulva Tubular ,10 cm long fibromuscular canal Attached to the uterus and situated between the urinary bladder and rectum.

2. histological composition of the cortex and medulla Layer Composition Cortex Consist of ovarian follicles surrounded with dense irregular connective tissue , containing collagen fibers and fibroblast like cells called stromal cells Medulla Consists of more loosely arranged connective tissue and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves Activity 29: human male reproductive system Organs Scrotum Description Looks like a single pouch of skin separated into lateral portions by a median ridge called raphe. Bag like structure Paired oval glands in the scrotum Measuring 5cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter Shared terminal duct of reproductive and urinary system

Testes Systems of ducts Urethra

Epididymis

Ductus deferens Ejaculatory ducts

About 20 cm long Comma-shaped organ about 4 cm long a narrow, tightly-coiled tube lying along the posterior border of each testis 45 cm long , thick walled tube that transport sperm cells paired ducts formed by a union of the duct from seminal vesicles and amplla of the ductus deferens Cylindrical in shape and consists of a body glans, penis and a root

Penis

Accessory Glands Seminal vesicles / seminal glands

Prostate

Bulb urethral glands

Convoluted pouch-like structures about 5 cm in length. Lying posterior o the base of the urinary bladder anterior to the rectum. Secretes alkaline , viscous fluid that contain fructose and clotting proteins A single doughnut- shape gland about the size of a golf ball. Found surrounding the posterior end of the urethra Secretes a milky , slightly acidic fluid Also called Cowpers glands About the size of peas Secretes alkaline fluid during sexual arousal and mucus that lubricates the end of the penis Located below the postate

Division of the Nervous System: Central nervous system (CNS) Compose of the brain and the spinal cord Central coordination and integration of all body activities Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Composed of al nervous elements found outside the CNS Like: ganglia , the spinal nerves and cranial nerves Activity 30: frogs nervous system Frogs brain : Largest part is the cerebrum General shape: -Has an irregularly longitudinal shape not having gyri. - or like a bowling pin joined together Arrangement/ sequence of its parts:

The first part is the meninges which is a membrane enclosing the brain and the spinal. Then the lobes , found at the top are the pairs of olfactory lobes followed by the cerebral hemisphere and the pineal body. just below is the thalamencephalon. Then the optic lobes, below it is the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. Upper downwards: Meninges (lobes) olfactory cerebral hemispherepineal bodythalamencphalon optic lobes cerebellummedulla oblongata Cranial nerves Point of origin Organs that are innervated First cranial/ olfactory Anterior part of the Lining of the nose nerve olfactory lobes or bulbs Second cranial or optic Ventro-lateral sides of the Retina of the eye nerve diencephalon Third cranial/occulomor Ventral side of the Four eye muscles , iris , lens mesencephalon and eyelid Fourth cranial/trochlear Dorsal side of the brain, Superior oblique muscles nerve between the of the eye mesencephalon and metencephalon Fifth cranial/trigeminal or Antero-lateral margins of Skin of the head, lips, trifacial the myenlecephalon muscles of the lower jaw and tongue Sixth cranial or abducens Ventral side of the External recti and retractor myenlencephalon bulbi muscles of the eye Seventh cranial/facial Sides of the Nasal chambers , roof of nerve myelencephalon, shortly the mouth , ear, muscles posterior to the trigeminal of the lower jaw and skin nerve of the throat Eight cranial/auditory Dorso-lateral margins of Inner ear nerve the myenlencephalon Ninth cranial/ Sides of the Muscles and mucous glossopharyngeal myelencephalon behind membrane of the tongue the origin of the facial and pharynx nerve Tenth cranial/ vagus nerve Sides of the Shoulder muscles , larynx, myelencephalon, in esophagus , stomach, common with the roots of lungs and heart the glossopharyngeal nerve Activity 31: human nervous system Human brain: Largest part is the cerebrum has distinct pattern of surface folds known as the gyri. General shape: The brain looks like two fists joined together, knuckles touching each other or could be more like cashew seeds which is usually soft, spongy, molted and pinkish- gray in color. Arrangement/ sequence of its parts: The brain stem is the first to be found next to the spinal cord, consists of the medulla oblongata, Pons, and mid brain. Posterior to the brain stem is the cerebellum, then superior

to the brainstem id the diencephalon. Supported by the brain stem and the diencephalon is the cerebrum, which is the largest part. Down-top: Brain stem cerebellum diencephalon cerebrum Main differences between the human nervous system and the frogs nervous system: Criteria Number of cranial nerves Number of spinal nerves Size of cerebrum Presence of thalamus Presence of gyri Weight of the brain Length of the brain Human Human has 12pairs of cranial nerves Human has 30 pairs of spinal nerves Larger size of the cerebrum There is presence of thalamus Present 1400g 15 cm Frog Frog has 10 cranial nerves Frog has 10 spinal nerves Smaller size of the cerebrum No presence of thalamus Absent 0.1 g 2 cm

Major parts of the brain: Major parts Brain stem

Description Consists 3 structures: Medulla oblongata Pons midbrain

Function Forms the inferior part of the brain Connects diff. parts of the brain w/ one another Connects the pons to the diencephalon Smoothes and coordinates the contractions of skeletal muscles. Regulates posture and balance Thalamus relays almost all sensory input to the cerebral cortex Hypothalamus controls and integrates activities of the autonomic NS Regulates emotional and behavioral patterns Provides the ability to read,write, speak;to make calculations; for the perception of sensory information; control of execution of voluntary

Cerebellum

Has highly folded surface and resembles a shape of a butterfly

Diencephalon

Surrounds the third ventricle , includes: Thalamus Hypothalamus Epithalamus

Cerebrum

The seat of intelligence

movement.

Activity 32: the skeletal system Two main division: Axial skeleton Compose of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column , and the sternum( includes the ribs) Appendicular skeleton Consists of the pectoral and the pelvic girdle, anterior limbs, and bones of the hind limbs. structural differences observed between the human skeleton and the frogs skeleton in terms of: Criteria a. Skull Human Bony structure composed of 22 bones Somewhat irregularly circular or oval like structure Made up of 26 vertebrae Basin-shaped ring of bones connecting the vertebral column to the femurs. Consists of two bones the clavicle and the scapula. And C shape arch like structure. The clavicle is S shape bone and the scapula is triangular , flat bone. Frog Frogs skull is somewhat triangular and ventrally flattened. Composed of 33 bones Made up of 10 vertebrae A V- shape and more robust. Consists of four pairs of bones;the suprascapula, scapula, coracoid and clavicle. Clavicle of the frog is rod shape bone while the scapula is dorsoventrally flattened, and narrow in the middle and broad at both the ends. Radius and fibula are fused together to form what is called the radio-ulna Has only one forearm bone Tibia and fibula are fused together called tibio-fibula Tarsals have 2 bones on the proximal row and 3 on the distal row No patella

b. Vertebral column c. Pelvic girdle

d. Pectoral girdle

e. Forelimbs

Radius and ulna are separated bones Has two forearm bones Tibia and fibula are separated bones Tarsals comsists of 7 bones Consists of 30 bones in four locations Presence of patella

f. Hind limbs

Number of vertebrae: Human 33 vertebrae for the young 26 when reached adulthood Frog 10 vertebrae

How do the structures of the atlas and urostyle of the frogs vertebral column differ from the regular vertebra? Criteria Presence of prezypophysis Appearance in the vertebral column Presence of zygapophyses in the neural canal Regular vertebra ( typical ) Present With two long bone at the sides of the neural Has two articulating processes or zygapohyses in the neural canal Atlas and urostyle(atypical) Absent Ring-like bone for the atlas and long bone with a median, dorsal elevation for the urostyle No zygopophyses in the neural canal for the urostyle

Post labs: zoology 1L