Biology Basics- It is the study of life

1. Biology 101

Living things include both the visible world of animals and plants, as well as the invisible
world of bacteria. On a basic level, we can say that life is ordered. Organisms have an
enormously complex organization. We are all familiar with the intricate systems of the
basic unit of life, the cell.

Life can also "work.” No, not the daily employment variety, but living creatures can take in
energy from the environment. This energy, in the form of food, is transformed to maintain
metabolic processes and for survival.

Life grows and develops. This means more than just getting larger in size. Living organisms
also have the ability to rebuild and repair themselves when injured.

Life can reproduce. Have you ever seen dirt reproduce? I don't think so. Life can only come
from other living creatures.

Life can respond. Think about the last time you accidentally stubbed your toe. Almost
instantly, you flinched back in pain. Life is characterized by this response to stimuli.

Finally, life can adapt and respond to the demands placed on it by the environment. There
are three basic types of adaptations that can occur in higher organisms.

Reversible changes occur as a response to changes in the environment. Let's say you live
near sea level and you travel to a mountainous area. You may begin to experience difficulty
breathing and an increase in heart rate as a result of the change in altitude. These symptoms
go away when you go back down to sea level.

Somatic changes occur as a result of prolonged changes in the environment. Using the
previous example, if you were to stay in the mountainous area for a long time, you would
notice that your heart rate would begin to slow down and you would begin to breath
normally. Somatic changes are also reversible.

B. Biological evolution

2. What is Evolution?
Biological evolution is defined as any genetic change in a population that is inherited over
several generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.

In order for an event to be considered an instance of evolution, changes have to occur on the
genetic level of a population and be passed on from one generation to the next.

This means that the genes, or more specifically, the alleles in the population change and are
passed on. These changes are noticed in the phenotypes (expressed physical traits that can
be seen) of the population.

A change on the genetic level of a population is defined as a small-scale change and is called
microevolution.

Biological evolution also includes the idea that all of life is connected and can be traced back
to one common ancestor. This is called macroevolution.

What is not Evolution?

Biological evolution is not defined as simply change over time.

Many organisms experience changes over time, such as weight loss or gain. These changes
are not considered instances of evolution because they are not genetic changes that can be
passed on to the next generation.

Is Evolution a Theory?

Evolution is a scientific theory that was proposed by Charles Darwin. A scientific theory
gives explanations and predictions for naturally occurring phenomena based on
observations and experimentations. This type of theory attempts to explain how events seen
in the natural world work.
The definition of a scientific theory differs from the common meaning of theory, which is
defined as a guess or a supposition about a particular process. In contrast, a good scientific
theory must be testable, falsifiable, and substantiated by factual evidence.

When it comes to a scientific theory, there is no absolute proof. It is more a case of

confirming the reasonability of accepting a theory as a viable explanation for a particular
event.

What is Natural Selection?

natural selection is the process by which biological evolutionary changes take place. Natural
selection acts on populations and not individuals. It is based on the following concepts:

Individuals in a population have different traits, which can be inherited.

These individuals produce more young than the environment can support.

The individuals in a population that are best suited to their environment will leave more
offspring, resulting in a change in the genetic makeup of a population.

The genetic variations that arise in a population happen by chance, but the process of
natural selection does not. Natural selection is the result of the interactions between genetic
variations in a population and the environment.

The environment determines which variations are more favorable. Individuals that possess
traits that are better suited to their environment will survive to produce more offspring than
other individuals. More favorable traits are thereby passed on to the population as a whole.

How Does Genetic Variation Occur in a Population?

Genetic variation occurs through sexual reproduction. Due to the fact that environments are
unstable, populations that are genetically variable will be able to adapt to changing
situations better than those that do not contain genetic variations.

Sexual reproduction allows for genetic variations to occur through genetic recombination.
Recombination occurs during meiosis and provides a way for producing new combinations
of alleles on a single chromosome. Independent assortment during meiosis allows for an
indefinite number of combinations of genes. (Example of recombination)

Sexual reproduction makes it possible to assemble favorable gene combinations in a

population or to remove unfavorable gene combinations from a population. Populations
with more favorable genetic combinations will survive in their environment and reproduce
more offspring than those with less favorable genetic combinations.

Biological Evolution versus Creation

The theory of evolution has caused controversy from the time of its introduction until today.
The controversy stems from the perception that biological evolution is at odds with religion
concerning the need for a divine creator. Evolutionists contend that evolution does not
address the issue of whether or not God exists, but attempts to explain how natural
processes work.

In doing so however, there is no escaping the fact that evolution contradicts certain aspects
of some religious beliefs. For example, the evolutionary account for the existence of life and
the biblical account of creation are quite different.

Evolution suggests that all life is connected and can be traced back to one common ancestor.
A literal interpretation of biblical creation suggests that life was created by an all powerful,
supernatural being (God).

Still others have tried to merge these two concepts by contending that evolution does not
exclude the possibility of the existence of God, but merely explains the process by which
God created life. This view however, still contradicts a literal interpretation of creation as
presented in the bible.

In paring down the issue, a major bone of contention between the two views is the concept
of macroevolution. For the most part, evolutionists and creationists agree that
microevolution does occur and is visible in nature.
 Macroevolution however, refers to the process of evolution that takes place on the level of
species, in which one species evolves from another species. This is in stark contrast to the
biblical view that God was personally involved in the formation and creation of living
organisms.

For now, the evolution/creation debate continues and it appears that the differences
between these two views are not likely to be settled any time soon.

C. The Pyramid of Life

1. When you look at a pyramid, you'll notice that its broad base gradually narrows as it
extends upward. The same holds true for the organization of life on Earth.

At the base of this hierarchical structure, is the most inclusive level of organization, such as
an ecosystem. As you climb the pyramid, the levels become less encompassing and more
specific. Let's take a look at this magnificent pyramid, starting with the ecosystem at the
base and culminating with the atom at the peak.

Ecosystem

Our tour begins with the ecosystem. Ecosystems involve interactions between communities
and their environment. Communities consist of different populations (groups of organisms
of the same species) in a given geographic area. The environment includes everything from
people to plants.

Organism

The next stop is the organism. Yes, that's right, that means you! Living organisms are
highly ordered and have the ability to grow, develop, and reproduce. Complex organisms,
including humans, rely on the cooperation between organs, tissues, cells, and molecules to
exist.

Organ Systems

Moving right along, we come to our next level--organ systems. Some examples are the
circulatory, digestive, nervous, skeletal, and reproductive systems which work together to
keep the body functioning normally. For instance, nutrients obtained by the digestive
system are distributed throughout the body by the circulatory system. Likewise, the
circulatory system distributes oxygen that is taken in by the respiratory system.

Organs

Climbing higher still, we arrive at the organs: i.e., the heart, liver, brain, skin, and stomach.
Organs are composed of different types of tissue arranged together to perform specific
tasks. For example, the brain is composed of several different types including nervous and
connective tissues.

Tissues

Next, we have tissues. No, not the kind you use to blow your nose! Simply put, tissues are
groups of cells with both a shared structure and function. Animal tissue can be grouped
into four subunits: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.

Cells

As we approach the top of our pyramid, we arrive at the next level-- cells. Cells are the
simplest form of living units. Cells contain structures called organelles which are
responsible for everything from housing the cell's DNA, to producing energy. Processes
that occur within the body are carried out on a cellular level. For example, when you move
your leg, it is the responsibility of nerve cells to transmit these signals from your brain to
the muscle cells in your leg.

Molecules
Molecules reign supreme on the next level. Molecules are composed of atoms and can be
arranged into large molecular structures such as chromosomes, proteins, and membranes.
Some of these proteins may be grouped together to become the organelles that make up
your cells.

Atom

Our tour ends with the ever so tiny atom. It takes extremely powerful microscopes to view
these units of matter (anything that has mass and takes up space). Elements such as carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen are composed of atoms.

Summary
 So there you have it. The pyramid of life is a hierarchical structure for the organization of
life. To summarize, the organization for complex organisms goes as follows: ecosystems,
organisms, organs systems, organs, tissues, cells, molecules, and atoms.

D. The Six Kingdoms of Life

1.organisms are classified into one of six Kingdoms of life. These Kingdoms are Archaea,
Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Organisms are placed into these categories based on similarities or common characteristics.
Some of the characteristics that are used to determine placement are cell type, metabolism,
and reproduction.

Below is a list of the six Kingdoms of life and information on a few organisms in each
category.

I. Archaea

Organisms: Methanogens, Halophiles, Thermophiles, Psychrophiles

Cell Type: Prokaryotic

Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur, sulfide may
be needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption, non-

photosynthetic photophosphorylation, or chemosynthesis.

Reproduction: Asexual reproduction by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation.

II. Eubacteria

Organisms: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), Actinobacteria

Cell Type: Prokaryotic

Metabolism: Depending on species - oxygen may be toxic, tolerated, or needed for

metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may by absorption,

photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis.

Reproduction: Asexual reproduction

III. Protista

Organisms: Amoebae, green algae, brown algae, diatoms, euglena, slime molds

Cell Type: Eukaryotic

Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Depending on species - nutrition intake may be by absorption,

photosynthesis, or ingestion.

Reproduction: Mostly asexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs in some species.

IV. Fungi

Organisms: Mushrooms, yeast, molds

Cell Type: Eukaryotic

Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Absorption

Reproduction: Asexual or sexual reproduction occur.

V. Plantae

Organisms: Mosses, flowering plants, liverworts

Cell Type: Eukaryotic

Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Photosynthesis

Reproduction: Some species reproduce asexually by mitosis. Other species exhibit sexual
reproduction.

VI. Animalia

Organisms: Mammals, amphibians, sponges, insects, worms

Cell Type: Eukaryotic

Metabolism: Oxygen is needed for metabolism.

Nutrition Acquisition: Ingestion

Reproduction: Sexual reproduction