Raffles Institution

Singapore Mathematics Olympiad

Training
Department of Mathematics

2010

Contents
1

Problem Solving - Generalities, Basic Techniques

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Methods of Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Deduction and Symbolic Logic . . .
1.3.2 Argument by Contradiction . . . . .
1.3.3 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . .
1.4 Other important strategies . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11
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19

Fundamental Tactics for Solving Problems

2.1 Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Geometric Symmetry . . . . . .
2.1.2 Algebraic Symmetry . . . . . .
2.1.3 Symmetry in Polynomials . . .
2.2 The Extreme Principle . . . . . . . . .
2.3 The Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . . .
2.4 Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Sequences
4.1 1st order linear recurrence relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 2nd order linear recurrence relation with constant coefficients . . . . . . . .

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Functions and Basic Algebra

3.1 Functions and their inverses . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Basic Characteristics of Functions . . . . . .
3.3 Common Classes of Functions . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 The Modulus Function . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . .
3.3.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . .
3.3.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . .
3.4 Integer and Fractional Parts of a Real Number
3.5 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . .

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Raffles Institution - Singapore Mathematics Olympiad Training

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Page 1

CONTENTS

4.3

Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

Series
5.1 Trigonometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Past Year SMO Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Inequalities - Techniques and the Standard Few

6.1 Overview of some ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 When does equality occur? . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Change of variables . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Create symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Toolbox - The Standard Few . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Triangle Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 A square is always positive! . . . . . . .
6.2.3 The Power Means . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4 Cauchy-Schwarz and Holder inequalities
6.2.5 Rearrangements, Chebyshev . . . . . . .
6.3 Smoothing, convexity and Jensens inequality . .
6.4 Tangent Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Isolated Fudging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Past Year SMO Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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62

Inequalities - The Less Standard Few

7.1 Schurs Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Majorization and Muirhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 n 1 Equal Value Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Inequalities - The Ugly Few

8.1 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Partial Derivatives . .
8.1.2 Maxima and Minima .
8.2 Lagrange Multipliers . . . . .
8.3 Local versus Global Extremum

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Polynomials
9.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 Functional Equations
10.1 Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Some initial advice . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Functional equations over N, Z and Q
10.4 Other advice and methods . . . . . .
10.5 Miscellaenous Problems . . . . . . .

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Page 2

CONTENTS

11 Addition and Multiplication; Permutations and Combinations

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Addition and Multiplication Principle . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Permutations and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12 Bijection Principle and Examples

12.1 Bijection Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13 Recursions
13.1 Solving recursive relations . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 First order linear recursive relations .
13.1.2 Second order linear recursive relations
13.2 Formulating recursive relations . . . . . . . .
13.3 Using a graph to set-up recursive relations . .
13.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14 Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion

14.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15 Counting in Two Ways: Fubinis Principle

15.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16 Generating Functions
16.1 Ordinary Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Some Modelling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Exponential Generating Functions . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Exponential generating functions for permutations .
16.5 Distribution Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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17 Basic Geometry Toolkit

17.1 Transformations of the plane . .
17.1.1 Translation . . . . . . .
17.1.2 Reflection about a point
17.1.3 Rotation . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4 Reflection about a line .
17.1.5 Homothety . . . . . . .
17.1.6 Problems . . . . . . . .

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Page 3

CONTENTS

18 Circle and Triangle Geometry

18.1 Basic Results . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1.1 Problems . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Triangle Geometry, Trigonometry
18.2.1 Basic Results . . . . . . .
18.2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . .
18.3 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . .
18.3.1 Try these yourself... . . . .

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19 Coordinate Geometry and Barycentric Coordinates

19.1 Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 Barycentric Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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20 Complex Numbers
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Preliminaries and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Useful Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.1 Basic Angle Properties Between Lines . . . . .
20.3.2 Properties of the Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . .
20.3.3 Similar Triangles, Concyclicity and Area . . .
20.3.4 Some Special Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Worked Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5 Final Word of advice for analytic methods . . . . . . .
20.5.1 Advantages of the Complex Number Method .
20.5.2 Disadvantages of the Complex Number Method
20.6 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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21 Inversive Geometry
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . .
21.2 Preliminaries and Notations .
21.3 Useful Results . . . . . . . .
21.3.1 Poles and Polars . .
21.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . .

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22 Divisibility, Prime Numbers and Arithmetic Functions

22.1 Some Basic Stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2 Greatest common divisor (gcd) and lowest common multiple (lcm)
22.3 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3.1 Euclidean Algorithm and Bezouts Theorem . . . . . . . .
22.3.2 Gausss Lemma and consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Page 4

CONTENTS

22.4 Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22.4.1 Prime Numbers and some important results . . . . . .
22.4.2 p-adic Valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.5 Arithmetic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.5.1 The divisor function d(n) and the sum of divisors (n)
22.5.2 Eulers function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.6 Miscellaenous Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23 Congruences
23.1 Definition, some initial properties
23.2 Order of an element . . . . . . . .
23.3 Chinese Remainder Theorem . . .
23.4 Congruences modulo p . . . . . .
23.5 Miscellaneous Problems . . . . .

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24 Diophantine Equations
24.1 Some reflexes . . . . . .
24.2 Using Congruences . . .
24.3 Infinite Descent . . . . .
24.4 Discriminant Method . .
24.5 Vietas relations . . . . .
24.6 2nd order equations . . .
24.7 Miscellaneous Problems

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Page 5

Foreword
The International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) is the most important and prestigious mathematical competition for high-school students. The first IMO was held in Brasov, Romania
in July, 1959. This year will be the 51st edition, to be held in Astana, Kazakhstan.
Singapore has taken part in the IMO since 1988. So this year will be the 22nd year we
are taking part. Each year, 6 students will be chosen to represent Singapore. Currently,
the national team is selected through a National Team Selection Test in April/May from the
training team, which comprises the top 20-25 2nd round results in the Singapore Mathematical Olympiad (SMO).
In the 22 years of Singapores participation, we have had 1 single gold medal, from
Senkodan Thevendran in IMO 1996. Needless to say, this haul is not the most impressive.
However, the IMO is probably the hardest science olympiad, in the sense where creativity,
insight and perhaps even talent, are required. The drill and mug mode (i.e. regurgitation and
rote learning) which we Singaporeans are so good at, which probably explains why we excel
at Physics, Chemistry and Biology olympiads, is less applicable here.
Nevertheless in the 22 years, 72 of the 132 students that have represented Singapore have
been Rafflesians. Many of them have gone on to receive other prestigious awards like the
Presidents Scholarship and Public Service Commission Overseas Merit Scholarship. Charmaine Sia has also been recently awarded the Alice T Schafer Prize for the most outstanding
undergraduate woman in mathematics in the United States.
Are you ready to be the next?

Why this set of notes?

This set of notes first came about in 2008 from the SMO training sessions at Raffles Institution. I have tried to draw the ideas for this set of notes from my experiences attending
SIMO training sessions during 1998-1999 as well as conducting training sessions for SIMO
during 2001-2003. I have also used quite a number of other resources, such as problem solving books, mathematical journals and online forums. Each chapter has worked examples,
exercises and solutions. Included are also past year SMO questions, to which some have

Raffles Institution - Singapore Mathematics Olympiad Training

Page 6