tIU

R I
bureau of mines 5778
MAY111961
report of investigations
VACUUM MELTING
By Beverly W. DUDning, Jr.
MAY111961
P lASE lnU
10 LlaRA "
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF MINES
(1961)
E
VACUUM MELTING
OF LOW-ALLOY STEEL
By Beverly W. Dunning, Jr.
,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. ,.. report of investigations 5778
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Stewart L. Udall, Secretary
BUREAU OF MINES
Marling 1. Ankeny, Director
This publication has been cataloged as follows:
Dunning, Beverly W
Vacuum melting of low-alloy steel. [Washington] U. S. Dept.
of the Interior, Bureau of Mines [1961]
14 p. illus., tables. 27 cm. (U. S. Bureau of Mines. Report of
investigations, 5778)
1. Vacuum metallurgy. 2. Steel alloys. I. Title: Low-alloy steel.
(Series)
[TN23.U7 no. 5778] 622.06173
U. S. Dept. of the Int. Library
CONTENTS
Sunmtary
Introduction .
Experimental apparatus ..........
Experimental melting and casting procedures .
Comparison of air- and vacuum-melted steel .
Nonmetallic inclusions ...
Gas analys is ........
Composition changes during vacuum melting.
Condensable metallic vapors
Loss of alloying constituents.
Conclusions ...........
1.
2.
3.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Vacuum-resistance furnace
Cross-sectional view of vacuum-induction furnace
Pouring valve and thermocouple protection tube
1
1
2
5
6
6
9
11
11
12
14
3
4
asseIIlbly 6
4.
5.
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Inclusion size and distribution of air- and vacuum-
melted 1345 steel specimens .
Vacuum fusion gas analysis apparatus
Structures of air- and vacuum-melted 1345 steel
specimens
TABLES
Chemical composition of AISI steels .
Inclusion assessment of air-melted and vacuum-melted
low ..... alloy steel ..................
Gas analysis of steel specimens ...
Oxygen and nitrogen contents of as-cast, air- and
vacuum-melted 2317 steel, weight-percent .
Location and spectrographic analyses of condensed
trace elements .................
Chemical composition of air and vacuum melts
7
9
13
2
8
10
10
11
12
VACUUM MELTING OF LOW-ALLOY STEELY
by
Beverly W. Dunning, Jr . .Y
SUMMARY
The effect of vacuum melting on the elimination of gases and nonmetallic
inclusions for six low-alloy steels was investigated. The purpose of these
studies was the analysis and comparison of differences in gas content and
inclusions in air-melted and vacuum-melted steel.
Data obtained from melts of 1-1/4 to 20 pounds indicate that vacuum melt-
ing decreases the number and size of nonmetallic inclusions and at the same
time increases the degree of dispersion of the remaining inclusions. These
improvements are undoubtedly related to the elimination of approximately 80
percent of the nitrogen and 90 percent of the oxygen as well as most of the
undesirable metallic trace impurities.
INTRODUCTION
Impurities may be present in metals either dissolved or combined. Dis-
solved gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen may be removed by diffu-
sion if their partial pressures above the melt are reduced. Residual graphite,
carbide carbon, or interstitial carbon can react with dissolved oxygen and
possibly some of the metallic oxides. Carbon monoxide thus formed is evolved
during the initial degassing of the melt. Oxygen may be reduced further
through reaction with hydrogen to form water vapor, which is subsequently
removed from the system by the roughing pump. Perhaps the nitrogen content
is largely diminished by the flushing action of the carbon monoxide boil and
not just by the reduction in pressure above the melt. The solubility of hy-
drogen is proportional to the square root of the external hydrogen pressure
down to 10-
4
millimeter.3/ It can largely be removed from metals by reducing
the pressure above the metal and holding the vacuum for sufficient time.
A s k o y ~ / states that oxygen increases the transition temperature in steel and
1/ Work on manuscript completed October 1960.
2/ Metallurgist, Bureau of Mines, College Park, Maryland.
1/ Armbruster, M. H., The Solubility of Hydrogen at Low Pressure in Iron,
Nickel and Certain Steels at 400
0
to 600
0
C.: Jour. Am. Chern. Soc.,
vol. 65, June 1943, pp. 1043-1054.
~ / Askoy, A. M., Vacuum Metallurgy Course, Ferrous Base Alloys: New York
Univ., Lecture No. 18, June 13, 1957, 18 pp.
2
forms various types of inclusions. Nitrogen affects aging, fatigue, and
stress-rupture properties. Hydrogen causes embritt1ement and flaking and
decreases fatigue properties. Fatigue, impact, and ductility are strongly
influenced by inclusions.
Vacuum melting is a relatively old process used in the refining of
metals; however, only recently has it come into extensive use for refining
large quantities of metals and alloys. Vacuum refining removes dissolved
gases and volatile metallic impurities and prevents formation of nonmetal-
lic impurities, particularly oxides.
Gaseous elements are retained in air-melted stock as impurities both in
the free and combined state. In the free state, gaseous elements are located
interstitially in the metal lattice and in intergranu1ar pockets. The latter
is far more deleterious to physical properties than the interstitial loca-
tion. Oxygen forms nonmetallic inclusions when it combines with metals.
The size, distribution, and number of nonmetallic inclusions, however, are
difficult to control quantitatively in atmospheric refining, and the useful-
ness in controlling grain refinement is overcome by the discontinuities in the
metal caused by these inclusions. The object of this investigation was to de-
t 'ermine the amount of gas removed and the degree of inclusion reduction in
steel from melting and casting at reduced pressures.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
Vacuum refining of air-melted stock was conducted in both vacuum-
resistance and vacuum-induction melting units. The steels listed in table 1
were chosen as typical low-alloy constructional steels that are normally pro-
duced in an open hearth. Silicon and sulfur contents deviate slightly from
specifications in a few samples. Samples of these steels constituted the air-
melted specimens used in this study and were the charges for the vacuum heats.
TABLE 1. - Chemical composition of AISrll steels
AlSI .. V
Analysis, percent
No. Carbon Manganese Sulfur Phosphorus Silicon
1018 .............. 0.15 0.87 0.041 0.012 0.38
1345 .......... .46 1.66 .042 .017 .27
?:../2317 .......... .24 .31 .045 .009 .21
.. .... .18 .75 .042 .014 .31
4/5135 .. ... .36 .85 .046
.-
.011 .42
116120 .. .26 .87 .042 .012 .40
II
American Iron and Steel
21 Contained 3.59 percent nickel.
31 Contained 0.28 percent molybdenum.
41 Contained 0.77 percent chromium.
"il
Contained 0.79 percent chromium and 0.22 percent vanadium.
Melting and casting samples up to 1 1/4 pounds in weight was done in a
vacuum-resistance furnace (fig. 1), consisting of a tilting crucible, tungsten
heating element, molybdenum radiation shields, and water-cooled copper shell
FIGURE 1. - Vacuum-Resistance Furnace. 1 Bell jar and sealing ring;l, water-cooled fur-
nace roof; ~ / water-cooled copper shell; 1, molybdenum radiation shields; 1
tungsten heating element; ~ steel charge; Z, magnesia crucible; t split
graphite mold.
assembly, which was enclosed in a stainless steel bell jar. Although the
system was capable of pressures less than 1 micron (10-3 tmn. Hg) all vacuum
resistance work reported was in a range of 5 to 10 microns.
Samples as much as 20 pounds in weight were melted and cast in a vacuum-
induction furnace (fig. 2), consisting of a bottom-pour crucible with pour-
ing valve assembly, a melting chamber that was constructed of shaped K-28
3
4
LEGEND
_ Steel
Quartz
K-28 insulating brick
III Magnesia
Graph' lte .. ,
mIITIJ Neoprene
Castable bubble alumina
I
2
3
4
5
6
1
8
9
/0
/ /
/2
/3
Vacuum top
Vacuum port
Pouring valve,
thermocouple assembly
Melting cham ber
Insulating brick
Melting crucible
Induction coi I
Gasket
--
Cooling water
Mold chamber
Thermocouple gage
Tapered hot- top mold
Tripod furnace
024 6
I
Scale I inches
support
8
9
/0
--
2
FIGURE 2. - Cross-Sectional View of Vacuum-Induction Furnace.
insulating brick, and in-
duction coils that were
mounted coaxially outside
a stationary quartz tube.
This system was evacuated
by a two-stage roughing
pump capable of reducing
the system pressure to
the range of 40 to 50
microns; however, all
melting and casting was
performed in a range of
1/2 to 1 millimeter.
Charges for both
vacuum-resistance and
vacuum-induction refining
consisted of specially
prepared stock that had
been air-melted in an in-
duction furnace. No addi-
tions were made to the
melts during any of the
vacuum heats to adjust
the chemical composition.
The vacuum-refining and
pouring temperatures were
within the usual stee1-
n'iaKirig range 6r l -;-S 7P to
1,610 C. (2,860 to
2,930 F.), and the heats
were cast into split in-
got molds of machined
graphite that had been
painted with a stabilized
zirconia wash. Cast in-
gots for the vacuum-re-
sistance heats were l-
inch-diameter by 5-inch
cylinders. For the vac-
uum-induction heats they
were truncated cones, 2-
inch-diameter base by 13
inches with a taper of
1/2 inch in 13 inches.
Initial vacuum-resistance
heats were allowed to
solidify in their melting
crucibles. Button ingots
from these heats were
2 1/8 inches in diameter
by 1 1/4 inches.
5
Because the inclusions in cast steel are mainly globular in form and are
not subjected to elongation deformation as in rolled and forged steel, a modi-
fication of ASTM designation, E Microscopic Method A, for rolled and
forged steel was used. Oxides in steel remain globular in shape after rolling
or forging, but sulfide, Silicate, and alumina inclusions are elongated to
form either continuous or discontinuous stringers. In this modification, com-
parison charts for only the globular type were employed.
Gas analyses by the vacuum fusion method were made to determine oxygen
and nitrogen. A literature search indicated that analysis for hydrogen was
not necessary because of its high diffusion rate from When other re-
searchers have found comparable levels of oxygen (02) and nitrogen (N2) in
prepared vacuum melted steel, they have found the hydrogen content to be less
than 2 parts per million. Condensable metallic vapors from the furnace roof
and vacuum port were analyzed spectrographically for trace elements. Micro-
etching with 3 percent nital proved to be the most satisfactory for revealing
microstructural constituents.
EXPERIMENTAL MELTING AND CASTING PROCEDURE
Preliminary tests to determine the operating characteristics of the
vacuum-resistance furnace proved that when heat was applied too quickly to
the melt uncontrollable outgassing would splatter metal on the furnace roof,
and the vacuum system pressure would rise above the range of capability
(greater than 100 microns) of the diffusion pump. This problem was eliminated
by holding the charge temperature just below the melting point for 20 minutes
and then slowly raising the temperature above the melting point. Degassing
occurred with a minimum of splattering when this procedure was used.
The study of ingot mold design during this initial phase of work revealed
that one-piece, uncoated, machined graphite molds were inadequate because car-
bon pickup (0.15 to 0.84 percent) was excessive and ingots were difficult to
remove. These problems were remedied by using a stabilized zirconia wash on
the inside of the graphite mold and by using split molds which could be parted
to remove ingots. Further experiments showed that piping in the ingots could
be kept to a minimum by using a slightly tapered mold (big end up).
The knowledge gained with the vacuum-resistance furnace operation was em-
ployed in the design of the vacuum-induction unit and in subsequent heat cam-
paigns. Before each heat, the insulating liner and crucible of the vacuum-
induction unit were baked with an inductively coupled cylindrical graphite
tube. The temperature in the melting compartment was gradually brought up to
1,500 C. in order to drive the moisture out of this section.
American Society for Testing Materials, Recommended Practice for Determin-
ing the Inclusion Content of Steel: ASTM Standards, pt. I, Ferrous
Metals, 1952, pp. 1477-1488.
Derge, G., Peifer, W., and Richards, J. H., The Sampling and Analysis of
Steel for Hydrogen: Trans. AIME, vol. 176, February 1948, pp. 219-247.
6
Cam position B:
Taphole open ________ -;
Cam position A:
Valve seated in
crucible tap hole

9--....
2
1. Bearing plate
2. Cam
3. Camshaft, stationary
4. Slotted hexagonal bar
5. Union
6. Bushing
7. Nipple
8. Reducer
9. Impervious mullite tube
10. Recrystallized alumina tube
11. Pt-Pt 13% Rh thermocouples
10
1 0 1 2 3
N ..---,
Scale, inches
FIGURE 3. - Pouring Valve and Thermocouple
Protecti on Tube Assembly.
Some difficulties were en-
countered with the pouring mecha-
nism in which the thermocouple
assembly (fig. 3) included the
pouring valve. Impervious mull-
ite, magnesia, and recrystallized
alumina tubes were used as combi-
nation pouring valve and thermo-
couple protection tube assemblies.
Impervious mullite was the most
satisfactory with respect to sym-
metry, seating, and thermal shock;
recrystallized alumina might have
been equally satisfactory had its
shape been more nearly symmetri-
cal. Magnesia was unsatisfactory
because the valve fused to the
crucible taphole seat during melt-
ing making it impossible to open
the valve and cast the metal.
Progress of a vacuum-induc-
tion heat was indicated by the
recorded time-temperature curve.
Distinct arrests were noted in
the curve as heat was absorbed
when the solid charge passed
through the alpha-to-garnma and
gamma-to-delta thermal critical
zones and a sharper arrest when
heat was absorbed during melt-
ing. These points conformed with
those found in source material
thus checking the accuracy of
the thermocouple temperature
measurements.
COMPARISON OF AIR- AND VACUUM-
MELTED STEEL
Nonmetallic Inclusions
The prevention of nonmetal-
lic inclusions in air-melted
steel is a major problem, and
quantitative control of the size,
distribution, and type of inclu-
sions is difficult to maintain at
a fixed level in successive heats
and even in all ingots from the
same heat. Vacuum refining of

~



..




....
.'
..

'0
@
i
... ..
I
I
. .
0

FIGURE 4. - Inclusion Size and Distribution of Air- and Vacuum-Melted l345
Steel Specimens (Xl 00; Unetched} . ~ , Air-melted stock; ,
vacuum-resistance melted; ~ , vacuum-resistance melted and
cast; Q, vacuum-induction melted and cast.
steel will partially eliminate undesirable inclusions and increase the degree
of dispersion of those remaining. Photomicrograph A (fig. 4) shows the origi-
nal air-melted stock. The decrease in size and number of nonmetallic inclu-
sions in vacuum-resistance and vacuum-induction melted steel is illustrated
in photomicrographs B, C, and D.
In this study determining the inclusion content of samples requires a
Jernkontoret Chart for comparing visual microscopic inclusions. The fields
of the chart are numbered 1 to 5 in order of increasing frequency of inclu-
sions. The globular-type oxide fields of the chart were compared with the
fields for specimens under investigation but the types of inclusions were
8
not fields viewed were recorded so that the
numerical inclusion data the averages of all The sole pur-
pose of this tabularized count (table 2) is to show that vacuum (as
opposed to air melting) decreases the number and size of the inclusions.
TABLE 2. -
Thin inclusions
AlSI No. techni number avera e
1018 A 3.36
VRNC 1.68
VRC 1.87
VIC 1. 73
1345 A 2.73 .71
VRNC 2.55 .05
VRC 1.67 .67
VIC 1.03 1.20
2317 A 2.34 .59
VRNC 1.02 .30
VRC 1.13
VIC 1.13 .53
4017 A 4.10 1.25
VRNC 1.15 .25
VRC 1.80 1.20
VIC 1.27 1.13
5135 A 3.52 2.13
VRNC 1.27 .18
VRC 1.77 1.23
6120 3.34 1.66
1. .10
1.87 .80
1.97 .93
used in column: A--air-induction stock;
VRNC--vacuum-resistance VRC--vacuum-resistance melted
and cast; VIC--vacuum-induction melted and cast.
2/ Thickness up to 8 microns.
~ / Thickness up to 12 microns.
The increase in heavy inclusions of the cast vacuum-resistance heats over
the other vacuum-resistance heats (melt solidified in melting crucible) was
due to lea of zirconia mold , which had been from the mold
wall the stream of molten metal. The steel and cast)
contained both stringer and type inclusions that were than any
shown on the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) comparison chart.
Because the presence of these inclusions would not appreciably affect
9
the relative evaluation of melting and casting methods, they were not included
in the count. Similar large inclusions were not present in any of the ob -,
served vacuum melted samples.
Gas Analysis
Oxygen and nitrogen in air- and vacuum-melted steel was determined by
using the vacuum fusion technique (fig. 5). Duplicate, and in some cases,
triplicate analyses were made for each steel sample used (table 3). In one
case six analyses were made of a sample of steel that was also submitted to
another laboratory for the purpose of checking the apparatus and analytical
technique. Both sets of results agreed closely. A comparison of these data
is shown in table 4.
FIGURE 5. - Vacuum Fusion Gas Analysis Apparatus. Transferring gas sample
to the McLeod gage with the toepler pump.
10
TABLE 3. - Gas analysis of steel specimens
OJ
OJ
...
s::
... (J ...
c.J
-I-l o -I-l s:: -I-l
~
C/J -I-l 'r-! C/J -I-l 1\1 C/J -I-l
1\1 -I-l
"0 s:: 1\1 r:: -I-l 1\1 r::
-I-l 1\1 ffi -I-l s::
OJ 0 c.J OJ (J c.J OJ C/J c.J
C/J OJ
:>
or-f
(J
~ c.J ..-l
'r-! c.J ..-l
'r-! c.J
0 -I-l "0 H "O"OH 1\1
...
C/J "0 H
1\1 C/J H
ffj
(J s:: OJ s:: s:: OJ :>

OJ s:: OJ
~
OJ OJ
.
~ 1\1 P- or-f 1\1 P- o i-l cd P-
H P-
0 H "0 I I I
53
~ -I-l I I
m :l -I-l
... I
Z s:: "0 -I-l
!"O-I-l
(J s::
"0 -I-l c.J ~
'"d -I-l
C/J 'r-! OJ .c OJ.c H 1\1 OJ OJ.c
H cd OJ OJ.c
H OJ I -I-l be ~ -I-l be :> c.J ~ -I-l be
:> c.J :l -I-l be
Cfl C/J H ..-l or-f (J..-lor-f C/J H c.J ..-l 'r-!
C/J H c.J ..-l .r-!
H 1\1 ~ Q) Q)
1\1 Q) Q) cd >.. OJ 1\1 Q) OJ
CIS >.. OJ cd Q) OJ
~ t!> S ~ > S ~
t!>..o P-
> S ~ t!> ~ a P- :> S ~
1018
02
0.017 0.0013 92 0.0012 93 0.0003
N2
.0028 .0012 57 .0008 72 .0004
1345
02
.005 .0001 98 .0003 94 .0001
N2
.0055 .0016 71 .0003 95 .0005
2317
02
.019 .0005 97 .0017 91 .0006
N2
.0049 .0008 84 .0011 78 .0002
4017 O
2
.015 .0002 99 .0070 53 .0005
N2
.0042 .0008 81 .0007 83 .0002
5135
02
.011 ('!:./) ('f:./) .0006 95 .0001
N2
.0059 ('!:./)
('f:./) .0002 97 .0005
6120
02
.013 .0004 97 .0010 92 .0003
N2
.0090 .0016 82 .0007 92 .0012
11 Analysis presented here represents an average gas percent of 2 to 6
samples taken at various locations along the cast ingot.
'!:.I No melt.
TABLE 4. - Oxygen and nitrogen contents of as-cast, air- and
vacuum-melted 2317 steel, weight-percent
As-cast 2317 steel
Laboratory Air-melted Vacuum-melted
Oxygen Nitrogen Oxygen Nitrogen
Col1ege Park 0.018 0.0062 0.0015 0.0011
Do. .018 .0059 .0014 .0011
Do. .019 .0035 .0016 .0007
Do. .017 .0051 .0022 .0009
Do. .023 .0052 .0019 .0008
Do. .019 .0037 .0019 .0019
Boulder .039 .0032 .0023 .0008
Do. .019 .0043 .0020 .0012
..-l
1\1
...
:>

o
53
~ -I-l
~ m H
:> (J
C/J H
t1l >.. OJ
t!>..o P-
98
86
98
91
97
95
97
95
99
91
98
87
11
Gas was removed principally by the pressure above the melt.
However inductive also a definite role. removal
vacuum-induction at 0.5 to 1.0 millimeter pressure is essentially
the same as vacuum-resistance at 0.005 to 0.01 millimeter pressure.
Vacuum-induction melting virtually always removes s less nitrogen than
vacuum-resistance melting. The high oxygen value in vacuum-resistance melted-
and-cast 4011 steel was due to a reaction between melt and crucible
or the melt and the coated mold. This heat boiled
tapped, and the ingot surface was poor. removed more
than 90 of the oxygen and more than 80
COMPOSITION CHANGES DURING VACUUM MELTING
Although trace elements may amount to per they
can contribute to low ductility in metals and They may be introduced
in many ways the in the smelted are or subs alloy-
elements.
Vacuum melting removes the bulk of the volatile trace elements and unfor-
of the more volatile alloying constituents as well.
were made of metallic powders condensed in the cooler sections
units (table The three taken could be class-
ified as coming from three temperature zones with to their
to the surface of the molten steel. The elements are recorded in order of
No.
1
2
3
and zone
Hot, 3 inches
from melt,
surface
Medium hot,
10 inches from
melt, surface
Cool, vacuum
port
Condensate,
location
Vacuum-resistance
furnace roof)
shields
Vacuum-induction,
roof
Vacuum to
diffusion pump
Condensed elements
Mn
Mn
1 <10 >0,1
Sn,
Si
Si Mo, Cu,
Ni, Cr
Fe, , AI, Cu,
Ca, B,
Sb
Sf, Sn, Fe,
Ni, AI, Pb,
eu
The high tin content of 2 indicates that a
tin can scrap may have been used to make
the base of the air-induction steels.
ercent
<0.1
Sr, Na,
AI, Ba,
Co, Ti
K, Ti, Zr,
Pb, Cr, Mo,
Ag, Cd, Ca,
Cr, B, Ti,
Zr Bi
of baled
which was
12
C the vacuum-resistance unit after some heats revealed mag-
nesium that were when disturbed. These its
were noted when blocks of stock metal adhered to the crucible
walls above the melt and could be dis only the melt.
Virtually all of this magnesium came from carbon reduction of the magnesia
crucible.
Some constituents in steel are par a vacuum heat.
may enter into reaction either with constituents of the melt and refrac-
tory crucible, or may be eliminated by Carbon and manganese
are removed to a than any of the other elements
in steel. Carbon will enter into reaction with dissolved oxygen, with some of
the less stable metallic oxides, and with the crucible In this
work more carbon was removed in vacuum-resistance melting than in vacuum-
induction melting (table 6). Photomicrographs of the etched steel
(fig. show that the fine pearlite network in A has decreased considerab
in the vacuum melted specimens C, and D with a
of coarse and ferrite.
TABLE 6. -
AISI Heat sis
No. desi nation Carbon Sulfur Silicon
1018 A 0.15 0.041 0.38
VRNC .04
OJ)
VRC .07
OJ)
VIC .12 .044
(In
1345 A .46 1.66 .042 .017 .27
VRNC .23 .96 .035 )
OJ)
VRC .36 .33
OJ)
) .35
VIC .40 1.37 .037 )
un
2317 A?:.I .24 .31 .045 .009 .21
VRNC .18 .23 .041 )
(l/)
VRC .09 .11 (11) ) .23
VIC .20 .22 .050 ) (ll)
4017 .18 .75 .042 .014 .31
VRNC .10 .51 .040
Ul) 0/)
VRC .15 .15 (11) (II) .30
VIC .15 .41 .039
(II) (II)
5135 .36 .85 .046 .011 .42
VRNC .12 .45 .040 1 ) (l!)
VRC .11 .13 .52
6120
tJI
.26 .87 .40
VRNC .15 )
VRC .03 ,08
1/ No analysis. 0.77 percent chromium.
2/ Contained 3.59 nickel. 0.79 percent chromium
"1.1
Contained 0.28 percent and 0.22 percent vanadium.
FIGURE 6. - Structures of Air- and Vacuum-Melted 1345 Steel Specimens (X250;
Etched With 3-Percent Nital). ~ , Air-melted stock; , vacuum-
resistance melted; ~ , vacuum-resistance melted and cast; 12,
vacuum-induction melted and cast.
Consider the reaction of carbon with metal oxides,
13
C + MO ---7 M + CO T ,
where MO = metal oxides. If M were volatile it would vaporize and condense on
cooler sections of the furnace. Otherwise on solidification of the melt M
would substitute in the cubic ferrite or orthorhombic cementite lattice.
14
The manganese content decreases to a lesser extent in vacuum-induction
melting than in vacuum-resistance melting (table 6). Pressur e seems to be
the greater controlling factor in manganese loss with less emphasis on induc-
tive stirring.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of research on six low-alloy steels indicate that vacuum
melting substantially refines the steel alloys through elimination of unde-
sirable metallic and nonmetallic elements. As a consequence the following
improvements are obtained:
(1) Decrease in oxygen and nitrogen contents.
(2) Decrease in the number and size of inclusions and increase in
the degree of their dispersion.
(3) Elimination of undesirable trace elements.
I NT. - aU.OF M I NES ,P GH " PA . 2 448