Jurnal Alam Bina, Jilid 09, No: 01, 2007.

URBAN TRANSPORTATION PLANNING MANAGEMENT IN A GIS ENVIRONMENT

Ata M. Khan1, Jennifer M. Armstrong2, Sarah J. Taylor1
Email: ata_khan@carleton.ca

AND

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA
2

Morrison Hershfield Limited, Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA

ABSTRACT The objectives of this paper are threefold: (1) to describe advances in geographic information systems, (2) to discuss applications of GIS in the planning and management of urban transportation systems, and (3) to discuss requirements, applications and benefits of GIS applications in urban transportation and management in developing countries. The paper consists of five parts. Part one provides an introduction to the overall topic. Part two describes advances in GIS as an efficient, flexible and reliable planning method. Part three covers applications of GIS in urban transportation planning and management. In part four of the paper, urban transportation applications of GIS to cities of developing countries is suggested. Finally, in part five, conclusions are presented, with a focus on how cities in developing countries can benefit from the application of GIS in urban transportation planning and management. Keywords: GIS, urban transportation, planning, management, developing country

Introduction

In the context of this paper, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is defined as "a system of computer hardware, software, and procedures designed to support the compiling, storing, retrieving, analyzing, and display of spatially referenced data for addressing planning and management problems. In addition to these technical components, a complete GIS must also include a focus on people, organizations, and standards" (Biln et al 1993). A similar definition is provided by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (2004).

Canada is a world leader in early innovations in GIS. The Canadian GIS, the first known mainframe based operational system, was developed for Environment Canada in the 1960s (Lukes 1991). Oxford County, Ontario, has attracted international attention for its multi-purpose GIS implementation, which required the

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coordination and integration of data from various municipalities and provincial government databases (Khan 1995). Increasing number of Canadian urban areas is benefiting from GIS initiatives. Also, GIS is enabling the application of smart (sustainable) development concepts and Intelligent Transportation Systems.

This paper describes advances in geographic information systems and discusses applications of GIS in the planning and management of urban transportation systems. Additionally, it discusses requirements, applications and benefits of GIS in urban transportation planning and management in the cities of developing countries.

Advances in GIS GIS, as applied to transportation, termed GIS-T, is an efficient and cost-effective tool for planning and management. The components of GIS-T include:

technology (hardware, software), data capture and integration, users and their requirements, and institutions

Over the years, there has been much progress in all facets of GIS-T, and a wide variety of applications have emerged. A number of notable GIS and related advances have paved the way to its application in urban transportation. These are: data capture methods, spatial integration technologies, technology platforms, GIS as a platform for modeling transportation systems, web technologies, and organizational facilitators. Brief descriptions are provided in this article. Owing to favourable future conditions, it is expected that GIS will play an increasingly important role in transport planning and management (Peak 2000).

Geographic data can take a number of forms (Figure 1). These include transportation-related attribute data, raster data, line data and area data. The attribute data describe a spatial entity in numerical or descriptive terms. (e.g., for a traffic analysis zone, the attribute data might include land use types, trip generation

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rates, etc.). Frequently, such data are stored in a tabular format (FHWA 2004, Blinn et al, 1993). The raster data include identifying features for various cells (e.g., river, warehouse, major shopping centre, etc.). The line data represent the shape of a linear geographic feature (e.g., roads). The area data represent polygons that enclose a homogenous unit (e.g., lake, zone for traffic analysis, etc.).

A useful feature of a GIS is its ability to retain data in several layers. See Figure 2 for a typical multi-layer structure. A GIS can be regarded as an "intelligent map" since it can represent objects graphically, "knows" how the objects are related, and has the ability to associate (non-spatial) thematic information (e.g., population of a traffic zone) with these objects.

As a tool for spatial analysis, GIS enables a variety of information types to be drawn together in a coordinated manner. The visually oriented, coordinated analysis facilitated by GIS can form the basis of functional maps and customized reports of interest to a diverse user audience (Khan 1995) (Figure 3). The GIS procedures and tools can be used for obtaining information of interest to technical and administrative specialists for use in planning and management activities. Also, such outputs can be of value to decision makers in making investment decisions.

A GIS-T is an efficient and cost-effective planning tool. For example, the proximity of jobs and houses to each other and to such services as public transportation can be studied quickly and inexpensively. It is important to recognize that the level of GIS needed for such analyses does not carry the higher price of very high precision engineering and public works inventory GIS systems.

Attribute Data (numeric or text form

Raster Data . Major trip and freight generators

Line Data . Roads . Public transit

Area Data. Data for various zones (e.g. zone for traffic analysis)

Figure 1: Geographic Data

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A GIS-T permits the assimilation, integration, and presentation of data, whether collected and stored by transportation agencies or other organizations (FHWA, 2004). The GIS-T hardware consists of computers (mostly high capacity microcomputers), and technologies for display, retrieval and communications. The software includes spatial data models

Sewers Water mains Roads Public transit Road Lights

Figure 2: Examples of GIS Overlay

Cartographic Database Spatial Analysis Relational Database Functional Maps Customized Maps

Figure 3: Geographic Information Systems

Data capture/entry involves manual digitizing and scanning, as well as the use of photogrammetric stations, coordinate geometry, global positioning system (GPS) receivers, digital cameras, satellite sensors, radar sensors, and thermal infra-red imaging devices. The integration of disparate data is carried out in the form of direct conversion of data from one system to another, and translation of data via standardized neutral exchange file formats.

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The spatial management (i.e., editing, topology building, edge matching, aggregation, and generalization) is carried out by customized software while attribute data might be managed by a database management system.

User interfaces follow command languages, pre-defined menus, and windows. Outputs include a variety of maps and data formats. The evolution of automated mapping has been supported by surveying, mapping, remote sensing, and computer hardware and software. Progress in the development of GIS continues to be driven by such technologies. Recent or current innovations in GIS-T include advanced data capture methods, spatial integration technologies, technology platforms, and organizational pre-requisites (restructuring). Improvements in data capture

technologies are also bringing about cost reductions. These innovations are described in more detail below.

A variety of spatial referencing systems are used by transportation agencies for collecting data. Improved methods for the integration of data into a common referencing system for use in GIS-T are necessary for display, and for report preparation (TAC 1995). Technology platforms are receiving considerable attention in the form of workstation technology, distributed processing and distributed database management. In turn, these innovations are encouraging GIS-T applications. Further developments in this area have the potential to enable the integration of GIS into an overall agency-wide technology strategy. Software improvement has also taken place, aimed at helping transportation professionals and organizations to store, display, manage, and analyze transportation-related data. Some advanced specialized GIS-T applications provide analytic and decision support tools (e.g. Caliper Corporation's Transportation GIS Software, TransCAD) (Calliper Corporation 2004). Additionally, macros have been developed for providing an interface between transportation planning software and GIS (FHWA 2004, AIDAir 2004).

As a database management system, a GIS-T is effective at capturing and analyzing data for a variety of planning and management applications. Such applications usually require that information be stored, displayed, and analyzed at various spatial scales. Data requirements typically encompass characteristics of transportation
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analysis zones, demand for passenger and freight movement, passenger and freight vehicle flows, transportation networks, routes, schedules, and transportation system performance.

The design of a GIS-T includes an integrated spatial database manager for storing geographic data using efficient topological data structures. The use of such database managers provides a powerful means of manipulating transportation and geographic data in a rapid and easy manner, a feat that is all the more impressive given that these data structures define the location and spatial relationships among point, line, area, and other geographic entities or objects. The transportation data structures that can be supported by a GIS-T include nodes, links, networks, paths, and origindestination matrices. Query analyses enable information such as accident locations or map features to be quickly selected and summarized. Moreover, through dynamic segmentation, which is a method of partitioning lines or areas in a GIS database, selected attributes can be displayed (e.g., streets segmented by traffic volume and road condition) (FHWA 2004, Caliper Corp 2004).

Applications of GIS in Urban Transportation

A variety of applications of GIS in urban transportation planning and management have been reported. Some of these applications include:

Transportation master plans Site plans Multimodal transportation planning (e.g., travel demand forecasting) Public participation Scenario development/visioning Sustainable development Executive information systems Web-based user information systems Asset management systems including infrastructure maintenance management

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Safety management including accident analysis Transportation system control and management (TSC-TSM) Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) applications (e.g. road pricing) Corridor preservation/right of way Construction management Hazardous cargo or overweight/oversize vehicles permit routing Environmental impacts

It is recognized that GIS tools are versatile, flexible, and reliable and therefore can be used for a range of activities (Local Government Commission, 2004).

GIS software is now available that can combine tools for travel demand modelling with unique capabilities for digital mapping, geographic database management, presentation of graphics, and application of sophisticated transportation, operations research, and statistical models (Caliper Corporation 2004, 1997). The GIS-assisted planning and management tools enable a graphic, interactive approach to transportation modelling. The following areas are specifically improved: network analysis (including shortest path calculations), setting features of a network, location and attribute queries, matrix manipulation, and routing of vehicles. Other improvements include partitioning and clustering, and facility location modelling.

GIS-assisted tools enable the efficient search for solutions with better algorithms, more advanced software technology, greater user convenience, and improved flexibility in modelling choices and possibilities. New generation GIS-T software extends the traditional GIS data model by including transportation data objects such as: transportation networks, matrices, routes and route systems, and linearreferenced data.

The above noted activities are inherently spatial in character and their implementation is predicated upon the analysts ability to manipulate spatial variables. In GIS-based analyses, data are typically associated with point, line, or area features. Data structures can also be developed for representing special generators, geographic networks, and zone boundaries. Not only has GIS evolved to
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support transportation planning activities, but many transportation applications require GIS features and functions for proper treatment of transportation networks, routes, and flow matrices.

Available and emerging GIS-T software have the capability to achieve the required integration of planning and GIS data structures, facilitating the use of GIS technology and data in transportation planning and management activities. Given their unique capabilities, the GIS platform and its extensions provide a more effective basis for maintenance and use of transportation planning and management data than conventional approaches. GIS technology offers significant advantages in network analysis and associated data preparation tasks. As compared to conventional methods, GIS-T greatly reduces the time and effort associated with network development. Efforts have been made to integrate GIS (including automated

mapping/facility management) and the overall infrastructure management (Khan 1995) (Figure 4). Since urban infrastructure comprises roads and other facilities with common locations, a coordinated effort among all departments is a pre-requisite.

Geographic Information Systems

Automated Mapping/ Facility Management

Overall Urban Infrastructure Management

Figure 4: System Integration

This calls for data to be shared and distributed in a timely fashion to all parties with a responsibility to manage infrastructure. Through the use of database management technology, municipalities can combine engineering maintenance and administrative

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data with GIS coverage. In order to make effective use of GIS-T software, digital data products need to be structured according to accepted standards. These standards would permit cost-effective sharing of information. Studies have resulted in a common set of standards, which are intended for the capture and exchange of both geographic and attribute digital data relating to transportation systems. The standards are also intended to address the requirements of storing and accessing temporal data (TAC 1995).

A GIS-T can perform a broad range of transportation planning and management tasks in a cost-effective manner. It can be used for building transportation information systems for applications such as sign inventories, accident analysis, physical distribution of goods, operations planning, etc. In the context of urban and regional transportation, GIS supports the analysis of a range of network types, including street, subway, rail, bus, highway, and multimodal networks (FHWA 2004, Caliper Corporation 2004). For example, conventional travel demand models are unable to accurately account for travel on local streets. This is a major deficiency of using such models to estimate vehicle emissions. This deficiency is overcome by the use of GIS (Armstrong 2000).

Canadian experience in GIS-T covers technology development as well as generic models for GIS in a municipal environment. Also, information system requirements have been defined (by major GIS projects carried out by urban governments and municipal associations), based on user needs. There is increasing recognition at the urban level that computerized geographic information systems (GIS) are efficient and effective tools for transportation planning and management. Geographic information systems are being developed by almost all major urban areas in Canada, requiring the participation of numerous civic departments and private utilities. There is a trend towards integrating GIS with travel demand forecasting models for transportation planning.

GIS has already been used as an information tool by transportation agencies. Some areas of application of GIS-T in Canada include: planning, project management, assessment of socio-economic and environmental impacts, accident analysis,
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hazardous material routing, and road and other modal facility performance monitoring. Road infrastructure management problems have been and continue to be a popular area of GIS-T application. For example, a GIS system was developed and implemented at the Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton (now the City of Ottawa) for the maintenance and rehabilitation planning of regional roads. This GIS-T was used to define various scenarios of rehabilitation and capital works. The results were used during the budget review process.

Gather input data: Commercial vehicle traffic Vehicle age distribution External trips Temperature and fuel data Road classification scheme Daily travel distribution Intra-zonal travel (analyzed using GIS) Trip tables Trip length distribution

Create tools: EMME/2 macro (used to summarize travel data from the traffic assignment)

Emissions model

Develop operating mode fractions

Estimate vehicle emissions

Travel activity from trip-based analysis

Greenhouse gas emissions Air quality pollutants

Figure 5: Methodology for Emissions Estimation (Armstrong 2000)

Given the recent emphasis on sustainable transportation, environmental impacts are an area of growing interest in Canada. An example application of a GIS-related methodology for the estimation of emissions is presented next. Figure 5 shows the methodology and selected results are presented in Figure 6.

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BASE NETWORK
US E R DE FI NE D LI NK D AT A 1 L IN KS : ci =0 & cj =0 CO L- IN D: @a re a

SC A LE :

W IN D OW : 36 18 29 /5 02 68 39 37 16 46 /5 03 42 02 E MM E/ 2 PR OJ E CT : 20 21 l an d us e, 19 95 T RA NS m od el c a li br at io n: em me 2b an . n2 1 S CE NA RI O 4 0 : Co py o f Sc en ar i o 4 <w 00 -0 6- 01 1 2: 55 MO DU LE : 2 . 13 RM OC .. .. .... ja

Figure 6: VOC Emissions (kg/km) - 2021 Demand Assigned to 2021 Network (All Vehicles)
(Armstrong 2000)

Selected Applications to Developing Countries

For the provision of efficient and effective transportation facilities and services, conceptually, a large number of GIS-T applications to developing countries can be suggested. Examples include: (1) integrated infrastructure management, (2) urban transportation planning, (3) optimum route selection (e.g., emergency vehicles, dangerous goods vehicles, etc.), (4) road and public transit information systems (e.g. traffic counts, accidents, project contract costs), and (5) assessment of environmental impacts. Here, due to space limitations, only the first two applications are discussed.

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Integrated Infrastructure Management

Infrastructure management can be defined as the process of coordinating, systematically evaluating, and effectively maintaining infrastructure. Effective management of pavement and other infrastructure in the urban area is essential since it can greatly increase the service life of these facilities, reduce user costs and avoid disasters.

Watermains Databases Roadway Transportation Database Public Transit Database

COMMON LOCATION DATABASE

Sewer Database

Solid Waste Management Database Roadway Lights Database

Figure 7: Integrated Infrastructure Management System

An infrastructure management system incorporates those activities required to support the above process, such as planning, design, construction, maintenance, rehabilitation, and evaluation. For this purpose, a series of rational, well-ordered analysis procedures is used.

A new management system approach for urban transportation infrastructure has emerged. This approach represents a comprehensive effort to integrate all infrastructures such as pavement, bridges, water supply, wastewater, gas, electricity, etc. on a common platform in order to remove conflicts and to improve managerial

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decisions. This concept of an integrated infrastructure management system is illustrated in Figure 7.

In such a system, attribute assignment can be carried out by a Linear Referencing System (LRS) model. Linear referencing is the process of identifying location(s) on a network or specific link of the network. A starting position, direction and distance have to be specified. In general, a GIS-T commences from a basic reference system and then evolves into a sophisticated collection of attribute data that can be used to illustrate and analyze the questions and issues of decision making (Johnson & Demetsky, 1994).

Here, the GIS-T can be developed with a modular, open architecture that can be customized and extended with user written procedures (Figure 8). Such a GIS-T helps the process of developing applications in an easy and conceptually less costly fashion than would be the case using conventional techniques. Due to a lack of data, exact cost comparisons cannot be provided here. GIS-T also automates the process by converting digital data files into accessible databases.

Highway Inventory

Maintenance Management Data

Traffic Data

Accident Data

Pavement Condition Data

Contract Cost Data

Spatial Data

Geographic Information System

Maps

Pavement Management Application

Output

Figure 8: Application Development with GIS

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In the development of a common location database covering related infrastructure, the relationships between infrastructure components must be defined. Moreover, in order to develop an application for the management of infrastructure renewal, the database has to be compiled (Figure 9). The design of a database calls for identifying its characteristics, the data layers which comprise it, and the necessary attribute fields. Databases can be modified by changing data fields and their display characteristics.

Data files can be imported and automatically converted from many coordinate systems. It is also relatively easy to import and export other data. The matching of addresses and geo-coding of data can be done, using data compiled in-house or from external sources. Indeed, both internal and external data can be integrated in the analysis. To undertake such an exercise, linear route-kms geo-coding and other linear reference systems can be used.

Compile the Database Define Spatial Database Define Attribute Database

Automate Spatial Database Establish Geographic Control

Automate Feature Database

Audit and Edit GIS Database

Figure 9: Development of a GIS Database

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As part of infrastructure management, answers are required to the following questions:

How can the municipality properly inventory and define needs? What is the "right" sustained funding amount to manage each of the assets?

To answer these questions, infrastructure items have to be defined in a systematic way. In urban areas, infrastructure categories that relate to transportation infrastructure are numerous as well as diverse. For the development of the inventory, a GIS-T should be used.

Such a system allows important information about municipal resources and facilities (e.g., street networks, traffic control installations, land records, engineering, digital terrain modelling and economic development models) to be stored in the form of "electronic maps", to be recalled in a matter of seconds and displayed for fostering more informative, timely and productive decisions.

Infrastructure upgrading needs can be defined by taking into account the projected physical condition of the infrastructure (Figure 10). It is of interest to note that the practice of identifying "needs" for rehabilitation is diverse. Also, there are no guidelines available for evaluating the needs of competing sectors or interdependent projects within and between sectors. Benefit-cost analysis can be used in establishing the feasibility of investments. For a comprehensive analysis, the economic effect of delays in project implementation should be checked.

In order to operational the above-noted methodological framework, a set of tools or methods can be developed. These can assist decision makers in finding costeffective strategies for providing, evaluating and maintaining urban transportation and other infrastructure in a serviceable condition.

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Infrastructure Types (e.g. roads, sewers, water, etc.); Inventory; Maintenance Database (GIS & Infrastructure Management)

Infrastructure Needs (GIS & Infrastructure Management) Gross Funding Level Estimation

Interdependent Projects (Within & Between Sectors) Overlay Projects to Check Conflicts (GIS) Programming

Independent Projects by Sector

Overlay Projects to Check Conflicts (GIS)

Multi-year Program & Budget Location Scheduling (GIS & Infrastructure Management)

Figure 10: Methodological Framework for Program and Budget Development

The approach to developing a GIS-T database for infrastructure (including pavement) management consists of three major tasks:

Problem definition GIS system development GIS application development

The problem definition task is in essence the same as covered earlier for infrastructure upgrading needs. As part of the GIS system development, an appropriate workstation and associated software have to be acquired. In the case of

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software, compatibility between programs is essential, since the condition/format of relevant spatial and attribute data can be unknown. The software should be selected so it can access the widest possible spectrum of data formats. In order to reduce the risk of system problems, it is desirable to select a GIS platform that has been widely tested. In addition, the platform should offer data interchange capabilities with a wide range of other GIS and non-GIS formats. Other widely used off-the-shelf software packages may eliminate the need for custom programming.

GIS-T application development calls for bringing all of the management systems together. Key tasks include (Johnson & Demetsky, 1994):

Creation of a spatial database -- a geographic base map, Establishment of the thematic, or attribute database, and Establishment of the geographic referencing system -- which ties the spatial and attribute databases together

Development of the spatial database requires graphics editing, which can be done in a computer-aided drafting (CAD) environment. Therefore, the GIS-T architecture should contain software for accomplishing this task. Following the graphics editing, the next step is to reintroduce the edited graphics file back into the GIS-T.

In the case of attribute database development, the attribute data requirements must be defined before the database can be created (e.g., traffic volumes for analyzing road infrastructure). For the development of this database, the requirements of all relevant management systems (e.g., bridge management, congestion management, transit service, safety analysis, etc.) have to be taken into account. To be costeffective, the facility or infrastructure reference system should ultimately be able to support a number of management systems.

Urban Transportation Planning

The second application of GIS-T to developing countries is urban transportation planning in a GIS environment. The key capabilities and analytical procedures of
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GIS-T described earlier can be used for effective transportation system analysis, including modelling (Figure 11).GIS-T has the ability to enhance transportation planning by supporting the development and application of travel demand models, providing tools to study demand-supply interaction, and facilitating system evaluation. Likewise, improved modelling techniques can be supported with the GIS-T environment. In the following description of the planning process, the details of GIS-T development are omitted since the steps are conceptually the same as in the case of infrastructure management.

Land Use Data (Geo-coded)

Population, Employment

Transportation System Alternative Geo-coded Travel Survey Data (Calibration Step) Highway & Public Transit Networks & Attributes

(Present & Future) Forecast OriginDestination Table (Application Step)

Trip Generation Trip Distribution Modal Split

Trip Assignment Assigned Link Volumes Capacity & Level of Service Link Average Speed

Energy Consumption &

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Air Quality Impacts

Estimation of Economic Factors

Evaluation of System Alternatives

System Choice & Implementation

Figure 11: Urban Transportation Planning in a GIS Environment

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In the development of land use databases, traffic analysis zones and districts are built and information is geo-coded for manipulation within the GIS environment. In addition to present land use data, future projections of these information items (consisting of land zoning, population, employment, dwelling units, commercial and other buildings, etc.) can also be included in the databases. Information on existing and proposed transportation systems is also organized within the GIS-T framework. In general, trip generation models can be estimated and applied at any spatial scale, even at the level of a parcel of land. Information can also be aggregated to the zone level. To support the modelling process, travel survey data and forecast origindestination trip tables can be geo-coded as well.

Using the GIS framework, the trip distribution and mode share analysis can be carried out efficiently. Trip assignment and capacity analysis procedures are also supported by the GIS-T. If required, the traffic and capacity analyses can be linked to traffic engineering and intersection models for improved accuracy.

For the evaluation of transportation system alternatives, in addition to capacity and level of service information, economic, energy, air quality, and other environmental factors can be studied in an integrated fashion by using the GIS-T capabilities. Among other advantages, GIS-T enables demand, system supply, energy and air quality analysis to be integrated. Given the severe problems of traffic congestion, inefficient use of petroleum fuels, and high levels of air pollution (emissions) in many cities of developing countries, GIS-T can play a role in defining and implementing solutions.

Other planning applications that relate to transportation can be developed. These are: zoning/redistricting, transit vehicle routing & scheduling, distribution logistics, site location, garbage collection, school bus routing and para-transit service. Through the analytical support provided by a GIS-T, shortest paths can be found that minimize distance, time, or cost. In the case of dangerous goods movements, routes can established that minimize population exposure to toxic spills/fumes.

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Conclusions

The foregoing information and discussion suggest a number of ways that cities in developing countries can benefit from the application of GIS-T. Key benefits include:

1)

Opportunities for the effective management of transportation and other related infrastructure,

2) 3)

Comprehensive urban transportation and land use planning at a low cost, Capability of GIS technologies to serve as an "information hub" for the various existing databases, affording the opportunity to maximize the use of existing geo-coded data,

4)

Due to the use of powerful graphical display and analysis tools, GIS can serve as an integral component of future Executive Information Systems for cities and their transportation agencies,

5)

Efficiency in obtaining approvals for projects, thus cutting down the amount of time required for final project approval and ultimate implementation,

6) 7)

Enhanced decision-making through a wider availability of data, and Development of various scenarios (e.g. infrastructure improvement strategies) to assist management in budget deliberations.

References
AIDAIR-GENEVA Project (2004). Transport and Air Pollution Module - Presentation of the Links Between EMME/2 and the System. (Website: http:// ecolu-info.unige.ch/rechercvhe/EUREKA/AIDAIR/CUPA_English.html). Armstrong, J., (2000). Development of a Methodology for Estimating Vehicle Emissions, M.Engineering Thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada. Blin, C.R., Queen, L.P. and Maki, L.W., (1993). Geographic Information Systems: A Glossary. Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota, Natural Resources, NR-FO-6097-S, NR-PC-6136-S. Caliper Corporation (1996). TransCAD, Transportation GIS Software. Newton, Massachusetts. Caliper Corporation (2004). TransCAD, Transportation GIS Software, Overview, Newton, Massachusetts (Website: www.caliper.com/tcovu.htm). Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) (2004). GIS in Transportation. (Web address: http://www.gis.fhwa.dot.gov/)

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Johnson, B.H., and Demetsky, M.J. (1994). A Geographic Information System for Transportation Management Systems. Transportation Research Board Paper No. 940563, Washington D.C. Khan, A.M. (1995). Application of geographic Information Systems (GIS) to Urban Transportation Planning and Management. Paper Presented at the United Nations Seminar on Urban Geographic Information Systems, City Sustainability & Environment, Cairo Egypt, December 10-14, 1995. Local Government Commission (2004). Geographic Information Systems: A Tool for Improving Community Liveability (www.lgc.org/freepub/land_use/factsheets/gis.html) Loukes, D.K. (1992). GIS and Transportation: A Canadian Perspective. Transportation Forum, No.4, Transportation Association of Canada, Ottawa. Peak, K. (2000). Geographic Information Systems, A Glimpse of the Future. Engineering & Control (TEC), V.41. No.10, November 2000. Traffic

Transportation Association of Canada (TAC) (1995). Geographic Information Systems in Transportation (GIS-T), Manual of Canadian GIS-T Data Standards, Recommended Practices and Implementation Guidelines. Ottawa.

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