Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 1 Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities ...........1 Chapter 2 Units of Physical Quantities .................................................3 Chapter 3 System of Units ..................................................................23
5.4
5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10 5.3.11 5.3.12 5.3.13 5.3.14 5.3.15 5.3.16 5.3.17 5.3.18 5.3.19 5.3.20 5.3.21 5.3.22 5.3.23 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3
Conditions of Equilibrium .........................................................65 Gravity .....................................................................................66 Vibrations & Waves .................................................................66 Standing Waves.......................................................................66 Beats........................................................................................66 Temperature and Heat.............................................................67 Ideal Gases..............................................................................67 Elastic Deformation..................................................................68 Temperature Scales ................................................................68 Sensible Heat Equation ...........................................................68 Latent Heat ..............................................................................68 Gas Laws.................................................................................68 Specific Heats Of Gases..........................................................69 Efficiency of Heat Engines .......................................................70 Heat Transfer by Conduction ...................................................71 Thermal Expansion of Solids ...................................................72 Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel ...........................................72 Discharge from an Orifice ........................................................77 Bernoullis Theory ....................................................................78 Actual pipe dimensions ............................................................78
Chapter 6 References.........................................................................80
6.1 6.2 Periodic Table of Elements .................................................. 80 Resistor Color Coding .......................................................... 81
5.3
Thermodynamics.................................................................. 64
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6
Chapter 1
Definition and Abbreviations for Physical Quantities
Symbol m kg s A K cd Quantity Plane angle Force Work, energy Power Frequency Viscosity: kinematic Viscosity: Dynamic Pressure Unit meter kilogram second ampere kelvin candela Unit radian newton heat watt hertz Quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temp Luminous intensity Symbol rad N joule W Hz m2/s Ns/m2 Pa or N/m2 Equivalent kg m/s2 JNm J/s s-1 10 c St (Centistoke) 103 cP (Centipoise) pascal, Pa
h da d c m n p
Quantity Potential Resistance Charge Capacitance Electric field strength Electric flux density Quantity Magnetic flux Inductance Magnetic field strength Magnetic flux density
Symbol Wb H A/m T
Symbol T G M
-1-
-2-
Chapter 2
Units of Physical Quantities
Conversion Factors (general): 1 acre = 43,560 square feet 1 cubic foot = 7.5 gallons 1 foot = 0.305 meters 1 gallon = 3.79 liters 1 gallon = 8.34 pounds 1 grain per gallon = 17.1 mg/L 1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts 1 million gallons per day = 694 gallons per minute 1 pound = 0.454 kilograms 1 pound per square inch = 2.31 feet of water Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit - 32) (5/9) Degrees Fahrenheit = (Degrees Celsius) (9/5) + 32 1% = 10,000 mg/L Multiply by
2
Name Density Density Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Force Force Force Heat capacity Heat transfer coefficient Length Length
To convert from lbs2/in4 slug/ft BTU cal erg eV Ftlbf kiloton TNT KWhr Megaton TNT Dyne Lbf Ozf BTU/lbm F BTU/hrft2F AU ft in mile Nautical mile parsec amu lbm lbs2/in slug lbm/hr
3
Divide by 9.357E-08 1.940E-03 9.478E-04 0.2389 1.000E+07 6.242E+18 0.7376 2.388E-13 2.778E-07 2.388E-16 1.000E+05 0.2248 3.5968 2.388E-04 0.1761 6.685E-12 3.2810 39.3700 6.214E-04 5.397E-04 3.241E-17 6.022E+26 2.2050 5.711E-03 6.853E-02 7937
To convert from ft/sec acre ft2 hectare in2 g/cm3 lbm/ft3 lbm/in3
2
Length Length Length Length Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass flow rate
-3-
-4-
Name Mass flow rate Moment of inertia Moment of inertia Moment of inertia Power Power Power Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Specific heat Specific heat Temperature Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Time
To kg/s kgm
Divide by 2.2050 0.7376 8.8510 141.60 3.4120 1.341E-03 2.844E-04 1.000E-05 10.0000 2.961E-04 4.019E-03 1.020E-05 2.088E-02 1.450E-04 1.000E-02 7.501 7.501E-03 9.869E-06 2.389E-04 2.389E-04 1.8000 0.5778 6.9340 2.389E-03 145.62 1.157E-05
Name Time Torque Torque Torque Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity absolute Viscosity kinematic Viscosity kinematic Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume flow rate Volume flow rate
To convert from sidereal year ftlbf inlbf Inozf ft/min ft/s Km/hr miles/hr centipose g/cms lbf/ft s lbm/fts centistoke ft /sec ft3 in3 Liters U.S. gallons ft3/min U.S. gallons/min
2 2
Divide by 3.169E-08 0.7376 8.8504 141.61 196.90 3.2810 3.6000 2.2370 1000 10 2.089E-02 0.6720 1.000E+06 10.7600 35.3200 6.102E+04 1000 264.20 2119 1.585E+04
1.3557 0.1130 7.062E-03 0.2931 745.71 3516 1.000E+05 0.1000 3377 248.82 9.807E+04 47.89 6897 100.00 0.1333 133.3 1.013E+05 4186 4186 0.5556 1.7307 0.1442 418.60 6.867E-03 8.640E+04
1.000E-03 0.1000 47.87 1.4881 1.000E-06 9.294E-02 2.831E-02 1.639E-05 1.000E-03 3.785E-03 4.719E-04 6.309E-05
Ns/m2 Ns/m
2 2
mbar microns mercury mm mercury std atm BTU/lbmF cal/gC F BTU/hrftF BTUin/hrft2F cal/cmsC cal/fthrF day
A.
DISTANCE (Length)
Multiply By LENGTH To obtain
Conversions
Centimeter Centimeter
0.03280840 0.3937008
foot inch
-5-
-6-
meter(m) meter(m) centimeter(cm) millimeter(mm) meter(m) centimeter(cm) millimeter(mm) mile(USstatute) Inch Fathom Foot Rod Yard mile(USstatute) micrometer(micron)(m) Microinch meter(m) kilometer(km) Foot Inch meter(m) meter(m) Multiply By 120 219.456 240
0.6213712 39.37008 0.54680066 3.280840 0.1988388 1.093613 0.0006213712 0.0254* 39.37008 1,609.344* 1.609344
*
-7-
-8-
Points (Typographical) Points (Typographical) Rods Rods Rods Spans Spans Yards Yards Yards Yards Yards
-9-
- 10 -
1 rod = 5.5 yd 1 in = 100 mils 1 light year = 9.461 x 1015 m 1 mil = 2.540 x 10
-5
Dry Volume 1 quart = 2 pints 1 peck = 8 quarts 1 bushel = 4 pecks 1 quart = 67.2 in3 1 peck = 537.6 in3 1 bushel = 2150.5 in3
1 acre = 160 rod2 1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 mile2 = 640 acres 1 in2 = 6.4516 cm2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 1 mile2 = 2.590 km2
B.
Area
Multiply By AREA acre acre centimeter
2
Conversions To obtain
4,046.856 0.4046856 0.1550003 0.001076391 0.09290304 929.03042 92,903.04 2.471054 645.16* 6.4516 0.00064516
2 *
meter2 (m2) hectare inch2 foot2 meter2 (m2) centimeter2 (cm2) millimeter2 (mm2) acre millimeter2 (mm2) centimeter2 (cm2) meter2 (m2) inch2 foot2 yard2 acre foot2 inch2 meter2 (m2)
1 km2 = 0.3861 mile2 Volume 1 cm3 = 0.06102 in3 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3 1 Litre = 61.024 in3 1 Litre = 0.0353 ft3 1 Litre = 0.2642 gal. (U.S.) 1 Litre = 0.0284 bu (U.S.) 1 Litre = 1000.000 cm3 1 Litre = 1.0567 qt. (liquid) or 0.9081 qt. (dry) 1 oz (US fluid) = 2.957 x 10-5 m3 Liquid Volume 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 1 pint = 4 gills 1 quart = 2 pints 1 gallon = 4 quarts
1 in3 = 16.387 cm3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 1 in3 = 0.0164 litre 1 ft3 = 28.32 litres 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 litres 1 gallon (US) = 3.785 x 10-3 m3 1 bushel (US) = 35.24 litres 1 stere = 1 m3
centimeter2 foot
2
foot2 foot
2
meter2 meter
2
1 barrel = 31.5 gallons 1 hogshead = 2 bbl (63 gal) 1 tun = 252 gallons 1 barrel (petrolum) = 42 gallons
- 11 -
- 12 -
C.
Volume
To Convert Carat Multiply By VOLUME (including CAPACITY) centimeter3 foot3 foot3 gallon (UK liquid) gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) gallon (US liquid) inch3 inch3 inch3 Liter Liter Liter Liter meter3 meter
3
To Milligrams Avoirdupois Ounces Grams Grains Troy Ounces Scruples Grams Grains Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Troy Drams Avoirdupois Drams Pennyweights Scruples Grams Milligrams Kilograms Avoirdupois Pounds Troy Pounds Troy Ounces Avoirdupois Ounces Avoirdupois Drams Grains
Multiply By 200 0.06255 1.7718452 27.344 0.125 3 3.8879346 60 6.47989E-05 0.00014286 0.00017361 0.00208333 0.00228571 0.0166 0.03657143 0.042 0.05 0.06479891 64.79891 0.001 0.002204623 0.00267923 0.032150747 0.035273961 0.56438339 15.432361
Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Avoirdupois Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Drams, Troy Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grains Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams Grams
0.06102376 0.028311685 28.31685 0.004546092 4.546092 0.003785412 3.785412 16,387.06 16.38706 0.00001638706 0.001* 0.2199692 0.2641720 0.03531466 219.9692 264.1720 35.31466 1.307951 1000.* 61,023.76 0.00006102376 0.7645549
inch3 meter3 (m3) liter meter3 (m3) litre meter3 (m3) liter millimeter3 (mm3) centimeter3 (cm3) meter3 (m3) meter3 (m3) gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) foot3 gallon (UK liquid) gallon (US liquid) foot3 yard3 liter inch3 inch3 meter3 (m3)
D.
Conversions
- 13 -
- 14 -
- 15 -
- 16 -
E.
Density
To Parts/million Parts/million Pounds/million gal Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu. in Pounds/cu. ft Pounds/cu. ft Pounds/1000 gal Grains/gal Parts/million Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu in Grams/cu cm Pound/cu ft Parts/million Pounds/mil-foot Pounds/cu in Multiply By 14.286 17.118 142.86 3.405E-07 0.03613 62.43 0.062427 8.345 58.417 1000 3.405E-10 0.00003613 0.001 0.06243 1 5.456E-09 0.0005787
Conversions To Convert Grains/imp. Gallon Grains/US gallon Grains/US gallon Grams/cu. Cm Grams/cu. Cm Grams/cu. Cm Grams/liter Grams/liter Grams/liter Grams/liter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Kilograms/cu meter Milligrams/liter Pounds/cu ft Pounds/cu ft
- 17 -
- 18 -
F.
Slate Clay Sodium Coal Steel (mild) Cobalt Sulphur Copper Tin Cork Tungsten Glass (crown) Wood (ash) Glass (flint) Wood (beech) Gold Wood (ebony) Iron (cast) Wood (elm) Iron (wrought)
- 19 -
- 20 -
Name Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega
G. Greek Alphabet
Name Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Lower Case Upper Case
- 21 -
- 22 -
Chapter 3
System of Units
The two most commonly used systems of units are as follows: SI Imperial SI: The International System of Units (abbreviated "SI") is a scientific method of expressing the magnitudes of physical quantities. This system was formerly called the meter-kilogramsecond (MKS) system. Imperial: A unit of measure for capacity officially adopted in the British Imperial System; British units are both dry and wet
104
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
Metric System
Exponent value Tera Giga Mega Unit quantity Micro Nano Pico 1012 109 106 1 10-6 10-9 10
-12
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
Representation T G M
Example Thz (Tera hertz) Ghz (Giga hertz) Mhz (Mega hertz) hz (hertz) F (Farads)
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
Example:
Physical constants
Name Avogadro's number Bohr magneton Boltzmann's constant Stefan-Boltzmann constant Symbolic Representation N B k d Zo eV e Numerical Equivalent 6.023 x 1026 /(kg mol) 9.27 x 10-24 Am 252 1.380 x 10-23 J/k 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) (o/Eo)1/2=120 1.602 x 10-19 J 1.602 x 10-19 C
n p
Conversion Chart
Multiply by To convert Kilo Into Milli 106 Into Centi 105 Into Deci 104 Into MGL* 103 Into Deca 102 Into Hecto 101 Into Kilo 1
- 23 -
- 24 -
Name Electronic rest mass Electronic charge to mass ratio Faraday constant Permeability of free space Permittivity of free space Planck's constant Proton mass Proton to electron mass ratio Standard gravitational acceleration Universal constant of gravitation Universal gas constant Velocity of light in vacuum Temperature Temperature Speed of light in air Electron charge Mass of electron Planck's constant Universal gravitational constant Electron volt Mass of proton
Numerical Equivalent 9.109 x 10-31 kg 1.759 x 1011 C/kg 9.65 x 107 C/(kg mol) 4 x 10-7 H/m 8.85 x 10-12 F/m 6.626 x 10-34 J s 1.672 x 10-27 kg 1835.6 9.80665 m/s2, 9.80665 N/kg 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2 8.314 kJ/(kg mol K) 2.9979 x 10 m/s 5/9(0F - 32) 5/9(0F + 459.67), 5/90R, 0C + 273.15 3.00 x 108 m s-1 -1.60 x 10-19 C 9.11 x 10-31 kg 6.63 x 10-34 J s 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 1.60 x 10-19 J 1.67 x 10-27 kg
8
Name Acceleration due to gravity on Earth Acceleration due to gravity on the Moon Radius of the Earth Mass of the Earth Radius of the Sun Mass of the Sun Radius of the Moon Mass of the Moon Earth-Moon distance Earth-Sun distance Speed of light in air Electron charge Mass of electron Planck's constant Universal gravitational constant Electron volt Mass of proton Acceleration due to gravity on Earth Acceleration due to gravity on the Moon Ton
Numerical Equivalent 9.80 m s-2 1.62 m s-2 6.37 x 106 m 5.98 x 1024 kg 6.96 x 108 m 1.99 x 1030 kg 1.74 x 106 m 7.35 x 1022 kg 3.84 x 108 m 1.50 x 1011 m 3.00 x 108 m s-1 -1.60 x 10-19 C 9.11 x 10-31 kg 6.63 x 10-34 J s 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2 1.60 x 10-19 J 1.67 x 10-27 kg 9.80 m s-2 1.62 m s-2 1.00 x 103 kg
K c e me h G 1 eV mp
- 25 -
- 26 -
Chapter 4
General Mathematical Formulae
4.1 Algebra A. Expansion Formulae
Square of summation
a+0 = 0+a = a a + (-a) = 0, a(1/a) = 1 If a+x=a+y, then x=y a0 = 0a = 0 -(-a) = a, (-a)b= a(-b) = -(ab), (-a)(-b) = ab
(x + y) 2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (x y) 2 = x2 2xy + y2 x2 y2 = (x + y) (x y)
Square of difference
Algebraic Combinations
Factors with a common denominator can be expanded: a+b a b = + c c c Fractions can be added by finding a common denominator: a b ad + bc + = c d cd Products of fractions can be carried out directly: a b ab = c d cd Quotients of fractions can be evaluated by inverting and multiplying: a b = a d = ad c b c bc d
Difference of squares
Cube of summation
(x + y) 3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
Summation of two cubes
x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2)
Cube of difference
(x y) 3 = x3 3x2y + 3xy2 y3
Difference of two cubes
x3 y3 = (x y) (x2 + xy + y2)
B. Quadratic Equation
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, Then x =
b b 2 4ac 2a
Description
Radical Combinations
n
ab = n a n b
a = a1/ n
a = b
n n
a b
m
(a+b)c = ac+bc
am = a n
n m
a = mn a
- 27 -
- 28 -
4.2 Geometry
Item Circumference / Perimeter Area Surface Area Volume Figure
Square s
4s
NA
NA
Rectangle
2 (L + B)
(Length)(Breadth) = LB NA
NA
- 29 -
Item
Circumference / Perimeter
Area
Surface Area
Volume
Figure
Triangle
1 B H 2
NA
NA
Right triangle
s1 + s2 + s3
1 B H 2
NA
NA
- 30 -
Item
s ( s a)( s b)( s c)
s1 + s2 + s3 where
Generic triangle
s=
a+b+c 2
NA NA
Equilateral triangle
A=
NA NA
1 bh 2
- 31 -
Item
Circumference / Perimeter
Area
Surface Area
Volume
Figure
Trapezoid
a +b A= h 2
NA
NA
Circle
C = 2r C = d
A = r2 NA NA
- 32 -
Item
Circle Sector NA NA
2r + (arc length)
arc r 2 A= r 2 360 A=
A= 2
r
2
(1/4)Dd Ellipse where D and d are the two axis D is the larger radius and d is the smaller radius
A= 4
NA NA
Dd
- 33 -
Item
Circumference / Perimeter
Area
Surface Area
Volume
Figure
Trapezoid
A=
1 (b1 + b2 )h 2
NA
NA
Hexagon
6s
NA
NA
- 34 -
Item
Octagon
8s
Cube 6s
NA
NA
s3
- 35 -
Item
Circumference / Perimeter
Area
Surface Area
Volume
Figure
Rectangular solid
NA
NA
2 l h + 2wh + 2
l w h
V = r2h
- 36 -
Item
S = 4r2 Sphere NA NA
4 3 r 3
1 base area 3
Pyramid
NA
NA
- 37 -
Item
Circumference / Perimeter
Area
Surface Area
Volume
Figure
Rectangular prism
NA
NA
2lh+2lw+2wh
V = lwh
Cone
NA
NA
pir(r+sh)
1 2 r h 3
- 38 -
B. Basic Ratios
Sin = a/c Cos = b/c Tan = a/b Cosec = c/a Sec = c/b Cot = b/a A circle in degree contains 360 degrees A circle in radians contains 2 radians
a b
e jn = cos(n ) + j sin(n )
hypotenuse opposite
cos =
e j + e j 2
adjacent
sin =
e j e j 2j
4.4 Logarithm
cos = adjacent hypotenus tan = opposite adjacent
Definition
sin =
opposite hypotenus
The logarithm of a number to a particular base is the power (or index) to which that base must be raised to obtain the number. The number 8 written in index form as 8 = 23 The equation can be rewritten in logarithm form as log 2 8 = 3
Logarithm laws
[sin ] + [cos ]
2
= sin 2 + cos 2 = 1
The logarithm laws are obtained from the index laws and are: loga x + loga y = loga xy
- 39 -
- 40 -
(c d ) r = c r d r
cr = c rs , c 0 cs
cr c = r , d 0 d d
c r = 1 cr
( c r ) s = c r s
(log a x )
=x
Note: It is not possible to have the logarithm of a negative number. All logarithms must have the same base.
Euler Relationship
Basic Combinations Since the raising of a number n to a power p may be defined as multiplying n times itself p times, it follows that
The trigonometric functions are related to a complex exponential by the Euler relationship: e jx = cos x + j sin x
n p1 + p 2 = n p1 n p 2
The rule for raising a power to a power can also be deduced (na)b = nab (ab)n = anbn am/an = am-n
e = cos x j sin x From these relationships the trig functions can be expressed in terms of the complex exponential: e jx + e jx cos x = 2 e jx e jx sin x = 2
Hyperbolic Functions
jx
The hyperbolic functions can be defined in terms of exponentials. Hyperbolic sine = sinh x =
e x e x 2 e x + e x 2
a + jb where j = -1 and j j = -1
Complex numbers can also be expressed in polar form
sinh x e x e x = cosh x e x + e x
- 41 -
- 42 -
Chapter 5
e-j = cos x - j sin x
From these relationships the trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of the complex exponential: e jx + e jx cos x = 2 e jx e jx sin x = 2
This relationship is useful for expressing complex numbers in polar form, as well as many other applications. Polar Form, Complex Numbers The standard form of a complex number is a + jb where j = -1 But this can be shown to be equivalent to the form
V R
Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + t) Where Ro = resistance at 0C (.) Rt = resistance at tC (.) = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28 (/ C)
Ae
Ae j = a 2 + b 2 (
a a2 + b2
+ j
b a2 + b2
) = a + jb
R2 = R1
(1 + t2 ) (1 + t1 )
Where R1 = resistance at t1 R2 = resistance at t2 Values of alpha Copper Platinum Nickel Tungsten / C 0.00428 0.00358 0.00672 0.00450
- 43 -
- 44 -
Current, I =
nqvtA = nqvA t
Where EG = generated e.m.f. EB = generated back e.m.f. Ia = armature current Ra = armature resistance
Conductor Resistivity
R=
Alternating Current
RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11 pN cycles per second Frequency of Alternator = 60 Where p is number of pairs of poles N is the rotational speed in r/min
L
a
Where = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, m) L = length (meters) a = area of cross-section (square meters) Quantity Resistance R of a uniform conductor Resistors in series, Rs Resistors in parallel, R p Equation
L R= A
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
1 1 1 1 = + + R p R1 R2 R3
P = VI = I 2 R =
V=IR
di dt
V2 R
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .
1 1 1 1 = + + + ..... L T L1 L 2 L 3
At v L ( t) = E e
t
Dynamo Formulae
v R ( t) = E(1 - e )
R L = R i(t) = E (1 e
t
i(t) = I o e
vR(t) = R i(t) vL(t) = RT i(t)
- 45 -
- 46 -
L ' = RT
Alternating Current Complex Numbers: f = 1/T =2f C=a+jb C = M cos + j M sin
I x = IT ZT =
ZT Zx
Z1 Z 2 Z1 + Z 2
M = a 2 + b2 b = tan -1 a
Polar form: Inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance Resistance Impedance C=M |XL| = L |XC| = 1 / ( C) R Resistance: ZR = R 0 Inductance: ZL = XL 90 = L 90 Capacitance: ZC = XC -90 = 1 / (C) -90
C=
Q V
[F] (Farads)
1 1 1 1 = + + + ..... C T C1 C 2 C 3
C T = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + ..... i(t) = E - RC e R
t RC t RC t
v R ( t) = E e
= RC
v C ( t) = E(1 - e
Discharging a Capacitor
t
Quantity Ohms Law for AC Time Domain Phasor Notation Components in Series Voltage Divider Rule
i(t) =
Vo - e R
t
v R ( t) = Vo e
v C ( t) = Vo e
' = RTC
t
Quantity
Equation
Vx = VT
Zx ZT
Capacitance
C=
Components in Parallel
Q V
1 1 1 1 = + + + ... Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3
- 47 -
- 48 -
Current in AC Circuit
RMS Current In Cartesian form
C=
A
d
V d
I=
E =
Isolated Sphere
V 1 R j L 2 C 2 1 R + L C
V 1 [ R + L ] C
2 2
C = 4r
I=
s Amperes
Capacitors in parallel
C = C1 + C2 + C3
Capacitors in series
where s = tan 1
L R
1 1 1 1 = + + C C1 C 2 C 3
Modulus
Energy stored in a charged capacitor If the capacitor is isolated If the capacitor is connected to a battery For R C circuits Charging a capacitor Discharging a capacitor
1 1 W = = CV 2 = QV 2C 2 2
I =
V 1 R + L C
2 2
Amperes
W = W =
2C 1 CV 2 2
1 Z = R + j L Ohms C
If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential difference between the plates If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the charge stored in the capacitor. The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor
Modulus
- 49 -
- 50 -
P = VI cos Watts
P = I R Watts
2
Vm (1 + cos ) 2 Vm
Star connected Line voltage = 3 phase voltage Line current = phase current Delta connected Line voltage = phase voltage Line current = 3 phase current Three phase power P = 3 EL IL cos EL = line voltage IL = line current cos = power factor
Electrostatics Quantity Instantaneous current, Equation
(1 + cos )
I=
Pdc = VI = I 2 R =
V R
0 =
(meters)-1
1 CV 2 Joules 2
Equation
Coulombs law
F =k E= E= F q
Q1Q2 r2
P =0
The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + /2)) (Vo sin wt )
Electric fields
P =0
The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos
Q 4 o r 2
E=0
- 51 -
- 52 -
E=
E =
Q 4 o r 2
o
E=
dV dx
E =
V d
An electric field E is a vector The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines per unit cross-sectional area, The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface. The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
Magnetostatics
Physical Quantity Magnetic flux density (also called the Bfield) is defined as the force acting per unit current length. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field Equation
B=
F Il
Quantity
Equation
Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance r from A is Electric potential
W =
Qq 4 o r
W q
V =
qvB =
mv 2 r
V =
V =
Q 4 o r
Q 4 o a Q
Calculation of magnetic flux density Physical Quantity Magnetic fields around a long straight wire carrying current I Equation
Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q: Inside the sphere Outside the sphere
B=
V =
4 o r
Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, carrying current Hall effect At equilibrium The current in a material is given by
where a = perp. distance from a very long straight wire. I: B = o n I, where n = number of turns per unit length.
o I 2a
If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy of a charge q at that point is Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to point B of potential VB
U = qV
W = q (VB VA)
VH = QvB and d
VH = B v d
I = nQAv
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II l F21 = o 1 2 2a
U=
1 2 LI 2
Physical Quantity The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic field If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the coil is always parallel to the field, then Magnetic flux
Equation T = F b sin = N I l B b sin = N I A B sin T = N I A B sin = N I A B sin 90o =NIAB = B A cos and Flux-linkage =
VS N S = VP N P I= E (1 e Rt / L ) R VP p R
The L R (d.c.) circuit: When a great load (or smaller resistance) is connected to the secondary coil, the flux in the core decreases. The e.m.f., p, in the primary coil falls.
Vp -p = I R; I =
Kirchoffs laws
Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem) At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the junction.
Current Sensitivity
SI =
NAB c
Lenz's law The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if induced current flows. EMF Equations E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning disc E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil
= N
d dt
Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem) The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.
Physical Quantity Power =BLv = B r2f = N A B w sin wt Equation Electric current Work Ohms Law Resistances in Series
Equation
P=
I=
W = VI t
q t
W = qV V = IR R T = R1 + R 2 K 1 1 1 = + K R T R1 R 2
Quantity Self-induction
L=
dI / dt
Resistances in Parallel
N =LI
Magnetic flux
= BA
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Emf = N
( 2 1 ) t emf = l v B
F=I l B
Vs Vp = Ns Np
When two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on one another. "Third-law pair" of forces act on two different bodies.
Universal Law F = Gmsmp/d2
ms is the mass of the sun. mp is the mass of the planet. The Universal law and the second law must be consistent
Electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelength (m) 102 10 1 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11
Newtons Laws of Motion and Their Applications Physical Quantity Average velocity Acceleration Equations
radio frequencies
X-rays
v av =
s v+u = t 2
visible
Area of Spectrum
microwaves
a=
ultraviolet radiation
v-u t
Momentum
gamma rays
p = mv F = ma
infrared radiation
Force Weight
weight = mg
W = Fs
1 E k = 2 mv 2
f(Hz)
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
10 10 10 Frequency
12
13
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
10
18
10
19
10
20
Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap. 2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region.
E p = mgh a= vu ; t
1 s = ut + 2 at 2 ;
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
a=
v2 r mv 2 r
The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion. Mass is a measure of inertia.
Newton's second law of motion mv-mu ; F= t F=ma
F = ma =
F=G
m1m2 r2
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g=G
M r2
ft m = 3.28 2 s2 s
Equations
M = rF M = 0 Stress = Strain = Y= F A l l
v+u s= 2
If t is the elapsed time If a is the acceleration Angular Velocity and Acceleration Quantity
s = ut +
1 2 at 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Youngs Modulus
F/A l/ l
Equations
Scalar: a property described by a magnitude only Vector: a property described by a magnitude and a direction Velocity: vector property equal to displacement / time
The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed In SI the basic unit is m/s, in Imperial ft/s Other common units are km/h, mi/h Conversions: 1m/s = 3.28 ft/s 1km/h = 0.621 mi/h Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m/s at 0C and increases by about 0.61 m/s for each C rise. Speed of light in vaccum equals 3 x 108m/s
angular displacement (radians) 1 = initial, 2 = final angular acceleration (radians/s2) Linear displacement Linear velocity Linear, or tangential acceleration
1 + 2
2 1 2
= 1t + t 2
2 2 = 1 2 + 2
s=r v=r aT = r
Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration Quantity Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration Equations aT = r
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5.2.3 Force
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a kg m In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb
Weight
Er =
1 I 2 2
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth In SI weight can be calculated from Weight = F = mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known weight in pounds weight m= g ft g = 32.2 2 s
Torque Equation
T = I where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and is the angular acceleration in radians/s2
Momentum
Thermal Energy
In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities) In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Conversions
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance W=Fs In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ 1 J = 1 Nm In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb
Energy
In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of electrical energy is the kWh
Conversions
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb
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A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW) J 1W = 1 s In Imperial, the units are: Mechanical Power (ft lb) / s, horsepower h.p. Thermal Power Btu / s Electrical Power - W, kW, or h.p.
Conversions
Velocity of P = R 2 x 2
m s
746W = 1h. p.
1h. p. = 550 ft lb s
A vector quantity, force per unit area In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa 1Pa = 1 N m2
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure
1 psi = 6.895 kPa Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and Imperial systems Common equivalencies are: 1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury 1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water 1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury 1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water 1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa Other pressure unit conversions: 1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa 1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar
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5.3.2 Momentum
p = mv F = p/t
Fy = 0 = 0
(any axis)
miv1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f () miv1i2 + () m2v2i2 = m1v1f2 + m2v2f2 miv1i + m2v2i = (m1 + m2)vf xcm = mx/M Vcm = mv/M Acm = ma/M MAcm = Fnet
F = Gm1m2/r2 T = 2 / r3 /GMs G = 6.67 x 10-11N-m2/kg2 g = GME / R2E PE = - Gm1m2 / r ve = 2GME / RE vs = GME / r ME = 5.97 x 1024 kg RE = 6.37 x 106 m
5.3.11 Beats
fbeats = | f1 f2 |
Fluids
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Wa=W-FB
= m/V P = F/A P2 = P1 + gh Patm = 1.01 x 105Pa = 14.7 lb/in2 FB = fVg = Wf (weight of the displaced fluid) o/f = Vf /Vo (floating object) 3 water = 1000 kg/m
P = F/A Y = FLo/AL S = Fh/Ax B = VoF / AV Volume of the sphere = 4r3/3 1 atm = 1.01 105 Pa C = 5/9 (F 32) F = 5/9 (C + 32) R = F + 460 (R Rankine) K = C + 273 (K Kelvin) Q=mcT M=mass C=specific heat T=temperature chance
When gas temperature is constant PV = constant or P1V1 = P2V2 Where P is absolute pressure and V is volume
Charles Law
PV = nRT R = 8.31 J/mol K PV = NkT NA = 6.02 1023 molecules/mol k = 1.38 10-23 J/K M=NAm (KE)av=(1/2mv2 )av= 3/2kT U= 3/2NkT = 3/2nRT
When gas pressure is constant, V = const. T or V1 V2 = T1 T2 where V is volume and T is absolute temperature
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When gas volume is constant, P = const. T or P1 P2 = T1 T2 where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature
General Gas Law
GAS
P1V1 P2V 2 = = const. T1 T2 P V = m R T where P = absolute pressure (kPa) V = volume (m3) T = absolute temp (K) m = mass (kg) R = characteristic constant (kJ/kgK) Also PV = nRoT where P = absolute pressure (kPa) V = volume (m3) T = absolute temperature K N = the number of kmoles of gas Ro = the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K
5.3.20
Carnot Cycle
Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle) 1 = 1 ( 1) rv rv= compression ratio = specific heat (constant pressure) / Specific heat (constant volume)
Diesel Cycle
GAS
=1
R 1)
1
=1
rv
[(k 1) + k ( 1)]
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k 1
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Where rv= cylinder volume / clearance volume k = absolute pressure at the end of constant V heating (combustion) / absolute pressure at the beginning of constant V combustion
= volume at the end of constant P heating (combustion) / clearance volume Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)
=1
r
1
1 p
O2 ) + 9.3S 8
Air Brass Concrete Cork Glass Iron, cast Steel Wallboard, paper Aluminum Brick Copper Felt Glass, fibre Plastic, cellular Wood
100
N2 C 33(CO2 + CO)
Equivalent evaporation =
m s (h1 h2 ) mf (calorificvalue)
Where
ms = mass flow rate of steam h1 = enthalpy of steam produced in boiler h2 = enthalpy of feedwater to boiler mf = mass flow rate of fuel
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P-V-T Relationships Name of process Heat added P-V T-P T-V Work done Value of n Change in Internal Energy Change in Enthalpy Change in Entropy
--0
T1 P = 1 T2 P2 mc v (T2 T1 ) mc v (T2 T1 )
--
mc p (T2 T1 )
T mc v log e 2 T 1 T mc n log e 2 T 1
T1 V1 = T2 V2 mc p (T2 T1 )
P(V2-V1)
mc v (T2 T1 )
mc p (T2 T1 )
Isothermal T=Constant 1 -- l 1
P V2 1 = P2 V1
P mRT log e 1 P 2
0
P mR log e 1 P 2 mc v (T2 T1 )
Isentropic S=Constant
n n l n n 1
P V2 1 = P2 V1 T1 P = 1 T2 P2 T1 P = 1 T2 P2 mc n (T2 T1 )
T1 V2 = T2 V1
mc p (T2 T1 )
P V2 1 = P2 V1 T1 V2 = T2 V1
mR (T1 T2 ) n 1
mc v (T2 T1 )
mc p (T2 T1 )
T mc n log e 2 T 1
*Can be used for reversible adiabatic processes cv = Specific heat at constant volume, kJ/kgK cp = Specific heat at constant pressure, kJ/kgK
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n cm = Specific heat for polytropic process = cv kJ / kgK 1 n H = Enthalpy, kJ = Isentropic Exponent, cp/cv n = polytropic exponent P = Pressure, kPa R = Gas content, kJ/kgK S = Entropy, kJ/K T = Absolute Temperature, K = 273+C U = Internal Energy, kJ V = Volume, m3 m = Mass of gas, kg
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Mean Specific Heat between 0 o C and 100 o C kJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C 0.909 0.209 0.125 0.383 0.795 0.402 0.388 0.896 0.130 16.5 9.0 14.2 50.4 10.4 12.0 29.0 13.0 8.6 7.8 19.5 12.0 26.7 16.5 12.3 7.9 18.4 12.4 17.5 23.8
Iron (cast) Iron (wrought) Lead Nickel Platinum Silicon Silver Steel (mild) Tin Zinc
Liquid Alcohal Ammonia Benzine Carbon Dioxide Mercury Olive oil Petroleum Gasoline Turpentine Water
Specific Heat (at 20 o C ) KJ/kgK or kJ/kg o C 2.470 0.473 1.138 3.643 0.139 1.633 2.135 2.093 1.800 4.183
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d2 dc
2
Where B = breadth (m) H = head (m above sill) Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2 Where H = head (m above sill)
Or C c =
Ac d c = A d
H = total head (meters) w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N) h = height above datum level (meters) v = velocity of water (meters per second) P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa) Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction L v2 Loss of head in meters = f d 2g L = length in meters v = velocity of flow in meters per second d = diameter in meters f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small pipes
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity = AcV Or Q = C c AC v 2 gh Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65 Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh 3 2 Where Q = flow (m /s) A = area (m ) h = head (m)
Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B H) 2/3 2gh
3/4 1 1 1 2
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Flow area (m2) 3.090 10-3 4.768 10-3 6.381 10-3 8.213 10-3 1.291 10-2 1.864 10-2 3.226 10-2 5.090 10-2 7.219 10-2 8.729 10-2 0.1140 0.1443 0.1794 0.2594
A 1 1 H 1.00 8 2A 2
Chapter 6
References
6.1 Periodic Table of Elements
8A 18 3A 13 4A 14 5A 15 6A 16 7A 17 2 He 4.00 3
5 6 7 8 9 10 B C N O F Ne 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.1 1 1 1 0 0 8 13 14 15 16 17 18 Al Si P S Cl Ar 26.9 28.0 30.9 32.0 35.4 39.9 8 9 7 7 5 5
19 31 32 33 34 35 36 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 K Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn 39.1 40.0 44.9 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.3 69.7 72.5 74.9 78.9 79.9 83.8 0 2 9 2 6 0 0 8 6 0 4 0 4 5 3 0 5 8 37 49 50 51 52 53 54 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Rb In Sn Sb Te I Xe Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd 85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 97.9 101. 102. 106. 107. 112. 114. 118. 121. 127. 126. 131. 7 8 7 8 6 9 3 2 1 2 1 4 1 9 4 9 4 56 55 81 82 83 84 85 86 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Cs Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg 132. 137. 138. 178. 180. 183. 186. 190. 192. 195. 197. 200. 204. 207. 209. (209) (210) (222) 9 4 2 0 3 9 5 9 8 2 2 2 1 0 6 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 Fr Ra Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ac Rf (223) 226. 227. (261) (262) (266) (264) (265) (268) 0 0
58 62 67 68 69 70 71 59 63 60 64 61 65 66 Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Ce Sm Pr Eu Nd Gd Pm Tb Dy 140. 140. 144. (145) 150. 152. 157. 158. 162. 164. 167. 168. 173. 175. 9 3 9 0 0 1 4 9 0 2 3 9 5 90 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 91 92 93 94 Es Fm Md No Lr Th Am Cm Bk Cf Pa U Np Pu 232. 231. 238. 237. (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262) 0 0 0 0
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