RSA problem

d and e should be relatively prime to each other. Previous example : dxe mod 60 =1 Primes expected: 61,121,181,241,301,361,421,481.(for axb mod y=1, primes are found as yx1+1,yx2+1, yx3+1, yx4+1..). Anyone of the prime divisible by e will give d. If e is 13 then 481 is divisible by 13. therefore d=37.

Queueing Theory
Refer: data networks, 2nd edn., dimitri bertsekas and robert gallager

Introduction
A key feature of communication networks is the sharing of resources such as transmission bandwidth, storage and processing capacity. Since the demand for these resources is unscheduled, the situation can arise where resources are not available when a user places a request. This situation leads to a delay or loss in service.

Introduction

One of the most important performance measures of a data network is the average delay required to deliver a packet from origin to destination. Delay considerations strongly influence the choice and performance of network algorithms such as routing and flow control. Hence it is important to understand the nature and mechanism of delay and the manner in which it depends on the characteristics of the network. Queueing theory is the primary methodological framework for analysing network delay. Its use often requires simplifying realsistic assumptions which make meaningful analysis extremely difficult. Hence sometimes it is impossible to obtain accurate quantitative delay predictions on the basis of queueing models. Present study discusses about Packet delay within the communication subnet (ie. Network layer). This delay is the sum of delays on each subnet link traversed by the packet.

Introduction
Each link delay in turn consists of four components. 1. Processing delay between the time the packet is correctly received at the head node of the link and the time the packet is assigned to an outgoing link queue for transmission. 2. Queueing delay between the time the packet is assigned to a queue for transmission and the time it starts being transmitted. During this time the packet waits while other packets in the transmission queue are transmitted. 3. Transmission delay between the times that the first and last bits of the packet are transmitted. 4. Propagation delay between the time the last bit is transmitted at the head node of the link and the time the last bit is transmitted at the tail node. This is proportional to the physical distance between transmitter and receiver. Present study ignores retransmission of packets due to various errors.

Multiplexing of traffic on a communication Link

Transmission capacity of the link is number of bits transmitted per second over a communication link. It depends on both the physical channel and the interface and is simply the rate at which the interface accepts bits. The link capacity may serve several traffic streams multiplexed on the link. The manner of allocation of capacity among these traffic streams has a profound effect on packet delay.

Multiplexing of traffic on a communication Link

Commonly used scheme is statistical multiplexing where the packets of all traffic streams are merged into a single queue and transmitted on a first come first serve basis. A variation of this scheme is used which maintains separate queue for each traffic stream and serves the queues in sequence one packet at a time. Since the entire transmission capacity(Cbits/sec) is allocated to a single packet(Lbits long), it takes L/C secs to transmit a packet.

Multiplexing of traffic on a communication Link

In TDM and FDM with m traffic streams, the link capacity is essentially subdivided into m portions, one per traffic stream. In FDM the channel B.W, W is divided into m channels each with B.W ,W/m. the transmission capacity of each channel is C/m. the transmission time of a L bits long packet is Lm/C. In TDM allocation is done by dividing the time axis into slots of fixed length. The communication link is considered to have m separate links with capacity C/m. If slots<packet length then transmission time is Lm/C. If slots =packet length then transmission time is L/C with a small delay of (m-1).

Multiplexing of traffic on a communication Link

From queueing theory it is evident that statistical method gives less delay compared to FDM or TDM. In FDM or TDM resources are wasted. Hence it has poor delay performance. Sometimes TDM or FDM may be advantageous.

Queueing Models
Consider queueing systems where packets arrive at random times to a communication link for transmission in a data network. Service time corresponds to the packet transmission time and is given as L/C. It is also assumed that packet lengths include frame header and trailer. Customers represent ongoing conversations and service time corresponds to duration of a conversation. Following quantities are estimated: 1. Average number of customers. 2. Average delay per customer. These customers are estimated using1. Customer arrival rate 2. Customer service rate

Littles theorem
N, , T are related to each other from Littles theorem which has the form N= T. Littles theorem expresses that crowded systems (large N) are associated with long customer delays (large T) and reversely. (Refer to littles theorm examples pg 157 to 162 from gallager.)

THE M/M/1 Queueing System

The M/M/1 queueing system consists of a single queueing station with a single server (i.e. a single transmission line). Customers arrive according to a poisson process with rate and the probability distribution of the service time is exponential with mean 1/ sec.

THE M/M/1 Queueing System

The name M/M/1 reflects standard queueing theory nomenclature where, 1. The first letter indicates the nature of the arrival process (ex.M stands for memoryless, which means a poissons process(i.e. exponentially distributed inter-arrival times), G stands for a general distribution of inter-arrival times, D stands for deterministic inter-arrival times). 2. The second letter indicates the nature of the probability distribution of the service times(ex. M,G and D stand for exponential, general and deterministic distributions respectively). In all cases successive inter-arrival times and service times are assumed to be statistically independent of each other. 3. The last number indicates the number of servers.

THE M/M/1 Queueing System

W.k.t from Littles theorem, N=T, NQ=W Where, -N=average number of customers in the system -T= average customer time in the system -NQ=average number of customers waiting in queue. -W=average customer waiting time in queue. -=arrival rate

 Remaining topics notes or else text can be referred.