MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES PREPARED BY

Er. RAjMANi SiNGH, B.E. (Mech. Engg.)-2005-09, (UNIVERSITY OF RAJASTHAN), Email:- mailrajmanisingh@gmail.com

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Automobile is a self propelled vehicle. Steam engines are external combustion engines.
IC Engines Steam Engines

Easy to start and Stop.

Takes time, not so easy.

Lighter

Heavier

A small tank is sufficient.

A boiler is needed to store water and produce steam.

In a IC engine, because of heat the gas expands but volume remains constant and hence temperature raises. Fuel feed system : Petrol Engines: There are two types of fuel pumps. They are mechanical and electrical fuel pumps. It contains the following parts

Fuel tank, Pump, filter Carburetor,

Intake manifold and Gauge to indicate the driver the fuel level in fuel tank.

Diesel Engines: There are two methods of fuel injection. They are air blast injection and Airless or solid injection. It contains the following parts.

Fuel tank, Filter Injection pump, Injector and Fuel gauge.

Super Charging: The process of supplying to the engine the A / F mixture above the atmospheric pressure is called as super charging. The following are the objectives of super charging.

To reduce the weight / Horse power. To reduce the space occupied by engine. To maintain power at high altitudes where less oxygen is available as in aircrafts.

Governors: In SI engines carburetor are responsible for delivering the proper mixture of air and petrol. But in CI engines it is achieved by Governors. Exhaust silencers: As the exhaust valve opens, high pressure exhaust gas is released which causes pressure wave in the air producing noise. The noise frequencies are 50 - 500 Hz and 3000 to 10000 Hz. To reduce noise engine exhaust is connected to a silencer or a muffler. Various type of mufflers are Baffle type, wave cancellation type, resonance type, absorber type and combined resonance and absorber type. Baffle types are less efficient. Length of gas paths are so adjusted such that crest of one wave coincides with the trough of another wave canceling each other. This type of muffler does not eliminate noise completely. Gas flowing through Resonance muffler does not experience high resistance. Series of resonators reduce the noise of the fundamental and higher harmonics. Sound absorbing materials are kept surrounding the perorated tube through which the exhaust gases pass. During high pressure

fluctuations the gases pass through the perforations to the sound absorbing materials, when these fluctuations are reduced and thus the noise gets reduced in intensity. The silencers may be straight flow type or reverse flow type. Air Cleaner: The intake air should be cleaned if it contains dirt and dust, it will damage the engine. It acts as inlet system silencer and arrests flame due to back firing if any. It is mounted at the air entrance of carburetor. The following are the different types 1. Oil bath type - The filter contains a filter element wetted with oil. At the bottom there is a separate oil pan. Air from the atmosphere enters through circumferential gap. Air hits oil in the oil pan. Large dust particles are removed. then air passes through filler element. Further cleaning takes place. Then the air enters the engine. Maximum efficiency of oil bath type air cleaners is about 98%. Oil bath air cleaners can be designed with centrifugal pre-cleaners. 2. Dry type - In this the filter element is paper or felt. Felt filters are not efficient as paper filters. But are more efficient than oil bath air filters. paper filters can be as efficient as 99.99%. 3. Oil wetted type. 4. Paper pleated type and 5. Centrifugal type. Engine Cooling: In IC engine the temperature of the gases inside the cylinder vary from 35o C to 2750o C during the cycle. Obviously at such high temperature the metals will loose their characteristic and piston will expand the seize the liner. An efficient cooling system removes 30 - 35 % of heat generated. Too much heat removal will reduce efficiency. There are 4 types of cooling. They are 1. 2. 3. 4. Air cooling Water cooling Liquid cooling and Stream cooling.

Lubrication: It is applied between the moving parts. It is necessary to reduce wear and tear, reduce friction and also acts as a cooling medium. A lubricant should possess the following important properties.

Flash point : The lowest temperature at which the oil will flash when a small flame is passed across the surface. It happens due to the volatilization of liquid particles in the oil. Fire point : When the oil is further heated after flash point, the oil will burn continuously. Cloud point : When the oil is cooled it becomes solidified and becomes cloudy at this point. Lubrication system: Following are the different types of lubrication system. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Petrol system Splash system. Pressure system Semi pressure system and Dry sump system. Following are the parts of lubricating system. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Oil tank Pump ( Gear pump, Rotor pump, plunger pump and Vane pump ) Cooler Oil pressure gauge and Oil level indicator.

Battery: It constitutes the electrical system. It needed to start the engines. There are three types of batteries. They are lead alkaline batteries, Alkaline batteries and Zinc air batteries. Ignition System: It supplies a high voltage of 30000 Volts across a small gap in spark plug. The ignition system contains a battery, switch ignition distribution, ignition coil, spark plug and necessary wings. There are two types. They are battery and Magneto ignition system.

Battery Ignition

Magneto Ignition

Current is obtained from battery.

Current from magneto.

Less costly.

More costly.

Good sparking even at low speeds.

Poor sparking at high speeds.

Gear Boxes: Functions of gear box: It allows the engine to run at different speeds to maintain its power and regulate its torque. Gear box is essential when the vehicle is to be reversed. Types of gear boxes:

Sliding mesh gear box, Constant mesh gear box Synchro mesh gear box and Planetary gear box.

Epicyclic gear box: It is a speed gearbox also known as sun and planet gearbox. In these gear boxes on sliding dogs or gears are provided to engage the gears. Tightening the brake bands on the gear drums performs changing the gear. It consists of a ring gear and planer gears with a carrier. Any one of them can be held from rotation by means of brake bands for obtaining different speeds. Live axle and dead axle: Dead axles only support the wheels but do not transmit any power. While a live axle apart from supporting the wheels also transmits torque to the rear wheels. Axle breather:

In order to maintain the pressure of oil in the rear axle, so that the oil is not forced past the oil seal, an axle breather is used. This increase in pressure is caused by expansion of air due to heat from the gears. The axle breather is placed in axle casing. Reverse shaft in gear box: This shaft is used to reverse the direction of drive by bringing into the mesh the larger gear wheel on the main shaft with the lay shaft is known as reverse shaft. Functions of differential gear: Is to keep both the rear wheels at the same speed in straight travel and make the outer rear wheel to rotate faster than the inner one during turn. Forces on rear axle: The axle shaft transmits drive from the differential to the rear hub. The various stresses to be resisted by these shafts are

Bending stress due to the weight of the vehicle. Torsional stresses due to driving and bracing torque. Shear forces due to vehicle weight. Tensile and compressive stresses due to side thrusts or cornering forces.

Brakes: There are different types of brakes in automobiles. They are Mechanical, Hydraulic, pneumatic, vacuum, electrical and combined vacuum and hydraulic. Molded pulp, compressed fabric, woven and impregnated asbestos sheet are used as brake liners. Requirements of braking fluid: Following are the requirements of a braking fluid.

It must have a high boiling point and low freezing point. It must be chemically stable. It must remain fluid at low temperatures but must retain good film strength at high temperature. It must have good lubricating properties. It must be non-corrosive and must not attack rubber or metallic parts.

Braking requirements of a vehicle:

Application of brakes should bring he vehicle to a relatively quick stop on any type of road. The braking system components must require minimum maintenance. The pedal effort required to produce maximum deceleration should be negligible and should not vary with condition of the road. The braking action should not involve and noise, or drift the vehicle away from its desired path. Provisions for quick heat dissipation must be incorporated.

Leading and trailing shoe: The leading shoe is the first shoe after the cam in the direction of rotation. The friction between the shoe and the drum pushes the tip of the leading shoe harder in contact with the drum and pushes it off at its toe, where as the trailing shoe tip is throw away off the brake drum, as the drum rotates against. Fading of brakes: Higher vehicle speeds give rise to excessive temperatures during braking.. Such a high temperature results in fast wear of the lining and brake fade i.e. heat temporarily changes the friction properties of the brake linings and brake pads.
Tyres: They are mounted on wheel rims to carry load and provide a cushioning effect. There are two types of Tyres. They are tubed tyres and tubeless tyres.

ENGINEERING MECHANICS - STATICS

Engineering mechanics is the science that deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is further divided into mechanics of rigid bodes, deformable bodes and fluids. Rigid Bodies: Such bodies don't deform under the action of applied forces. However in many cases, it is negligible to affect the results. So it is assumed that bodies does not deform or the distance between two points on a body does not change because of external load. Mechanics of rigid bodies is further subdivided into statics and dynamics. Statics : Study which deals with bodes in rest. Particle : Refers to a object, whose mass is concentrated at a point. This assumption is made when the size of body is negligible. Many particles together constitute the particle. Mass and Weight: Mass is defined as the measure of how much matter an object or body contains -- the total number of subatomic particles (electrons, protons and neutrons) in the object. So if your body weight is fluctuating, because of eating or exercising, it is actually the number of atoms that is changing.
Mass It is quantity of matter Weight It is the force with which

contained in a body

the body is attracted towards the center of earth. It is different at different places It produces the motion in the body It is a vector quantity Measured with spring balance It is zero at the center of the earth.

It is constant at all places It resists the motion in the body It is a scalar quantity Measured with ordinary balance It is never zero

The weight of a body of mass m should be measured in Newtons. W = mg = m (9.8 m/s2) = 9.8 N. Newton's Law: First law: Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled by a external force to change the state. Second Law: Change of momentum is proportional to impress force and takes place in the direction of the straight lines, in which the force acts. It states that

acceleration is directly proportional to net force when mass is constant, and acceleration is inversely proportional to mass when net force is constant, and consequently net force is directly proportional to mass when acceleration is constant.

This law enables to measure a force and establishes the fundamental equation of dynamics. Consider, a body moving along a straight line. Where 'm' is the mass of the body, 'u' is the initial velocity of body, 'v' the final velocity of body and 'a' acceleration of the body. Initial momentum = m.u and final momentum = m.v. Thus the rate of change in momentum is m(v-u) / t = m.a Newton's second law of motion is more compactly written as the equation F = ma
The concept implied in Newton's Second Law of Motion are found in many

places, as shown below Cause of change Newton's second law force rotational dynamics Newtonian fluids thermal conduction ohm's law faraday's law torque shearing stress temperature gradient potential difference potential difference = Resistance x to change mass moment of inertia viscosity r-factor electrical resistance inductance Rate of change of... velocity angular velocity shear heat charge current

Third Law: to every action, there is a equal and opposite reaction. This goes to say, that the force of action and reaction are equal in magnitude by opposite in direction. Law of Gravitation: Two particles are attracted towards each other along the lines joining them, with a force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product of masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them. F = G m1m2 / r2 Where G is universal gravitation constant. Scalar quantity: Some quantities like time, mass volume can be expressed in terms of magnitude alone and don't have any direction. They obey the law of algebra. Vector quantity: Quantities like distance, velocity, acceleration and all are expressed in terms of both magnitude and direction. They obey the law of vectors. To define such a quantity Magnitude, Direction and Point of application has to be specified. FORCE: It is a derived unit. It is a force that imparts a acceleration of 1 m/s on a body of mass one Kg. 1N = 1 Kg m/s2 = It is a agency which
2

changes or tends to change the state of rest or motion of a body. Force has the capacity to impart motion to a particle. Force can produce pull, push or twist. It is a vector quantity, hence to define force its point of application, its magnitude and its direction has to be specified. For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad categories.

Contact forces: Are types of forces in which the two interacting objects are physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces. Action-at-a-distance forces: are types of forces in which the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite a physical separation. Examples

1. Gravitational forces ( E.g., the sun and planets exert a gravitational pull on each other despite their large spatial separation, even when our feet leave the earth and we are no longer in contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull between us and the Earth ), 2. Electric forces ( E.g., the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation ), and 3. Magnetic forces ( E.g., two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimeters ). Apart from this force is also classified as internal and external force. Internal force are those that hold together the particles forming the rigid body. If the rigid body has several parts, the forces holding the component parts together are also called as internal force. External forces represent the action of other bodies on he rigid body under consideration. They will either cause it to move or assure that it remains at rest. Types of forces: Equal and Equivalent force: Two forces of the same magnitude and direction but having a different point of application is called as equal force. Two forces are said to be equivalent if they produce the same effect on a rigid body. Equivalent forces is based on some specific effect. Coplanar forces:

When a number of forces lies in the same plane, then it is called as coplanar force. Other wise it is called as non coplanar forces. Concurrent forces: These forces are those in which the forces have the lines of action passing through common point. However, all of the individual vectors might not acutally be in contact with the common point.

Parallel force: These are a set of forces, whose line of action is parallel to each other. Following are the types of parallel forces.

Like parallel force : When two parallel forces have the same direction but may or may not have the same magnitude. Unlike unequal parallel force : when both the forces are unequal in magnitude and act in opposite directions. Unlike equal parallel force : When two forces are opposite indirection and equal in magnitude.

Parallelogram Law for addition of forces: If two forces acting on a point are represented in magnitude and direction, by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of parallelogram passing through the points of intersection, represents the resultant force in both magnitude and direction. Triangle law of forces:

If two forces acting at a point are represented by two sides of a triangle taken in order, then their sum of resultant is the third side of triangle taken in opposite order. Polygon law : When a number of coplanar forces are acting at a point, such that they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the side of polygon taken in order, then the resultant can be represented both in magnitude and direction, by the closing side of polygon taken in opposite order. Lami's Theorem: When three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, then each force will be proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces. Principle of Transmissibility: It states that condition of state of rest or motion of body does not change if the point of application of a force is transmitted to any other point, along its line of action. This principle is used to determine the external forces acting on the rigid body. But should not be used to determine the internal forces and deformation of the body. Resultant of several force: When a number of forces acting on a rigid body is replaced by a single force which has the same effect as all the forces on the rigid body, then that forces is called as resultant of several force.

Any concurrent set of forces, not in equilibrium, can be put into a state of equilibrium by a single force. This force is called the Equilibrant. It is equal in magnitude, opposite in sense and co-linear with the resultant. When this force is added to the force system, the sum of all of the forces is equal to zero.

Condition for equilibrium: When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, then the particle is said to be in a state of equilibrium. Constraint, Action and Reaction: A body is not always free to move in all directions. This restriction to the free motion of a body is called as constraint. A action of a constrained body on any support induces a equal and opposite reaction from the support. Free body diagram: To draw the free body diagram the supports are removed and replaced by the reactions the support exerts on the body. Moment of force: A force can produce a rotary motion. This measure of this turning effect produced by a force is called as moment of a force. The moment of a force about a point is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the line of action of force and the point ( also called as Moment centre ) Varignon's Theorem: The moment of a force about a axis is equal to the sum of the moments of components about the same axis. Couple: A system of two equal parallel forces acting in opposite directions can be replaced by a single force. In such a case a couple is produced, which has a tendency to rotate the body. The perpendicular distance between the line of action of two forces is called as arm of couple.

Moment of a couple: The rotational tendency of a couple is measured by its moment. The moment of a couple is the product of magnitude of one of the forces and arm of the couple. Central values: Centre of mass: is the point through which the entire mass of the body is assumed to be concentrated. Both are different only when the gravitational field is not uniform and parallel, other wise it is the same. Centroid: is the point where the entire area of the lamina is assumed to concentrated. Center of gravity of a Two-dimensional body: Centre of gravity is defined as the point through which the resultant of the distributed gravitational forces, act irrespective of the orientation of the body. For illustration, let us consider a flat horizontal plate is considered. We divide the plate into a small elements. The co-ordinates of the first element is denoted by (x1, y1) for the second element it is (x2, y2). Similarly the forces exerted by the earth on the elements on the plate will be denoted respectively byW1, W2 .... Wn. These forces or weights are directed towards the center of the earth, however for all practical purposes they are assumed to be parallel. The resultant W is a single force in the same direction. The magnitude W of this force is obtained by adding the magnitudes of the elementary weights. W = W1 + W2 + ...... + Wn. To obtain the co-ordinates of centroid (x, y) where the resultant W is applied, we write the moments of W about the x and y axes to be equal to the sum of the corresponding moments of the elementary weights. xW = x1.W1 + x2.W2 + ......... + xn.Wn. yW = y1.W1 + y2.W2 + ......... + yn.Wn. Now the size of each element is decreased the number of elements is increased. We then obtain the limit of the following expressions. W = dW xW = xdW yW = ydW

The magnitude of weight W is denoted by gt . Substituting this value of W and W in the above equations and dividing it by gt, we get xA = x1.1 + x2.2 + ....... + xn.n yA = y1.1 + y2.2 + ....... + yn.n, Similarly the values of integral also changes as shown. xA = xdA First moments of Areas and Lines: The integral xdA in previous Para is known as the first moment of Area with respect to y axis and is denoted by Qy. Similarly the integral ydA defines the first moment of Area with respect to the x axis and is denoted by Qx. Mathematically we can also derive Qx = yA Beams: It is a structural member designed to withstand loads at various points along the members. Usually the loads are applied perpendicular to the axis of the beam thus causing shear and bending in the beam. If the loads are not at right angles of the beam, then they will also produce axial forces in the beam. Beams are long, straight prismatic members designed to support loads applied at various points along the member. In the design of a beam we have to consider the most effective cross section that will provide the most effective resistance the shear and bending moment produced by the applied loads. Hence the design of beam consists of two distinct parts. In the first part the shearing force and the bending moment produced by the loads are determined. In the second part there is a selection of cross section that best with stands the shear and bending moment determined in the first part. Cables: These are flexible members capable of withstanding only tension, designed to support either concentrated or distributed load. Friction: The friction is a force distribution at the surface of contact and acts tangential to the surface of contact. This force always develop when one Qy = xA yA = ydA

surface attempts to move over the other. There are two types of friction. They are dry ( also called as coulomb friction ) and fluid friction. Dry friction: Is the one which exists between two dry surfaces. Such a friction is caused mainly because of minute projections present on the surface of body hindering relative motion. The friction between liquid surfaces is called as fluid friction. Limiting friction: When a body of mass m is there with a weight W a continuously increasing force P is applied on the body to move it. This force P is opposed and resisted by frictional force F. As P increases F also increases. The body also remains at rest. At a point F cannot increase, hence P > F and the body begins to move. The friction force at this instant is called as limiting friction. Limiting friction is the maximum frictional force exerted at the time the body begins to move. The friction that exists between two moving bodies is called as kinetic or dynamic friction. Laws of dry friction : 1. The total frictional force developed is independent of the magnitude of area of contact. 2. The total frictional force is directly proportional to the normal force acting at the surface of contact. F = N Where F - Frictional force - Coefficient of static friction and N - Normal reaction. Angle of Friction: The normal reaction N and the frictional force F can be combined into a single resultant force R called resultant reaction. The angle which the resultant reaction R makes with the normal reaction N is called as angle of friction Tan = F / N = N / N =

 is called as coefficient of friction. Angle of repose: It is defined as the maximum angle of inclination at which the body remains in equilibrium at a inclined surface at the influence of friction alone, beyond which the body slides. Rolling resistance: A ball is present on the ground. They are in touch only at the point of contact. That a large amount of friction is eliminated. But then the when or ball starts rolling, the resistance increases. This is mainly due to deformation over which the ball creates on the surface. Thus there is no longer a point contact but a area contact. This area a is called as the forward length of deformation also called as coefficient of rolling resistance. Engineering structures: Any system of interconnected members builds to support or transfer force acting on them and to safely withstand these forces are called as engineering structure. Following are the types. Truss : It is a system of members which are joined together at the ends, by riveting or welding at the ends. All members are two force members. Load is applied only at joints. Frame : Here one or more members are subject to more than two forces. Assumptions Made: 1. The joints are frictionless. 2. Loads are applied only in the joints. 3. The members are two force members with forces acting collinear to centre line of members. 4. The weight of members is negligible and 5. The truss is statically determinate. To determine the axial forces on the members, there are three methods. They are 1. Method of joints, 2. Method of sections and 3. Graphical method. Moment of Inertia:

By analogy the role played by the moment of inertial in the rotary motion is similar the role played by mass in translatory motion. The moment of Inertia of area is called as the area moment of inertia. The moment of Inertia of mass is called as the mass moment of inertia. dA is a element at a distance ( x, y ) from the axes. The moment of area with respect to X axis is = Ix = y2dA The moment of area with respect to Y axis is = Iy = x2dA Polar moment of Inertia : The moment of inertia of a area of plane figure with respect to the axis that is perpendicular to x-y plane and passing through O is called polar moment of Inertia it is denoted by jo = r2dA jo = ( x2 + y2 ) dA = Ix + Iy Theory of Papus-Guidinus: It states that the surface of revolution is a surface which may be generated by rotating a plane curve about a fixed axis. The surface of sphere may be obtained by rotating a semicircular arc about its diameter, the surface of a cone by rotating a straight line inclined about its axis. A body of revolution is a body which may be generated by rotating a plane area about a fixed axis. A solid sphere may be generated by rotating a semi circular area, a cone by rotating a triangular area and a torus by rotating a full circular area. Parallel axis theorem: The moment of Inertia of a lamina about any axis in the plane is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia abut a parallel centroidal axis in the plane of the lamina and the product of the area and square of distance between two axes. Perpendicular Axis theorem: If Ix and Iy are the moment of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axis OX and OY. Iz be the moment of inertia of lamina about a axis normal to the lamina and passing through the point of intersection of Ox and OY axes then

Iz = Ix + Iy
Quantity Unit Symbol m/s2 Rad Rad/s

Acceleration meter / sec2 Angle Angular velocity Angular acceleration Area Density Energy Force Frequency Length Mass Moment of force Power Pressure Stress Torque Velocty Volume Work Radian Radian/second

Radian/second2 Rad/s2 metre2 Kilogram / meter3 Joule Newton Hertz meter Kilogram Newton-metre Watts Pascal Pascal Newton-metre metre/second metre3 Joule m2 Kg/m3 J = Nm N = Kg m/s2 Hz m Kg Nm W = J/s Pa = N/m2 Pa = N/m2 Nm m/s m3 J = Nm

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1: For the system of forces shown, calculate the resultant force and its angle of inclination. Solution: Each force shown is resolved into the x and y components. To get the x components, the magnitude is multiplied with the Cosine of the angle of inclination ( F Cos ). For y components the magnitude of force is multiplied with Sine of the angle of inclination ( F Sin ).
Force Magnitude F1 F2 F3 F4 150 80 110 100 x y component component 129.9 -27.4 0 96.6 75 75.2 -110 -25.9

Sum of x component of force = 199.1 N Sum of y component of force = 14.3 N Resultant = (199.1)2+ (14.3) 2= 199.6 Angle of inclination = Tan -1 ( 14.3 / 199.1 ) = 4.1o Problem 2: For the plane shown determine (a) the first moments and the location of centroid. Solution: To proceed further the plane is considered to be a combination of Rectangle + Triangle + Semi circle - Circle.
Component Rectangle Triangle Semi-circle Circle Area Centroid Centroid (a) X Y 9600 3600 5655 -5026 60 40 60 60 X.a Y.a 384000 -72000

40 576000 -20 144000

105.5 339300 596602.5 80 301560 -402080

Total

13829

757740 506522.5

First moment of area Qx = 506522.5 First moment of area Qy = 757740.0 Centroid = ( 757740 / 13829, 506522.5 / 13829 ) = ( 54.8 mm, 36.62 mm )

REFERENCES: 1. Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russel Johnston Jr. 2. Engineering Mechanics, A. K. Tayal

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Internal Energy: Molecules in a system are in constant motion by mutual forces of attraction. The molecular motion has Kinetic energy. The energy of mutual forces of attraction is Potential energy. The sum total of the energy is the internal energy. This internal energy is dependent upon temperature level of the system. Higher the temperature, higher the internal energy. U is the most common symbol used for internal energy. E.g.. A room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. Heat: Energy transfer due to temperature difference is called as heat. This subject studies the rate at which this energy is transferred. A system might have accepted or rejected heat. This is reflected by the changes in temperature. A increase in temperature indicates that the system has accepted heat and a decrease in temperature indicates that the system has rejected heat. The quantity of heat transferred is given by the product of mass (m), Specific heat ( Cp or Cv ) and the temperature difference ( T ). Difference Between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer:

Consider a heated steel bar cooled in water. Thermodynamics helps to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the composite system. But heat transfer predicts the time taken to reach the equilibrium temperature or to find what would the temperature be after a certain length of time. Thus heat transfer helps to predict the temperature of both bar and water as a function of temperature. Modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction: The thermal energy transfer takes place from a region of high temperature to the low temperature region, between two bodies which are in contact. The energy transfer takes place by means of electrons, which are free to move. The observable effect is equalization of temperature. The flow of heat by conduction as given by Fourier law is given by the following formula. Here K is called the thermal conductivity. It has the units W/m.K Q = - KA ( dT / dX) Convection: It is possible because of mixing of fluid medium. This type of heat transfer is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transportation of fluid itself. The amount of heat transferred by convection depends largely upon the extent to which the fluids mix with each other. Thus there exists a mass moment. There are two types of convection, they are

Natural Convection:- This results because of the temperature different leading to the differences in density. Forced Convection:- This take place when the flow is caused by external means such as a fan or pump.

Radiation: Thermal radiation is the form of transmission of heat from one body to another body without a intervening space. It does not require a material medium, for the transfer of heat. The heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy or wave energy. The mechanism of heat transfer consists of three distinct phases.

Conversion of thermal energy to photons. Passage of photons in air space.

Transformation of photons back to heat.

Stefan Boltzman Law: The emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature. T is the absolute temperature, and the value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant is 5.67 x 10 -8 E T4 E = AT4 Planks Law: All bodies emit radiation, the quantity and quality of which depends upon the temperature and property of the material. Absorbivity, Reflectivity and Transmissibility: First consider a distinction between heat and infrared radiation. Infrared radiation refers to a particular range of wavelengths, while heat refers to the whole range of radiant energy flowing from one body to another. Consider a radiant heat flux, q falls upon a translucent plate that is not black as shown in the figure

Then let =Absorbivity or fraction of total energy absorbed by the body. = Fraction of total energy reflected. = Fraction of total energy transmitted. Qo = Qa + Qr + Qt

Qa / Qo + Qr / Qo + Qt / Qo = 1 + + = 1 The following are the important conclusions drawn.

When = 1 and = = 0

Then it is a Non-reflecting and Non Transmitting surface. Such a surface is called as black body.

When = 1 and = = 0

Then it reflects all radiation and is called a specular of a absolutely white body.

When = 1 and = = 0

Then it allow all radiations to pass throughout it and is called a transparent or diathermanous body. Black body: Black bodies are perfect thermal radiators. It is necessary to have a experimental method for making a perfectly black body. The conventional device for this approach is the hohlraum, which means literally hollow space. It is a simple device that traps all the energy that reaches the aperture. The cross section of a hohlraum is shown below. The hole has the attributes of a nearly perfect thermal black body.

Condensation: Fluid in gaseous or vapor phase changes to liquid state, with the liberation of heat from the vapor. There are two types of condensation. They are film condensation and Drop wise condensation. In film condensation, liquid drop lets cover the surface and further condensation is not possible. But in drop wise condensation, there is not wetting of cooling surface. Apart of the condensation film is always exposed to vapor without the formation of liquid film. Heat Exchangers: It is a equipment designed for the effective heat transfer between two fluids, where one of them is hot and other is cold. The purpose may be to remove heat or add heat. Examples of such heat exchangers are Automobile radiators, Air and water coolers & Air and Water Heaters. Based on the nature of heat exchange process, the following are the classifications. Direct contact - Both heat and mass transfer takes place. Regenerators - The hot fluid flows in a matrix or tube followed by the cold fluid or vice versa. Recuperators - Fluid flows simultaneously on either side of a separating unit. No physical contact of the fluids. The heat is transferred as follows. Convection - Hot fluid & Wall. Conduction - Across the wall. Convection - Wall & Cold fluid. Parallel Flow Arrangement - The hot and cold fluids enter and leave the unit in the same direction ( Unidirectional ) Counter Flow Arrangement - The two fluids enter the units from opposite ends, and travel in opposite directions. Maximum heat transfer rate. Cross Flow Arrangement - The fluids travel at right angles to each other. The figure of parallel, counter flow and cross flow arrangement is shown below.
Parallel and cross flow arrangement

Cross flow arrangement

Fins: The conductive removal of heat from a surface can be substantially improved if we put extensions on that surface to increase its area. These extensions can take a variety of forms. The surface of a commercial heat exchanger tubing can be extended with protrusions called as fins. Mass Transfer: The transfer of one constituent from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentrations called mass transfer. There are two types of mass transfer. They are diffusive and convective mass transfer. Examples of mass transfer are Evaporation of petrol in the carburetor of engine. Evaporation of liquid ammonia in the atmosphere of hydrogen in a electro flux refrigerator. Compressors: A simple definition of a compressor is a device used to pressurize a fluid, including liquids and gases. There are many different kinds of compressors, but typically the main purpose of using a compressor is to raise the pressure of a liquid or gas. Compressors are found in both gas

power cycles and vapor compression refrigeration cycles. A compressor converts shaft power to a rise in enthalpy of a fluid. The fluid, often a gas, enters the compressor at a low pressure (low enthalpy) and exits at a high pressure (high enthalpy). The rotating shaft is attached to a blade assembly. The rotating blades push on the gas and increase the pressure, thereby increasing the enthalpy. Compressors are continuous flow processes, and can be either axial or radial.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1: The front of a slab of lead ( k = 35 W/m.K ) is kept at 110o C and the back is kept at 50o C. If the are of the slab is 0.4m2 and it is 0.03m thick, compute the heat flux, q, and the heat transfer rate, Q. Heat flux q = - K (dT / dX) = -35 x ( 50 - 110 ) / 0.03 = 70,000 W/m2 Heat transfer rate = qA = 70,000 x 0.4 = 28 Kw. Problem 2: The heat flux q is 6000 W/m2 at the surface of an electrical heater. The heater temperature is 120o C, when it is cooled by air at 70o C. What is the average convective heat transfer coefficient, h? Convective heat transfer coefficient h = q / dT = 6000 / (120 - 70) = 120 W/m2K HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER BOOKS 1. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition by Frank P. Incropera, David P. Dewitt 2. The Heat Transfer Problem Solver: A Complete Solution Guide to Any Textbook (Rea's Problem Solvers) by Staff of Research and Education Association, James Ogden 3. Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer by Donald R. Pitts, Leighton E. Sissom (Contributor) 4. Heat Transfer by J. P. Holman 5. Handbook of Heat Transfer by Warren M. Rohsenow, James P. Hartnett,Young I. Cho. (Editors) 6. Compact Heat Exchangers by W. M. Kays, A. L. London 7. Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating and Thermal Design, Second Edition by Hongtan Liu, Sadik Kakac 8. Principles of Heat Transfer by Massoud Kaviany 9. Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd Edition by Louis C. Burmeister

10. Convective Heat Transfer by Tuncer Cebeci 11. A Heat Transfer text book by John H. Lienhard IV and John H. Lienhard V

Instrumentation and Metrology

Whatever exists, exist in some amount. finding this amount is what is called as measurement.

Measurement is the act or process that consist of obtaining a quantitative comparison between a standard entity and measure entity. This measured entity is called as measurand. This act produces a result. General method of measurement: Direct method and indirect method are the two methods of measurement. In many cases direct method is not possible, then we use indirect method. Measuring system has three stages. Indirect method makes use of a transducing device coupled to a chain connecting apparatus. All these are called measuring system. This chain of devices converts the basic form of input into a analogous form which then processes and presents at the output as a known function of input. Hence the generalized measuring system can be divided into three stages. 1. A detector - transducing sensor stage. 2. An intermediate stage - signal conditioning stage and 3. A terminating stage / Read out stage. Stages in Measurement: First Stage: First stage is to detect and sense the measurand and ideally it should be insensitive to every other input for example. If it is a pressure pickup device then it should be insensitive to acceleration, a strain gauge should be insensitive to temperature and frequently one finds there are more than one transduction in the first stage.

Classification of first stage devices: First stage may involve number of operation and fences these devices are classified as 1. Those which are used for detection only, 2. Those which are used as detector and single transducer and 3. Those which are used as detector and two stage transducer. The first stage instrumentation may be simple consisting of no more than a mechanical spindle or a contacting member to convey the quantity to secondary transducer. It may also consist of complex assembly of elements. The sole function of this stag is to selectively sense the quantity of interest and to process the sensed information into a form acceptable to stage two operations. It does not give any output in an useful form. Example

Contracting spindle Simple pendulum Thermocouple used to convert temperature into voltage Variable resistivity Photo voltaic cell which converts light to potential and Photo emission cell that converts light to current.

Many of the sensors mentioned above transduces the input displacement into an electrical output. This is a fortunate situation for realizing practical combination of mechanical sensors acting as a primary transducer and the electrical sensory as secondary transducer. Second Stage: This stage on the system modifies the transduced information so that it is acceptable to the third or termination stage. It may also include such operations like selective filtering, integration, differentiation or telemetering. Most common function of the second stage is to increase the power or amplitude of signal or both to the level required to drive the final terminating device. Third Stage: This stage proves the information sort in a form understandable / intelligible to the human beings to a controller either as a relative displacement or in a digital form. Tyre Gauge (Pressure measurement):

This is used for measuring the tyre pressure. It consists of a cylinder and piston. A spring resisting the piston movements. As the air pressure pushes the piston the resulting force compresses the spring until the spring force and air force balance. The calibrated stem shows air pressure. Pistoncylinder acts as a transducer that produces force and spring converts force to displacement. Finally the transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning the scale and inducts the read out. The pressure is measured in Pascal or atmospheres. 1 Pa = 1 Nm2 1 Torr = 1 mm of mercury = 1.33 x 102 Pascals 1 Atmosphere = 14.696 psi = 101.3 x 103 Pascal DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT Sliding contact resistive transducer: This converts a mechanical displacement into a electrical output which is either voltage or current. R = L / A Where R is in Ohms, L in mm, A is area in mm2 and is in m. The effective length between one end of wire and slider contact is a measure of mechanical displacement. Devices of this type have been sued for large displacements. Potentiometer are called pots.

Electrical Strain gauges - Resistance Strain gauge:

Lord Kelvin with his experiments demonstrated t hat the resistance of copper or Iron wire change when subjected to strain. He made use of wheat stones bridge with a galvanometer as indicator. Unbonded resistance elements are sometimes used as secondary transduces in accelerometer and other component. Theory: Generally four such separate filaments are connected electrically to wheat stone's bridge. The general relation between electrical and mechanical properties are derived as follows. Initial length of conductor = L Cross sectional area = CD2, where C = constant and D = sectional dimension. If the section is square then C = 1 and for circle C = / 4. Let us consider the conductor be axially kept under tension there by causing any increase in length and as a consequence the lateral dimension decreases as a function of Poisson's ratio. Therefore R = L / A = L / CD2 When strained each quantity in he above equation except C may change. dR = [ CD2 ( -dL + Ld) L ( 2 CD/dD) ] / C2D4 dR / R = dL / L - 2 dD / D + d /
dR / R 2 dD / d d / = 1 + dL / L dL / L dL / L

Where dL / L = Axial strain and dD / d = Lateral strain. The ratio of which is the Poisson ratio. Substituding in the above equation.
dR / R ( lso called as gauge factor, F) = 1 2+ dL / L d /

dL / L

Ignoring the third term we have F = 1 + 2

The resistivity does not change with strain. This basic knowledge and the value of lies between 0.25 and 0.3. F = 1+2(0.3) = 1.6. This gauge factor is a function of Poisson ration in the elastic range and should not vary from 1.6. The gauge factor for metallic gauge is essentially a constant and is in the range of elastic strain a = R / RF. Where R is the incremental value. The manufacturers supply the value of F and R. Hence the R = F.R.a In practical applications the value of F and R are supplied by manufacturers and the user determines the value of R. Types of strain gauge: As the circuit that are used to measure the resistance changes they require a minimum resistance to be measured. This value depends on the current in the gauge and its length. Higher the resistance, larger will be the change in R for a given gauge factor. It draws lesser current The smaller the current the dissipation is less. Normally the resistance chosen is at the order of 60 - 1000 ohms. Strain gauges are classified as bonded or unbonded strain gauges, according to the method of manufacture. Bonded strain gauge is directly bonded on the surface of the specimen to be measured. A layer of adhesive cement is used for this purpose. It serves to transmit the strain from specimen to gauge wires and at the same time serves as an electrical insulator. In unbonded strain gauge is one in which there is a free filament sensing element where strain is transferred to the resistance wire directly without any backing. Semi-conductor gauges: They employ piezo resistive property of doped silicon and germanium. The strain sensitivity is mainly due to resistivity changes in the semi-conductor materials and the change in resistance due to stain is 40 100 times more than that of the conventional metal alloys. The gauge factor F = ( R/R ) / = 1 + 2+m. Where m = E, here E is the young's modulus and is the coefficient of piezo resistance along the axis of the gauge. Thin film gauges: Of late thin film gauges are receiving attention because of certain advantages. Thin film of metals such as aluminum, gold, nickel, platinum

or palladium are formed in desired patterns directly on a substrate by thermal evaporation in vacuum and this substrate is attached to the specimen in the same manner as that used for other gauges. The thin film gauge resistance is given by Rf = ( w / l ) x Rg Where W is the width of the film, l the length of film Rf the specific sheet resistance. But Rg = f l/A. Here f is the film resistiviy in Ohm-metre and A is the area of cross section. ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT Errors may arise from different sources and are usually classified as follows. Gross Errors: This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating the results. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter. Gross errors can be minimized or avoided. Care should be taken while recording or reading the data. Number of readings should be taken and a close agreement between readings assures that no errors has been committed. Systematic errors: These types of errors are classified into three categories. 1. Instrumental errors 2. Environmental errors and 3. Observational errors. Instrumental errors: There are many factors in the design and construction of instruments that limit the accuracy attainable. Assembly errors (Because of bend or distorted pointers, non uniform division of the scale, or displaced scale that does not coincide with the actual zero position) come under this category of errors. These types of errors does not alter with time, but it can be easily discovered and corrected. Examples and causes of this types of errors are as follows.

Improper selecting and poor maintenance of the instrument. Faults of construction resulting from finite width of knife edges.

Mechanical friction and wear, backlash, yielding of supports, pen or pointer drag and hystersis of elastic members due to aging. Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to friction, capillary attraction and imperfect rarefaction.

Environmental errors: These types of errors are more dangerous as they change with time in an unpredictable manner. The instrument would have been assembled and calibrated in one environment. For measurement it would been carried to a different place and because of this change, error occurs. The change may be due to different temperatures, pressures, humidity and altitude etc. These errors can be eliminated or reduced by the following precautions mentioned.

Using the instrument in controlled condition of pressure, temperature, in which it was assembled and calibrated. If this is not possible, then the deviations in local conditions from the calibrated value is measured and suitable correction to the instrument readings are applied. Automatic compensation using sophisticated devices is possible and is usually applied. Make a new calibrations based on the local conditions.

Observational errors: Even when the instruments are properly selected, carefully installed and calibrated, short coming in the measurement occur due to certain mistakes on the part of the observer. These types of errors may be due to

Parallax apparent displacement when the line of vision is not normal to the scale. Inaccurate estimates of average reading, lack of ability to interpolate properly between graduations. Non simultaneous observation of independent quantities. Personal bias - a tendency to read high or low, or anticipate a signal and read too soon. Wrong scale reading, and wrong recording of data.

Modern instruments use digital systems that eliminate the possibilities of errors due to human observations. These errors an be eliminated by careful training and by taking independent readings of each item by two or more observers. Random errors:

These vary in an unpredictable manners and it is very difficult to list out all the sources of errors since these errors remain even after the consideration of systematic errors these are also called as residual errors. Following are the most common.

Friction in the instruments movement. Mechanical vibration, Finite dimensions between scale and pointer Hysterysis in the elastic members Backslash in the movement

The importance of these errors is that they cancel each others effect and ultimately may lead to correct values. for example vibrations can be avoided by placing on shock absorbing mountings. Apart from there errors, there are other types and forms of errors. A brief outlook of the other types of errors is as follows. Translation and signal transmission errors caused due to the non capability of the instrument to follow rapid changes in the measured quantity due to inertial and hystersis effect. The error may also result from unwanted disturbances such as noise, line pick up, hum ripple etc. These errors are remedied by calibration and by monitoring the signal at one or more points along its transmission path. Operational errors are caused due to poor operation techniques. A few examples are given below.

A thermometer will not read accurately if the sensitive portion is insufficiently immersed or is radiating heat to colder portion of the installation. A pressure gauge will correctly indicate pressure only when it is exposed only to the pressure which is to be measured. A steam calorimeter will not give true indication of the dryness fraction of steam unless the sample drawn correctly represents the condition of the steam.

Systematic errors are caused to the act of measurement. As it affects the condition of the measurand and thus leading to uncertainties in the measurements, he examples of which are given below.

Introduction of a thermometer alters the thermal capacity of the system and provides an extra path for heat leakage. A ruler pressed against a body results in a differential deformation of the body relative to the ruler. A obstruction type flow meter may partially block or disturb the flow condition. Consequently the flow rate shown by the meter may not be same as before the meter installation.

Reading shown by a hand tachometer would vary with the pressure with which it is pressed against a shaft. A milli-ammeter would introduce additional resistance in the circuit and thereby alter the flow current by a significant amount.

Systematic errors cannot be determined by direct and repetitive observations of the measurand made each time with the same technique. The only way to locate there errors is to have repeated measurements under different conditions or with different equipment and if possible by an entirely different method.

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Angular Velocity: The angular velocity of a rotating body is the distance covered per second by a point lying at a distance of one meter from the axis of rotation, along the periphery of circle of 1 meter radius and having its centre along the axis of rotation. = 2N / 60 rad / sec V = r Work holding devices: Magnetic chuck: There are two types. They are electromagnetic chuck and permanent magnetic chuck. The magnetic power of the electromagnetic chuck can be carried according to the size of the work. But not so in the case of a permanent magnet chuck. Thus type of work holding device is suited for ferrous work pieces. De-magnetizer: It is a special device used to remove the magnetic power from an object. In grinding whenever a job is ground by holding in a magnetic chuck, the job will also get some magnetic power. A demagnetizer is therefore required to remove this. Vice: Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work pieces ( which cannot be conveniently held in magnetic chucks ). A vice

may be placed directly on the grinder table or on a magnetic chuck. There are three types. They are

Plain vice, Tilting type vice and Universal vice.

Angle plate: Are used to hold the work piece while grinding one surface perpendicular to another surface or while grinding one surface at an angle to another surface. 'V' block: Are used to hold the round work piece while grinding a flat on the work piece. These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding flat surfaces on the exterior. Magnetic vee blocks may be used in combination with other mounting devices, such as angle plates which themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a magnetic chuck. Clamps: are used to hold any work piece or a work holding device. Alternatively they may be held on a magnetic chuck. Basics of Machine tools: Machine tools produce the required shape by performing some metal removing operation on the raw material. For this the machine tools

Hold / support / guide the work piece/ tools. Regulate the cutting speed and feed between tool and work piece.

Parts of a Machine Tool: 1. Machine Bed frame and Structure : This houses and supports other parts. Some are in motion and others are fixed. this provides stability. 2. Slide ways and Slide : They are attached to the top of bed and guide the slides. The movement of slides should be accurate. The different types are flat, vee, dovetail, cylindrical and combined. 3. Spindles and Bearings : Spindles are provided to ensure that the position of axis or rotation is within line. Members that rotate the work piece and cutters are called spindles. These spindles are shaft

mounted on bearings. The spindles must be rigid and must have rotational accuracy. 4. Machine tool drives : electric motor is the power unit and the power from motor reaches the work piece or cutter through belts, gears, chains and pulley. In machine tools there are two types of motion. They are

Primary Motion : This is higher that other speeds. Feed motion : This is less than primary motion.

Metal Sawing: This machine is used to produce work piece of desired length. Following are the different sawing machines. 1. Reciprocating Saw ( manual and power operated ) 2. Band saw ( Band filing, Vertical, Horizontal and friction ) 3. Circular saw ( Cold saw, Steel friction disk and Abrasive disk ) Lathe: Following are the important parts in a lathe. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Head stock, Tail stock, live centre, dead centre, apron, cross slide top slide and Tool post. A lathe is specified by

Length of bed, width of bed, No of spindle speeds and Maximum distance between centers. Following are the different types of lathes.

Speed lathe, Engine lathe, Special lathe Automatic lathe, Bench lathe, Tool room lathe and Turret lathe.

Machining time:

L - Length of cut. f - feed in mm / rev S - cutting speed in m / min N - Spindle speed and D - Diameter of work piece. Machining time = L / f x N Where N = 1000 S / D.

Shaping operations: There are three shaper diving mechanisms. They are 1. slotted link quick return mechanism, 2. Whitworth quick return mechanism and 3. Hydraulic mechanism. Shaping operations can be used to cut splines and gears. Cutting speed : On a shaper may be defined as the average speed of tool during the cutting stroke and primarily depends on number of strokes / min and length of stroke. L - length of stroke N - Number of strokes / min. Distance moved per minute = LN. Machining is done during cutting stroke and return stroke is a idle stroke. Cutting stroke / Return stroke = 3 / 2 Cutting time / Total time = 3 / 5. Thus actual time to cut LN metres is 3 / 5 min and not 1 minute. Hence in one minute the tool cuts 5 / 3 LN metres. Slotting Machines: These can be considered as a vertical shaper. The difference between a shaper and slotter is the direction of cutting action. They are used to create splines, key ways, Internal and External gears. Planners: These are similar to shaping machines, but the tool is stationary and the work piece slides back and forth. The following are the different types of planers.

Double housing planner. Open side planer, Pit type planner and Divided table planner. Following are the differences between shaper and planner.
SHAPER Suitable for small jobs. Light duty machine Only one cutting tool is used Less accuracy PLANNER Suitable for large jobs. Heavy duty machine Multiple cutting tools. More accuracy because of high rigidity

Drilling Machines: Following are the different types of drilling machines. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Portable Drilling Machine. Bench type Drilling Machine Sensitive Drilling Machine Multiple Drilling Machine Deep hole Drilling Machine and Automatic Drilling Machine.

Different types of drilling operations: Drilling: Is used to make circular holes. Drilling involves the creation of holes that are right circular cylinders. This is accomplished most typically by using a twist drill, something most readers will have seen before. The figure below illustrates a cross section of a hole being cut by a common twist drill. The chips must exit through the flutes to the outside of the tool. As can be seen in the figure, the cutting front is embedded within the work piece, making cooling difficult. The cutting area can be flooded, coolant spray mist can be applied, or coolant can be delivered through the drill bit shaft.

The characteristics of drilling that set it apart from other powered metal cutting operations are:

The chips must exit out of the hole created by the cutting. Chip exit can cause problems when chips are large and/or continuous. The drill can wander upon entrance and for deep holes. For deep holes in large work pieces, coolant may need to be delivered through the drill shaft to the cutting front. Of the powered metal cutting processes, drilling on a drill press is the most likely to be performed by someone who is not a machinist.

Reaming : This uses a multipoint cutting tool. Cannot produce holes but produces accurate size and good finish. Reaming is a process which slightly enlarges a pre-existing hole to a tightly toleranced diameter. A reamer is similar to a mill bit in that it has several cutting edges arranged around a central shaft, as shown below. Because of the delicate nature of the operation and since little material is removed, reaming can be done by hand. Reaming is most accurate for axially symmetric parts produced and reamed on a lathe.

Reamed holes should not intersect with drilled holes, so the configuration below should NOT be implemented

Boring : This operation, enlarges a existing hole and finishes it. Used when a drill of a particular size is not available. Adjustable boring head eliminate the need for a complete inventory of expensive large size drills. Counter boring : Where as boring enlarges for a entire length of hole, counter boring does not.

Counter sinking : Bevels the mouth of hole with a tool called counter sink.

Tapping : Used to cut threads in drilled holes. Trepanning : is used when a large hole has to be created on a thin metal sheet. Types of Work holding devices:

Machine vice, V- Block, T bolts, Strap clamps, Step blocks and Angle plate.

Broaching:

This operation uses a tool called as broach. A tapered tool, where there is a teeth of desired contour. It passes through the work piece and produces the contour in a single pass. Used for mass production. Can machine both internal and external surfaces A broach has 3 types of teeth. They are Roughing teeth, finishing teeth and semi-finishing teeth.

It is very similar to shaper but uses a multipoint cutting tool, as it has many teeth. Each successive tooth has a greater cutting edge. Each tooth removes a predetermined quantity of material. Surface Finish Process:

Honing : It is well cutting process which removes metal by means of a revolving honing tool. This tool moves up and down inside the work piece. Lapping and Super finishing.

Welding: It is the process of joining different metals. Various welding and allied process are classified below. 1. Gas Welding

Air acetylene Oxy acetylene Oxy hydrogen Pressure gas welding.

2. Arc welding

Carbon arc welding and Shielded metal arc welding.

Oxy-Acetylene Welding: In this acetylene is mixed with oxygen in proper proportions. Produces a temperature of 3200 C. There are three types of flames produced. They are 1. Neutral flame : Produces no chemical change on molten metal. Hence no cambering or oxidizing. 2. Oxidizing flame : Produces a loud roar. High temperature is reached. The ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 1.5 : 1. 3. Carburizing flame. Metal Arc welding: It is a arc welding process done by heating the work piece by striking a arc between the electrode and work piece. The arc melts the electrode and job and molten metal is transferred from electrode to work piece. The flux

coating melts and forms a gaseous shield and slag to prevent atmospheric contamination of molten metal. Submerged Arc Welding: In this instead of a flux coated electrode, granular flux and base electrode is used. The job remain submerged under the flux. The flux serves a shield and protects the molten metals from contamination. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding: It is a arc welding process done by heating the job within a electric arc struck between tungsten electrode and job. A gas shield namely helium or Argon is used to avoid atmospheric contamination of welding pool. Metal Arc Welding: It is done by striking a arc between a continuously fed metal electrode and the job. No flux is used by t he act and molten metal is protected by helium or Argon. Plasma Arc Welding: In this arc is circulated between tungsten electrode and water cooled nozzle. Two inert gases are used. One of them produces the plasma arc and the second acts as a shield. In this there are two types. 1. Non-transfer arc process: In this arc is produced between nozzle and tungsten electrode. Work piece does not form part of electrical circuit. 2. Transfer arc process : This is a arc between tungsten electrode and work piece. Resistance Welding: In this the joint is produced by using the resistance of the work piece for the flow of current and by application of pressure. No filler metal is required. Spot welding: It is a type of resistance welding process, in which two overlapping sheets of metal are joined by local fusion at one or more spots by the heat produced by resistance to the flow of current, that are held together by the forces or electrodes.

Cold Welding: It is a solid state welding carried out at room temperature and no heat is produced. The condition is that one of the material must be ductile. Only mechanical pressure is applied. Ultrasonic Welding: In this a high frequency vibratory energy is applied on work piece. The work piece is held in a interface. The combine effect of pressure and vibration causes movement of metal molecules and this creates a sound bonding. This completed in 0.5 - 1.5 seconds. Friction and Inertial Welding: The work piece are rotated and suddenly pressure is applied and both pieces get welded, Because of the high heat generated. Atomic-Hydrogen Welding: In this the joint is produced by an arc between 2 electrodes in a atmosphere of hydrogen, which acts as shielding gas. Job does not become a part of electrical circuit. Electron Beam welding: In this joint is produced by heat obtained by concentrated electron beam which contains high speed electrons. Difficulties in Welding Aluminum: There are five things that greatly effect aluminums ability to be welded
1) Surface Oxidation: Aluminum has an oxidation coating, which is beneficial

in terms of corrosion resistance. However, this coating can be trapped inside the molten weld material eventually causing the weld to be porous. The surface oxidation should therefore be removed before welding.
2) High Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of aluminum is about

four times that of steel. Therefore, welds may need higher heat inputs, preheating, and/or a shorter weld time. This could increase the heat affected zone (HAZ).
3) High Thermal Expansion: Due to the high coefficient of thermal expansion,

a weld can decrease by 6% in volume during solidification. This may lead to cracking or distortion.

4) Low Melting Point: The parent material could melt through during the

welding process.
5) No Color Change Near Melting Point: Unlike steel, aluminum does not turn a

reddish color when approaching the melting point. This makes it difficult to tell when the welding temperature has been reached. Brazing: In this joint is produced by heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler material having liquidus below the solidus of base metal. Used for non ferrous metals. Soldering: The melting point of the filler material is below 427o C. The melting point of filler material used in brazing is above 427o C.

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship between heat and work. Thermodynamics is the study of 3 E's Energy, Equilibrium and Entropy. Basic Definitions : System: It is a definite quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity bounded by a closed surface. All things other than the system is surroundings ( Both space and matter ). There are three types of systems. 1. Closed system - There is no mass transfer between the system and surroundings. But their is energy transfer. E.g.. compression of a gas in a piston cylinder. 2. Open system - Both mass and energy transfer takes place. It is classified into steady and unsteady flows. Eg. Turbine

3. Isolated system - No mass and no energy transfer takes place. E.g. All subsystem of a power producing system Sorroundings: All things other than the system that are outside the wall that interact with the system in question is called as surroundings. There are different types of walls that are used to separate the system from the surroundings. They are rigid wall, diathermal wall and adiabatic walls. A rigid wall does not permit the volume of the system to change. A diathermal wall is one that will make it possible for the system to communicate thermally with its surroundings. Two systems separated with a diathermal wall is said to be in thermal contact. An adiabatic wall is the one that is impermeable to thermal energy. Such a wall cuts of the thermal interaction between between a system and surroundings. Properties: Properties are used to identify the state of the system and solely dependent upon the state of system and not upon how the state was reached. A quantity is a property if it has a exact differential. A quantity can be called a property of the system if the changes in the value between two equilibrium states of system is same. Properties may be directly observable or indirectly observable characteristic of a system. Two properties, namely the temperature and entropy are unique to thermodynamics. There are two types of properties. They are Extensive state properties: Here the value of entire system is equal to sum of the values of the parts of the system. They are dependent upon the mass. E.g.. Total Volume, total energy Intensive state properties: The value of the entire system is not equal to the sum of the parts of the system. These properties are not dependent upon the mass. E.g.. Temperature, pressure, Density etc. Path and point functions : This is with reference to a system being taken from state 1 to 2. There may be any three quasi static process A, B, and C. Area below the curve gives the amount of work involved in each case. Thus the value of work depends upon the path and not on the end state of the process. Hence work ( and also heat ) are path functions. On the

contrary thermodynamic property are point functions. These are definite values for a given state. The change in property is independent of the path and depends on only the initial and final states ( Exact differential )

Process: Whenever a system undergoes a change, process is said to have taken place. There are different types of process. They are 1. Reversible process: Is the one in which both the system and surroundings return to their original state. All real time process are irreversible. Process are irreversible due to turbulence, temperature gradient and Friction. In a reversible process there should be no viscous force or coulomb friction in the system 2. Cyclic Process: The end states are identical. The system undergoes a series of change and returns to original condition. 3. Quasi-static Process: The system departs from the equilibrium condition only infinitesimally. 4. Adiabatic Process : There is no heat flow between the system and surroundings. ( = 0 ) Work and Heat: Work is the energy in transition in which the energy flows from the system to the surroundings. Heat is the energy in transition which flows from one body to another body on account of the temperature difference between the two bodies. Unit of heat is Joule Both the Heat and work are Transient Phenomena, Boundary Phenomena and Path functions. Derivation for displacement work: This derivation is valid only for quasi static process. Consider a cylinder of area 'a' and length of the piston is 'l'. The piston moves due to gas pressure. Between section 1 and 2, the value of pressure and volume is P and V. When the piston moves the force acting on the piston is F = pressure x area = P.a Work done = Force x distance moved = F.dl = P.a.dl

We know that area x length = volume. Hence a.dl = v. Thus the above equation for work done becomes P.v. Thus when a piston moves from 1 to 2 the amount of work done is given by dw = Pdv Internal energy: A system undergoes a change of state in which both heat transfer and work transfer are involve. The net energy accumulated is stored in the system. It is denoted by the symbol U, it includes all form of energy other than kinetic and potential energy. Q - Heat to the system. W - Work from the system. ( Q - W ) is the net energy stored in the system. This ( Q - W ) is neither heat or work and is given the name, internal energy of system. The internal energy is just a form of energy like the potential energy of an object at some height above the earth, or the kinetic energy of an object in motion. In the same way that potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy while conserving the total energy of the system, the internal energy of a thermodynamic system can be converted to either kinetic or potential energy. Like potential energy, the internal energy can be stored in the system. Entropy: Entropy means transformation. It increases with the addition of heat and vice versa. Change in entropy can be defined. Over a small range the increase or decrease in entropy when multiplied with absolute temperature, gives the heat absorbed or heat rejected. For any reversible process, the change in Entropy of system and surroundings is Zero. Entropy is the index of unavailability of energy. Energy that goes down the sink is less available for any useful work. Entropy changes are accompanied by heat transfers. But may also take place with out the transfer of heat. In a reversible process, if the entropy of the system increases, then the entropy of surroundings decreases by a equal amount. Entropy is a property like T and V. Change in entropy of a system along two equilibrium states can be obtained by taking the system along any reversible path connecting the states, dividing the heat added at each point with the temperature and summing the quotients.

Energy: It is the capacity to produce effect. There are two types of energy. They are stored energy ( E.g.. Potential energy, Kinetic energy and Internal energy ) and Transient energy ( Heat, work and electric energy ). Power: The rate of energy transfer is called as power. The unit is watts. 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 Nm/s Throttling : The fluid expands from high pressure to low pressure without doing any work. There is no change in KE and PE. Hence there is no heat transfer. Nozzles and Diffusers: Nozzles increases the kinetic energy of flowing fluid by creating a pressure drop. But in diffusers, the pressure is increased and Kinetic energy is decreased. Carnot's Cycle: It is a reversible cycle in which the ideal gas receives heat at one temperature and rejects heat at another temperature. There are 2 isothermal and 2 reversible adiabatic process. Efficiency of carnots cycle is given by = W / Qa = ( Qa - Qr ) / Qa Enthalpy: Of a substance is defined as the sum of internal energy and flow work. h = u + pv. Graham's Law of Diffusion of Gas: It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of density. Laws In Thermodynamics: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

If two bodies are in equilibrium with a third body, then the two bodies are in equilibrium with each other. Through this concept, the temperature of the system may be measured by bringing it into thermal equilibrium with a thermometer. Following the conversion factors between various temperatures. R = F + 459.67 K = C + 273.15 K = 1.8 R First Law of Thermodynamics: This law deals with conservation of energy, which states that energy can neither be created not destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another. Whenever a system under goes a cyclic change the algebraic sum of work transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of heat transfer. Work and heat are inter convertible. First law could be said as law of internal energy. However the drawback in this law is that it does not tell anything about direction of heat flow. Second Law of Thermodynamics: For an isolated system, only those processes can take place for which the entropy of the system increases or remains constant. Second law could be called as law of entropy. In this there are two statements. Lord Kelvin and Max Planck's statement of the Second Law: It is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle for the sole purpose of extracting heat from a reservoir and changing it into an equal amount of work without rejecting a part of the heat. i.e. it is impossible to devise a machine that converts 100% of heat into work. i.e. The universe is cooling down. Clausius' statement of the Second Law: It is impossible to construct a device that operating in a cycle will produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body. The spontaneous flow of heat from a colder body to a hotter body is impossible. Third Law of Thermodynamics: It introduces the concept of absolute entropy. It states that the total

entropy of pure substances approaches 0o as the absolute temperature approaches 0o. ( It is impossible to reach the absolute zero of temperature in any physical process. ) Thermodynamic Equilibrium: When a collection of matter experiences no more changes in all its properties, then it is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. But a real system is never in equilibrium. To attain thermodynamic equilibrium, Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal equilibrium should first be obtained. When a system has no unbalanced force within it and when the force its exerts on its boundary is balanced by external force, the system is said to be in Mechanical equilibrium. When the temperature of the system is uniform throughout and is equal to the temperature of the surroundings, the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium. When the chemical composition of a system will remain unchanged, the system is said to be in chemical equilibrium. Thermodynamic reservoirs: There are three different types of thermodynamic reservoirs. They are work reservoir, heat reservoir and Matter reservoir. Work reservoir: It is a device that we may employ to keep track of the amount of work done by or done to a given thermodynamic system. It is a body in which every unit of energy crossing the boundary is work energy. A work reservoir might be visualized as a perfectly elastic spring that is compressed by the work done on it by a system, or as a weight that is raised as the system does work upon the reservoir and lowered as the reservoir does not work on the system. Heat reservoir: It serves as a heat source or heat sink, in the analysis of thermodynamic problems. It can be considered as a body with large energy capacity so that its temperature remains constant when heat flows into or out of it. The atmosphere around the earth and the ocean may be considered as heat reservoirs. Matter reservoir: Matter, as well as heat and work can cross the boundary of an open system, the surroundings of an open system may be imagined to contain

only heat and work reservoirs but also one or more matter reservoirs to supply and receive matter. A matter reservoir is considered to be sufficiently larger than the system so that the reservoir itself remains in a given equilibrium state. The atmosphere around the earth may be considered as a matter reservoir supplying air to the engines of our automobiles and to air separation plants. Important Thermodynamic Process: The below mentioned process uses the concept of U = Q - W
Process Isobaric Process Significance / Example Pressure is Constant (P = 0) Gas heated in a cylinder fitted with a movable frictionless piston. The pressure the atmosphere and the pressure due to the weight of the piston remains constant as the gas heats up and expands. Isothermal Process Temperature is constant (T = 0) Implications U is zero in a constant pressure process. For an ideal gas, constant pressure work is W = PdV = PV Heat that flows into the system causes the temperature to rise. Q = m Cp T = mR( T2 - T1 ) Pictorial Representation

The gas in a cylinder is compressed slowly enough that heat flows out of the gas at P1V1 = P2V2 = nRT, for an the same rate at which isothermal process. is being done on the gas. Work done W = PV ln( V2/V1 ) which is also the equation for Q. Isochoric process Volume is constant (V = 0) Heating of a gas in a rigid, closed container. No work is done on the gas because W = PdV = P ( 0 ) = 0. This implies that U= Q = m Cv T. V1 = V2 = nRT1/P1 = nRT2/P2, the ideal gas law for constant volume

For an Ideal gas U is a function of the temperature, Hence U is zero since T = 0. Since U = 0 then W = Q.

process. Adiabatic process No heat flows into or out of the system ( Q =0) U = W ( Since Q = 0 ). Hence any temperature rise or fall is due to the work done or by the gas alone.

Compression of a Gas in an Insulated W = (P1V1 - P2V2) / ( - 1) Cylinder. Isentropic process ( Rev. Adiabatic process ) Entropy is constant ( S = 0) A heat engine in which the working fluid undergoes an adiabatic reversible cyclic process. Any isentropic process is also adiabatic since U = dQ/Tand Q = 0. However, not all adiabatic process are isentropic. For a reversible heat engine, not only the change in entropy of the working fluid must be zero but also U of the environment (heat reservoirs) must also be zero. n = 0 for Isobaric process since PV0= P = constant. n = 1 for Isothermal process since PV1 = PV = NKT = constant. n = 0 for Isovolumetric process and n = for Adiabatic process.

Polytropic process

PVn is constant
Compression or Expansion of a gas in a real system such as a Turbine.

Specific Heat: It is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance by one degree. There are two types, they are specific heat at constant volume ( Cv )and Specific heat at constant pressure ( Cp ). Its unit is J/Kg/K For air Cp = 0.24 J/Kg/K and Cv = 0.171 J/Kg/K The ratio of Cp / Cv = Gamma. and Cp - Cv = R / j Gas Laws:

There are 5 gas laws. All perfect gases obey all gas laws under all conditions of pressure and temperature. 1. Boyle's law : At constant temperature PV = C. The magnitude of C depends upon the volume of the gas. 2. Charles lay : At constant pressure V T. 3. Gay - Lussac law : At constant volume P T. 4. Joules law : Change of internal energy is directly proportional to the change in temperature. 5. Avagadro law : Equal volumes of all gases under the same pressure and temperature contain equal number of molecules.
Ideal Gas Real Gas

Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of pressure and temperature. The gases cannot be liquefied or solidified

Obeys the equation of state at all conditions of Pressure and temperature, except at the point where Pressure approaches absolute Zero. Can be solidified and liquefied.

Specific heat values are constant

Not so, Varies with temperature and pressure.

Ideal gas equation : PV = mRT where P is in N / m2 constant in Nm / Kg oK V is in m3 T is in K R is gas

Following are the assumptions for a ideal gas

Molecules occupy a negligible volume fraction. Long range forces of attraction between the particles are negligible.

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory

Large number of molecules ~ their motion can be treated statistically. Molecules are in continuous and rapid motion which is random, colliding with each other and the walls of the vessel very frequently, the collision beingelastic.

Pressure originates from the summation of large number of reacting forces as the molecules bounce off the walls.

Combustion chamber: Combustion Chambers convert the chemical energy stored in a liquid or gaseous fuel to an enthalpy increase in the gas passing through them. Usually, the gas is air, but it could be any gas with the proper components to react with the fuel. A combustion chamber requires one initial spark to begin the combustion of the fuel in the chamber. After that, the chamber will function as long as it has fresh fuel and gas. The fuel combusts, or burns, in the chamber. This combustion releases large amounts of energy to be absorbed by the gas. This increases the temperature and enthalpy of the gas. REFERENCES: 1. Engineering Thermodynamics, Francis F. Huang. 2. Engineering Thermodynamics, P. K. Nag.

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Heat treatment may be defined as operation or combination of operations involving heating and cooling of metal / alloy in solid steels to obtain desired conditions ( Relieve stress ) and properties ( like Machinability, ductility etc. ). Purpose of Heat Treatment: 1. To relieve stress created during cold working, welding, casting etc. 2. Improve Machinability. 3. Change grain size. 4. Improve ductility and 5. Homogenous structure.

Cooling rates also plays a important role. Slow cooling produces pearlitic structure and rapid cooling produces a Martensitic ( hard ) structure. Different heat treatment process: Annealing: It is the process of heating the metal which is in a metal stable of distorted structural state to a temperature which will remove the distortion and then cooling it, so that room temperature is stable. Normalizing: It is also called as air quenching, where the steel is heated to about 40o 50 above the upper critical temperature and if necessary, hold at that temperature for a certain length of time, after which it is cooled in air at room temperature.
o

Hardening: This process increases the hardness and it requires the formation of martensite. For hardening, the steel should contain at least 0.3 % of carbon. Following is the procedure. 1. Steel will contain sufficient carbon ( 0.35 % - 0.70 % ) 2. Heated to 30o to 50o above the A3 line. 3. Held at that temperature for 15 - 20 Mins / 25 mm of Cross section. 4. Cooled rapidly and quenched in a suitable medium. Tempering: Hardening process produces martensite and retained austentite. It is extremely brittle and hence should not be used as such. Further the austentite may be in a unstable state. Hence to return to equilibrium, tempering is done after quench hardening by heating to a temperature below the lower critical temperature. Tempering has the following process 1. Heating hardened steel below the lower critical temperature. 2. Holding at that temperature for 3 - 5 Mins / 1 mm Thickness. 3. Cooling the steel slowly. There are three types of tempering. They are Low temperature tempering ( 150o C - 250o C ) o o Medium temperature tempering ( 350 C - 450 C ) o o High temperature tempering ( 500 C - 600 C)

Martempering, Austempering and Maraging are the other types of heat treatment process. Case Hardening:

For many applications, there is a need for a hard case and a soft tough core, which is shock resistant. No carbon can possess both these properties at the same time. Hence low carbon steel with desired core properties are chosen and Carbon / Nitrogen is added to the surface to provide a hardened case to a specified depth by using the following process Carburising. Nitriding, Cyaniding and Carbon Nitriding. Also medium Carbon steel could be taken in normalized condition and case hardened by Induction and Flame Hardening. Carburizing: This process is also called as cementation. Low carbon steel ( 0.2 % C ) is heated to 870 - 925 C in contact with gases or carbon for several hours. There are three types. They are Pack Carburizing, Gas Carburizing and Liquid Carburizing. This method is used for case hardening Gears, Camshafts and Bearing. Nitriding: It involves the addition of Nitrogen on certain types of steels and heating them and holding at a suitable temperature, in contact with ammonia or any other suitable medium. The steel should contain Aluminum or chromium to form hard nitrides. In this the component to be case hardened is heat resistant container along with ammonia. It is then heated to a temperature of about 500o C. Cyaniding: Both Carbon and nitrogen are introduced on the surface of steel by heating to a suitable temperature and holding the component in molten cyanide. Sodium cyanide is mostly used. This results in the formation of hardened Carbide - Nitride case. In this process Nitrogen provides hardening, but carbon responds to quenching process. Carbo - Nitriding: Both Carbon and Nitrogen are added to the surface of steel by using Gas atmosphere and not Molten Cyanide . The gaseous atmosphere contains the following 1. Carrier gas ( H2, N2 or CO ) 2. Enriching gas ( Natural Gas ) 3. Ammonia. Flame Hardening:

The material is heated on the surface with flame. This is followed by quenching. Thus creating a hardened case and a soft core. Oxy acetylene flame is used and the steel should contain 0.3 % to 0.6 % of carbon. Induction Hardening: The material is heated in a alternative magnetic field followed by quenching. Effect of Alloying elements in Steel: Aluminum : 1. Its content varies from 1 to 5 %. 2. It is the alloying element of nitriding steels. 3. It deoxidizes efficiently, restricts grain growth. Boron : 1. Its content does not exceed 0.003 % 2. It is the alloying element of low and medium carbon steel. 3. It effectively increases hardenability. Chromium : 1. The amount of chromium may be from a fraction to 30%. 2. It resists abrasion, wear, corrosion and oxidation. 3. The addition of chromium results in the formation of various carbides of chromium which are hard, yet ductile. 4. Chromium changes the grain structure, thus increasing the toughness and hardness. Cobalt : 1. Its content varies from 5 - 12 % 2. It is used to increase the hot hardness of cutting tools so that it retains its hardness and cutting edge even at high temperature. Copper : 1. Its content varies from 0.15 - 0.30 % 2. It lowers the critical temperature and improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Manganese : 1. 2. 3. 4. It content varies from 0.4 - 2 % and 11 - 14 % It lowers the critical range of temperature. It acts as a deoxidizing and desulphurising agent. It increase the time required for transformation, so that oil quenching becomes practicable.

Molybdenum : 1. It content varies from 0.2 - 0.7 %. 2. It acts very much like chromium but is more powerful in action. 3. It increase the critical range of temperature. Nickel : 1. It content ranges upto 50 % 2. It also creases the critical range of temperature. 3. It is soluble in ferrite and doe snot form carbides or oxides, and thus increase the strength without decreasing the ductility. Sulphur : 1. The content varies from 0.06 - 0.30 % 2. Its presence is undesirable because it forms iron sulphides and leads to cracking. 3. In the presence of manganese from manganese sulphide and thus improves the machinability of steels. Silicon : 1. Its content is upto 0.8 % 2. Silicon is added with other alloying element like manganese, chromium and vanadium to stabilize the carbides. Tungsten : 1. The amount of tungsten varies from 0.4 - 22 % 2. Its function is similar to molybdenum, except for the fact that large quantities must be added. 3. It is widely used in tools to maintain the hardness in red heat. 4. It produces a fine dense structure and adds both toughness and hardness. Vanadium : 1. Vanadium has a very strong tendency to form carbides, hence it is used in small amounts in the order of 0.2 - 0.5 % 2. It acts as a cleaner and degasifier. 3. It reduces the grain size and toughness and strengthen the steel. 4. It has a desirable property of increasing the life of tools, springs and other members subjected to high temperatures.

IRON - CARBON Diagram:

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND PROCESS

This is a branch of science that investigates the relationship between structure of materials and their properties. Engineering material are classified into the following three types.

1. Metals and alloys 2. Ceramics and 3. Organic Polymers. Classification of Materials: Metals: are nothing but elemental substance. Valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold. Alloys: are obtained by melting two or more relatively pure metals to form a new metal. They alloys have quite different properties in comparison to the other two materials used for its manufacture. Semiconductors: The bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs. Ceramics: contains two phases. A phase is a physically separable and is a homogenous constituent. The phases may be metallic or non metallic. Atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen, nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals. Organic Materials: are derived from carbon combined with oxygen, Hydrogen etc. Their structure is fairly complex. Plastics and rubber are the organic engineering materials. Also called as polymers because of the polymerization process. Polymerization is the process in which two or more simple molecules are chemically combined to form a massive long chain molecules. Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies composites, made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts. Modern Material's Needs:

Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials

Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste processing. Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures. Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly. Civil construction materials for unbreakable windows. Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.

Properties of Materials: Mechanical Properties : Strength, Stiffness, Elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, hardness and brittleness. Electrical Properties : Conductivity and Resistivity. Magnetic Properties : Coercive forces and Hysterisys. Thermal Properties : Conductivity, specific heat, thermal expansion. Chemical Properties : Corrosion resistance, acidity and alkalinity. Physical Properties : Dimension and density. Acoustic Properties : Sound transmission and Reflection. Optical Properties : Light transmission and light reflection. Material Structure: Depending on the level of magnification the structure of material is classified as follows. Macrostructure: It is the structure of the material, as seen by the naked eye. It deals with shape and size. ( Like fracture, flaws on surface etc. ) Microstructure: It is observed with a magnification of X 75 - X 1500. Optical microscope is used for this purpose. Substructure: In this the structure is observed with a magnification of X 100000 using a electron microscope. It provides information on crystal imperfections. Crystal Structure: This structure tell about the atomic arrangement within the crystal. X-Ray and electron diffraction techniques are used for this study. Electronic Structure: This deals with the study of electrons in the outermost shells of individual atoms. Spectroscopic techniques are used. Nuclear Structure: It is studied using Nuclear spectroscopic techniques.

Criteria For Selection of Materials: The choice is made based upon taking the following factors. 1. Service : There are of paramount importance and should have properties like adequate strength, corrosion resistance, hardness and toughness. 2. Fabrication : This is also gaining importance. This includes the possibility to shape a material and join with other materials. These include ductility, Machinability, hardenability, weldability, castability. 3. Economy. Atomic Structure: Atom: It is a electrical structure having a diameter of 1 x 10-10 metres or 1 Angstrom. It has two main parts. A heavier nucleus and electrons surrounding it. This nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. Protons: It is positively charged and 1836 times heavier as electron. It exists with the neutrons in the nucleus of atom. Neutron: It is 1.008 times heavier than proton. It has no electric charge. For large atoms, the ratio of Mass to Neutron to Mass of Proton is greater than 1.008. Electron: Surrounds the nucleus and at a greater distant from the nucleus. Its mass is 1/1836 of proton. It is negatively charged. with a magnitude equal to the charge of protons. Electrons in the outermost orbit are called as valence electrons which determine many of the properties of materials. Electron and protons are negative and positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 10-19 Coulombs. Atomic Number: Number of protons or number of electrons.

Mass Number: Sum of protons and Neutrons. Atomic Weight: Weight of a atom of element in comparison with weight of a atom of oxygen taken as 16. Isotopes: Same elements having different number of neutrons. Bonding of solids: The arrangement of atoms in a solid element is determined by the character, strength of chemical bonds or cohesive forces. The bonds may be attractive or repulsive, which hold the atoms at a particular spacing and which just balances the opposite forces. There are two types of Chemical bonds. They are primary bonds and secondary bonds. Primary Interatomic Bonds: 1. Ionic Bonding: This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction. An example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl- and less around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is usually combined with covalent bonding. In this case, the fractional ionic bonding is defined as % ionic = 100 [1 exp(-0.25 (XA XB)2], where XA and XB are the electronegativities of the two atoms, A and B, forming the molecule. 2. Covalent Bonding: In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the valency. The simplest example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in between the nuclei than outside, thus producing bonding. 3. Metallic Bonding:

In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing some electrons from the valence band. Those electrons form a electron sea, which binds the charged nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the protons. Secondary Bonding (Van der Waals): 1. Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds: Since the electrons may be on one side of the atom or the other, a dipole is formed: the + nucleus at the center, and the electron outside. Since the electron moves, the dipole fluctuates. This fluctuation in atom A produces a fluctuating electric field that is felt by the electrons of an adjacent atom, B. Atom B then polarizes so that its outer electrons are on the side of the atom closest to the + side (or opposite to the side) of the dipole in A. This bond is called van der Waals bonding. 2. Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds: A polar molecule like H2O (Hs are partially +, O is partially ), will induce a dipole in a nearby atom, leading to bonding. 3. Permanent Dipole Bonds: This is the case of the hydrogen bond in ice. The H end of the molecule is positively charged and can bond to the negative side of another dipolar molecule, like the O side of the H2O dipole. Crystals: These are solids in which the atoms are arranged in some regular repetitive pattern in three dimension. This arrangement is called as crystal structure. Crystal Imperfections: No crystal structure is perfect. It is associated with imperfections, which is often helpful for understanding the properties of crystals. The following are the crystal defects. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Thermal Vibration. Point defects ( Vacancies, Interstitial cies and electron defects ) Line defects ( Edge and screw dislocations ) Surface defects and Volume defects.

Solid Study: There are two approaches. They are structural approach ( electrons, valence bonds ) and Compositional approach ( Deals with the phase of materials ). This compositional approach is used to know the state and condition of solid and to change the condition from thermodynamic point of view. System: it is a substance or group of substance unaffected by the surroundings. It is subjected to change in composition, temperature, pressure or total volume only to the extend allowed by the person investigating it. The system may be composed of solid, liquid or gas or a composition of all three. State: Of a system is a physical condition defined by quantities. E.g. Length and angles define the state of triangles. Phase: It is physically and chemically homogenous. Homogenous in the sense that the smallest adjacent part is indistinguishable form the other. Each phase has its own physical and chemical properties. Gibbs Rule: F=C-P+2 F - Degrees of freedom. C - Number of components at equilibrium. P - Number of phases that can co exist at equilibrium. Mechanical Properties and testing: Since a number of properties are best evaluated by testing under various conditions, mechanical testing are carried out to provide useful data to a designer. However certain assumptions are made about the materials. The materials are continuous, homogenous and isotropic.

Continuous - No voids or space. Homogenous - Identical properties at all points.

Isotropic - With respect to some property. That property does not vary with direction. Anisotropy - A body where the property varies in different directions.

Stress: When a material is subjected to a load, it does not deform instantaneously, but increases steadily till it stops. During the process of deformation, the material exerts continuously increases it resistance to the load. The moment the deformation stops, the body is in state of equilibrium. Applied load = Internal resistance of the body. Both are equal and opposite indirection. The sum total of interatomic forces that prevails in the body to counteract the externally applied load is called stress and the resultant deformation is expressed a fraction change in dimension called as strain. True Stress: In this instead of taking the original area into account for the calculation of stress, that area at any instant on applying the load it taken into account. Different Mechanical properties of materials: Strength: It is the capacity of the materials to withstand load without destruction, under the action of external load. It is the ability of the material to with stand stress without failure. This strength varies according to the type of loading ( Whether, tensile load or compressive load or shear load ). Materials with covalent bond are the strongest. Then comes Ionic bond, Metallic and Molecular bond. Stiffness: It is the resistance of the material to elastic deformation. A material having only slight deformation has a high amount of stiffness. Flexibility: This is opposite to stiffness. It is related to bending. Resilience:

It is the capacity of body to absorb energy elastically, and return it when unloaded. The maximum energy that can be stored upto elastic limits is called as proof resilience. This property is associated with high elastic limits. Materials with high resilience is used tin springs. Modulus or resilience = Proof resilience / Volume. Plasticity: It is the property of the material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture. Plastic deformation occurs beyond the elastic limits. Plasticity increases with increase in temperature. Ductility: It is a measure of tensile property. It enables a material to be easily drawn to wires. Percentage increase in elongation and percentage reduction in are the two measures used. Rivets are made of ductile material. Machinability: It is the ease with which the metals could be removed from operation like turning, drilling etc. Malleability: It is a measure of compressive property. It is the ability of material to be flattened into sheets without cracking by rolling and hammering. Toughness: It is the ability of material to withstand both elastic and plastic deformation ( is the ability to withstand high deformations and high stress without fracture. ) It is the amount of energy that it could absorb before rupture. It is not possible to measure toughness but it is the area under the Stress-Strain curve. There is a difference between ductility and toughness. Ductility deals with only deformation. Hardenability: Indicates the degree of hardness that could be imparted to particular steel, by the process of hardening is connected with the transformation of characteristic of steel.

Brittleness: It is the property of breaking of a material without much permanent deformation ( Glass ), Tensile stress of a brittle material is only a fraction of their compressive stress. Fatigue: 80% - 90% of total machine failure is because of fatigue. The term fatigue is used to describe the failure of the material under repeated stress. The stress necessary to cause failure when it is applied a large number of times is much below the actual breaking strength. Thus fatigue deals with cyclic loading in which the maximum stress applied / cycle is within the elastic limits. If failure occurs, the material has poor fatigue strength. Mechanism : This fatigue begins at irregularities at the surface or at points of high stress or stress concentration. Fracture so formed is brittle even in a ductile material. Fatigue stress: The stress at which the material fails because of fatigue is called as fatigue stress. For most materials, there is a limiting stress within which it can be applied for a indefinitely large number of times without causing failure. This is called as endurance limit or fatigue limit. The presence of stress concentrators reduce the endurance limit.

As tensile strength increase, the endurance limit increases. As temperature decreases below the ambient temperature, the endurance limit increases.

To resist fatigue failure there should be good surface finish, No stress raisers and control of corrosion and erosion. Creep: A material is subject to constant tensile load at an elevated temperature will creep and undergo a time dependent deformation. This slow and progressive deformation of the material under constant stress is called as creep. This creep continues until sufficient strain has occurred in necking down and reducing the cross sectional area, and finally the material ruptures. Creep occurs at stress below the elastic limits.

At low temperatures, the creep rate usually decreases with time and logarithmic creep curve is obtained.

At high temperatures, ( T = 0.5 - 0.7 Tm ) the creep rate does not decrease gradually. This is due to mechanical recovery. At very high temperatures ( T > 0 .7 Tm ) the creep is primarily due to diffusion and stress applied has little effect.

Yield Point: This is the horizontal portion of stress-strain curve. It is the point, where the material yields without any increase in load. Yield strength is defined as that stress at which there is a great increase in strain, without the corresponding increase in stress. For materials which does not have a clear cut yield point, it is determined by offset test. Tensile strength: Beyond the yield point the load can again be increased to a minimum value, when a necking down occurs and there is a reduction in cross sectional area. This load is called as tensile load. Anelastic: Refers to stress and time dependent of elastic strain. Fully recoverable by time dependent deformation is called anelatic deformation. Upon removal of load, the material does not regain it shape instantaneously. This asymptotic approach to reach the equilibrium value is called as elastic after effect. This can be understood, by understanding the concept of relaxation time. Elastic after effect: At t=0 a stress is applied which is followed by a instantaneous strain, which again is followed by delayed strain in time 't' which asymptotically attains a final value. When loading is removed the strain decreases by the same amount by which it increase while loading. The mechanism which produces elastic after effect is internal fricition Plastic Deformation: It is a function of stress, temperature and rate of straining. Fracture: It is the failure caused by stress, separating the material into two or more pieces. Following are the different modes of failure

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Yielding Fracture Deflection Wear Corrosion and Caustic embrittlement

Types of fracture: There are two types of fracture. They are ductile and brittle fracture. Following are the differences between brittle and ductile fracture
Ductile deformation track propagation type of materials warning strain energy fractured surface necking extensive slow, needs stress little fast Brittle

most metals (not too cold) ceramics, ice, cold metals permanent elongation higher rough yes none lower smoother no

1. Ductile Fracture Stages of ductile fracture

Initial necking small cavity formation (microvoids) void growth (elipsoid) by coalescence into a crack fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o final shear fracture (cup and cone)

The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation. 2. Brittle Fracture There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. In most brittle materials, crack propagation (by bond breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). This type of fracture is transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted texture) when cleavage direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials, fracture is intergranular.

3. Brittle Fracture of Ceramics The brittle fracture of ceramics limits applications. It occurs due to the unavoidable presence of microscopic flaws (micro-cracks, internal pores, and atmospheric contaminants) that result during cooling from the melt. The flaws need to crack formation, and crack propagation (perpendicular to the applied stress) is usually transgranular, along cleavage planes. The flaws cannot be closely controlled in manufacturing; this leads to a large variability (scatter) in the fracture strength of ceramic materials. The compressive strength is typically ten times the tensile strength. This makes ceramics good structural materials under compression (e.g., bricks in houses, stone blocks in the pyramids), but not in conditions of tensile stress, such as under flexure. Plastic deformation in crystalline ceramics is by slip, which is difficult due to the structure and the strong local (electrostatic) potentials. There is very little plastic deformation before fracture. Non-crystalline ceramics, like common glass deform by viscous flow (like very high-density liquids). Viscosity decreases strongly with increases temperature. Following are the different theories of failure. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Maximum principle stress theory - Rankine theory Maximum shear shtress theory - Coloums theory Maximum strain energy theory - venants theory Maximum strain theory - Haigh theory Distortion energy theory - von misses theory. DIFFERENT HARDENING MECHANISMS Solid solution hardening: This is the common way to increase the hardness and yield strength and particularly its straining rate.

Every element has got a distinct atomic diameter that is different from other elements. When a solid solution is formed the solute atoms will be either largest or small in diameter when compared to the solvent atoms. Since solvent and solute atoms have different sizes when solute is added to solvent, distortion of lattices takes place. Based on size of solute there are two types of solid solutions. They are interstitial solid solutions and substitutional solid solutions.

In interstitial solid solutions the solute is smaller in size when compared to solvent atoms and this solute occupies a space in between the solvent atoms. In this case tensile fields areas set up. E.g.. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Iron. In solid solutions of substitutional type the solute atoms is approximately the same size as that of the solvent atoms and this solute occupies a space in between the solvent atoms and in this case compressive fields are set up. The more the different between atomic size of solute and solvent the higher is the stress field around solute atoms thereby providing more resistance to the motion of dislocation and thereby increasing the tensile strength. If the number of solute atoms is more greater will be the local distortion in the lattice and hence more will the resistance to moving dislocation and there by increasing the hardness and strength of the material.

Dispersion Hardening: This means a strengthening a metal by creating a fine dispersion of insoluble particles o a second phase within the metal. The insoluble particles may be slag inclusions, inter metallic compound formed between the alloying elements and any other impurity atoms. The presence of finely distributed hard particles obstruct the flow pattern of the stress deformation and causes rapid hardening. The effect depends upon the size, shape, concentration and physical characteristics. Age hardening: This is the phenomenon observed in many non-ferrous alloys like Al, Si, Mg alloys whereby the hardness of the material increase with time. The essential requirement for precipitation to occur in solution is the decreasing solubility of a solute with decreasing temperatures. This results in super saturated solid solution that being unstable tends to decompose according to the relation. Super saturated solid solution = saturated solution + precipitation.

Age hardening involves the following mentioned stages Heating: The alloy is first solutionized by heating into a single phase reaction, held there long enough to dissolve all existing soluble precipitate particles.

Quenching: After solutionizing, the alloy is rapidly quenched into the two phase reaction region. The rapidity of the quench prevents the formation of equilibrium precipitates and thus produces the supersaturated solid solution. The quenching medium is usually water. Aging: On aging at or above room temperature, fine scale transition structures as small as 100 Angstrom is formed. Strain hardening: In most of the metals and alloys it is observed that the yield strength of the material increases after the material undergoes plastic deformation from the stress-strain curve shown. Strain hardening or work hardening is the phenomenon which results in an increase in hardness and strength of a metal subjected to plastic deformation at temperatures lower than the recrystallisation range. Strain hardening however reduces ductility and plasticity. An important characteristic of plastic deformation of metals is that the shear stress required to produce slip continuously increases with shear strain. When the metal is loaded, the strain increases with stress and the curve reaches a point A in the plastic region. If at this stage, the specimen is unloaded, the strain does not recover along the original part AO, but moves along AB. If the specimen is reloaded immediately the curve again rises from B to A, and reaches the point C, after which it still follows the curvature, if loading is continued. IF the specimen would not have been unloaded, after point A, the stress-strain curve would have followed the dotted path AD'. The figure shows the stress strain curve of FCC crystal. There are three regions of hardening and are experimentally distinguishable. The forest dislocation theory stages that when a material is stressed the dislocation starts moving which results in plastic deformation. Even as the stress increase the number of dislocations present in the body increase exponentially by frank reed source mechanism. The movement of a large number of dislocation along different slip lanes creates a traffic jam like situation and there by making it difficult for any movement of dislocation. Therefore further plastic deformation requires more stress or more load. Stage I or the easy glide region, immediately follows the yield point and is characterized by little strain hardening undergone by the crystal. During easy glide the dislocation are able to move over relatively large distances without encountering barriers.

Stage II region marks a rapid increase in work hardening, the slope of which is approximately independent of applied stress, temperature, orientation alloy content. In this region slip occurs on both primary and secondary slip systems. As a result, several new lattice irregularities may be formed which will include.

Forest dislocations Lomer-cottrell barriers, Jogs produced either by moving dislocations cutting through forest dislocations or by forest locations cutting through source dislocations

There are three theories that explain the hardening mechanism at this stage. They are pile-up theory, forest theory and jog theory. The pile up theory states that some of the dislocations give out by the frank reed sources are eventually stopped at barriers, according to this theory, the hardening is principally due to long range internal stresses from piled up groups interacting with guide dislocations. Stage III is the region of decreasing rate of strain hardening. At the sufficiently high stress value or temperature in region 3, the dislocations help up in stage 2 are able to move by a process that had been suppressed at lower stresses and temperatures. In this mechanism, dislocations can bypass the obstacles in their guide plane and do not have to interact strongly with them. For this reason, this stage exhibits a lower rate of work hardening. Grain boundary hardening: It is a relevant fact that the dislocations are obstructed by the grain boundaries during plastic deformation of the material. This is basically due to the disordered at grain boundaries, that is in the grain boundary the atoms are not arranged in any particular fashion by arranged randomly. It requires large amount of force for the dislocations to travel through the disordered structure, than along the slip planes. Transmission electron microscope picture have revealed that dislocations get piled up like grain boundary as the deformation process at this stage the stress concentration near the grain boundary must be sufficient to nucleate slip in the next grain. In a material with fine grains the area of grain boundary within gives a volume that is going to be very high compared to materials with large grains. So the materials with fine grain will have higher strain. This effect is called grain boundary strengthening or hardening.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Refrigeration system is a mechanical system which circulates the coolant or refrigerant to absorb the surrounding heat. Refrigeration is the withdrawal of heat from a substance or space so that temperature lower than that of the natural surroundings is achieved. Refrigeration may be produced by

Thermoelectric means Vapor compression systems Expansion of compressed gases Throttling or unrestrained expansion of gases.

Vapour compression systems are employed in most refrigeration systems. Here, cooling is accomplished by evaporation of a liquid refrigerant under reduced pressure and temperature. The fluid enters the compressors at state 1 where the temperature is elevated by mechanical compression (state 2). The vapor condenses at this pressure, and the resultant heat is dissipated to the surrounding. The high pressure liquid (state 3) then passes through an expansion valve through which the fluid pressure is lowered. The low-pressure fluid enters the evaporator at state 4 where it evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space, and reenters the compressor. The whole cycle is repeated.

Refrigerant: It has its boiling point below the atmospheric temperature, hence when subjected to atmospheric temperature it absorbs heat and becomes vaporized. Some of the most commonly used refrigerants are Ammonia, Carbon dioxide, Sulphur di oxide, F - 12 and F - 22. The atmosphere also gets coooled. There are two types of refrigerants. They are 1. Primary refrigerants : Cools the substance by absorbing latent heat. 2. Secondary refrigerants : Cools the substance by absorbing their sensible heat ( E.g. Air, water ) COP: It is nothing but, Coefficient of Performance. It is the ratio of actual refrigeration obtained to the Work done in the system. But Relative COP is the ratio of actual to Theoretical COP. Capacity of Refrigeration: It is expressed in Tons, the rate at which refrigeration is produced.

One ton of refrigeration is the heat rate for melting one ton of ice in 24 hours. Air Conditioning: Absolute Humidity: Ratio of weight of water vapor per unit volume. Relative Humidity: The actual amount of moisture in air at any temperature divided by the greatest amount of moisture the air could hold without condensation. Psychrometry: It is the branch of science, which deals with the study of mixture of dry air and water vapor. Dry air contains Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Water vapor and traces of other gases. Moist Air: Mixture of dry air and water vapor. The quantity of water vapor present in air depends upon the temperature. Moisture: The water vapor present in air is called as moisture. Saturated Air: When moist air contains the maximum amount of water vapor, that it can hold, then the air is said to be saturated. If any more water is added to the saturated air, it remains in suspension and makes the air foggy. Moist air that is not saturated is called as unsaturated air. Humidity Ratio: It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air in vapor air mixture. Degree of Saturation: Ratio of Humidity ratio of moist air to the Humidity ratio of saturated

air at the same conditions of Temperature and Pressure. Dew Point Temperature: It is the temperature at which moist air just becomes condensed when cooled at constant pressure. Sensible Heat Factor = Sensible heat / ( Sensible heat + Latent Heat ) Cooling Loads: The total quantity of heat that has to be pumped out of a space to maintain a level of temperature using a refrigeration equipment is called as cooling load.

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

The metal cutting is done by a relative motion between the work piece and the hard edge of a cutting tool. Metal cutting could be done either by a single point cutting tool or a multi point cutting tool. There are two basic types of metal cutting by a single point cutting tool. They are orthogonal and oblique metal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is at 90o to the direction of the tool travel the cutting action is called as orthogonal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is inclined at less than 90o to the path of the tool then the cutting action is called as oblique cutting. The differences between orthogonal and oblique cutting is given below
Orthogonal metal cutting Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of tool travel. The direction of chip flow is perpendicular to the cutting edge. The chip coils in a tight flat spiral For same feed and depth of cut the force which shears the metal acts on a smaller areas. So the life of the tool is less. Produces sharp corners. Oblique metal cutting The cutting edge is inclined at an angle less than 90o to the direction of tool travel. The chip flows on the tool face making an angle. The chip flows side ways in a long curl. The cutting force acts on larger area and so tool life is more.

Produces a chamfer at the end of the cut For the same depth of cut greater length of cutting edge is in contact with the work. This method of cutting is used in almost all machining operations.

Smaller length of cutting edge is in contact with the work. Generally parting off in lathe, broaching and slotting operations are done in this method.

Elements of Metal Cutting :

Cutting speed : It is the distance traveled by work surface related to the cutting edge of Tool v = dN / 1000 m / min Feed (s) : The motion of cutting edge of tool with reference to one revolution of work piece. Depth of cut (t) : It is measured perpendicular to axis of work piece and in straight turning in one pass. This can be estimated from the relation t = ( D - d ) / 2 mm Undeformed chip (Fc) : The cross sectional area of chip before it is removed from work piece. it is equal to the product of feed and depth of cut. Fc = s x t mm2 All tools have a major and minor cutting edge. The major cutting edge removes bulk of material. Where as the minor cutting edge gives good surface finish. Different types of chips produced during machining process : When the tool advances into the work piece, the metal in front of the tool is severely stressed. The cutting tool produces internal shearing action in the metal. The metal below the cutting edge yields and flows plastically in the form of chip. Compression of the metal under the tool takes place. When the ultimate stress of the metal is exceeded, separation of metal takes place. The plastic flow takes place in a localized area called as shear plane. The chip moves upward on the face of the tool. There are three different types of chips. They are 1. Continuous chips, 2. Discontinuous chips and 3. Chips with built up edge. Continuous chips :

The conditions that favor the production of continuous chips is small chip thickness, high cutting speed, sharp cutting edge, large rake angle in cutting tool and fine feed, smooth tool face and efficient lubricating system. Such chips are produced while machining ductile materials like mild steel, copper and aluminum. Because of plastic deformation of ductile material long and continuous chips are produced.

This is desirable because it produces good surface finish, low power consumption and longer tool life. These chips are difficult to handle and dispose off. Further the chips coil in a helix and curl around work and tool and may injure the operator when it is breaking. The tool face is in contact for a longer period resulting in more frictional heat. However this problem could be rectified by the use of chip breakers.

Chip breakers: During machining, long and continuous chip will affect machining. It will spoil tool, work and machine. It will also be difficult to remove metal and also dangerous. The chip should be broken into small pieces for easy removal, safety and to prevent damage to machine and work. The function of chip breakers is to reduce the radius of curvature of chips and thus break it. The upper side of continuous chips notches while the lower side which slides over the face tool is smooth and shiny. The chips have the same thickness through. Discontinuous chips :

These chips are produced when cutting more brittle materials like bronze, hard brass and gray cast iron. Since there chips break up into small segments the friction between chip and tool reduces resulting in better surface finish. These are convenient to handle and dispose off. Discontinuous chips are produced in ductile materials under the conditions such as large chip thickness, low cutting speed, small rake angle of tool etc. Brittle materials lack the ductility necessary for appreciable plastic chip deformation. The amount of deformation which the chip undergoes by deformation is limited by repeated fracturing. If these chips are produced from brittle materials, then the surface finish is fair, power consumption is low and tool life is reasonable however with ductile materials the surface finish is poor and tool wear is excessive.

Chips with built up edge :

This is nothing but a small built up edge sticking to the nose of the cutting tool. These built up edge occurs with continuous chips. When machining ductile materials due to conditions of high local temperature and extreme pressure the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool chip interface, there are possibilities of work

material to weld to the cutting edge of tool and thus forming built up edges. This weld metal is extremely hard and brittle. This welding may affect the cutting action of tool. Successive layers are added to the build up edge. When this edge becomes large and unstable it is broken and part of it is carried up the face of the tool along with chip while remaining is left in the surface being machined. Thus contributing to the roughness of surface. Thus the size of the built up edge, varies during the machining operation. It first increases, then decrease and again increases. this built up edge protects the cutting edge of tool, thus changing the geometry of the cutting tool. Low cutting speeds lead to the formation of built up edge, however with high cutting speeds associated with sintered carbide tools, the build up edge is negligible or does not exist. Conditions favoring the formation of build up edge are low cutting speed, low rake angle, high feed and large depth of cut. This formation can be avoided by the use of coolants and taking light cuts at high speeds. This leads to the formation of crater on the surface of the tool.

Single point cutting tool: Parts of a single point cutting tool:

Part Shank Face Base Flank Description It is the body of the tool which is ungrounded. It is the surface over which the chip slides. It is the bottom surface of the shank. It is the surface of the tool facing the work piece. There are two flanks namely end flank and side flank. It is the junction of the face end the flanks. There are two cutting edges namely side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It is the junction of side and end cutting edges.

Cutting edge Nose

Important angles of a single point cutting tool:

Angle Top rake angle

Details It is also called as back rake angle. It is the slope given to the face or the surface of the tool. This slope is given from the nose along the length of the tool.

Side rake It is the slope given to the face or top of the angle tool. This slope is given from the nose along the width of the tool. The rake angles help easy flow of chips Relief angle These are the slopes ground downwards from the cutting edges. These are two clearance angles namely, side clearance angle and end clearance angle. This is given in a tool to avoid rubbing of the job on the tool. There are two cutting edge angles namely side cutting edge angle and end cutting edge angle. Side cutting edge angle is the angle, the side cutting edge makes with the axis of the tool. End cutting edge angle is the angle, the end cutting edge makes with the width of the tool.

Cutting edge angle

Lip angle It is also called cutting angle. It is the angle between the face and end surface of the tool. Nose angle It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end cutting edge.

Required properties of cutting tool material: Hot hardness: This is the ability of the material to with stand very high temperature without loosing its cutting edge. The hardness of the tool material can be improved by adding molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, chromium etc which form hard carbides. High hardness gives good wear resistance but poor mechanical shock resistance. Wear resistance:

The ability of the tool to withstand wear is called as wear resistance. During the process of machining, the tool is affected because of the abrasive action of the work piece. If the tool does not have sufficient wear resistance then there are possibilities of failure of cutting edge. Lack of chemical affinity between the tool and work piece also improve wear resistance. Toughness: This property posses limitation on the hardness of the tool because of very high hardness the material becomes brittle and weak. Low friction: In order to have a low tool wear and better surface finish the coefficient of friction between the tool and chip must be low. The thermal conductivity must be high for quick removal of heat from chip tool interface. In addition to the above, it must posses the following mentioned properties. 1. Mechanical and thermal shock resistance, 2. Ability to maintain the above properties at the high operating temperatures. 3. Should be easy to regrind and easy to weld the tool. In addition to the above, high thermal shock resistance is also desirable. But no single material fulfills all the above requirements. Tool life: It is an important factor in cutting tool performance. The tool can not cut effectively for an unlimited period of time. It has a definite life. Tool life is the time for which the tool will operate satisfactorily until it becomes blunt. It is the time between two successive grinds. Following are the factors influencing tool life. Cutting speed: It has the greatest influence. When the cutting speed increases, the cutting temperature increases. Due to this, hardness of the tool decreases. Hence the tool flank wear and crater wear also occurs easily. The relation ship between tool life and cutting speed is given by the Taylor's formula which states VTn = C

V is the cutting speed in meters / minute T is the tool life in minutes. n depends on the tool and work. C a constant. Feed and depth of cut: The tool life depends upon the amount of material removed by the tool per minute. For a given cutting speed if the feed or depth of cut is increased, tool life will be reduced. Tool geometry: Large rake angle reduces the tool cross section. Area of the tool which will absorb heat is reduced. So the tool will become weak. Hence correct rake angle must be used for longer tool life. If the cutting angle increases, more power will be required for cutting. Clearance angle of 10o to 15o is optimal. Other factors include the material of tool (Carbon steel, medium alloy steel, high speed steel, molybdenum high speed steel, cobalt high speed steel, stellites, carbides, ceramics and diamond are the commonly used tool materials.), use of cutting fluids and work material. Functions of cutting fluids: 1. To cool the tool and work piece and carry away the heat generated from cutting zone. It is essential to maintain a temperature of 200o C for carbon tools and 600o C for HSS. 2. At low speeds the surface finish obtained by using cutting fluids is better than what is obtained without using cutting fluids. 3. To wash away the chips and keep the cutting region free. 4. It helps to keep the freshly machined surface bright by giving a protective coating against atmospheric oxygen and thus protect the finished surface from corrosion. 5. Cutting fluids improves machinability and reduces machining forces. 6. To prevent the expansion of work piece and 7. To cause the chips to break into small parts rather than remain as long ribbons which are hot and sharp and difficult to remove from work piece. Requirements of cutting fluid: A cutting fluid should posses the following properties.

1. High heat absorption to remove the heat developed immediately, 2. Good lubricating properties to have a low coefficient of friction, 3. High flash point to avoid fire hazard, 4. Stability must be high to that it does not oxidize with air, 5. It must not react with chemical and must be neutral, 6. Odorless, so that at high temperatures, it does not give a bad smell, 7. Harmless to the skin of operators, 8. Harmless to the bearings, 9. Should not have a corrosive action on the machine or work piece, 10. Cutting tool must be transparent so that the cutting action could be observed, 11. Low viscosity to permit the free flow of the cutting tool and 12. It must be economic. Choice of a cutting fluid depends upon type of operation, material of tool and work piece, rate of metal removal and cost of cutting fluid. Types of cutting fluids: Water based cutting fluids: In this water is mixed with soluble oil and soaps. Following are the important characteristic features.

It is a excellent cooling medium having maximum amount of specific heat, The disadvantage in using this is that it causes rust and corrosion, But a mixture of water and oil provides the best lubricating properties The ratio of oil to water is different for different machining process. The usual ratio are
Operation Ratio Turning Milling Drilling Grinding 1:25 1:10 1:25 1:50

Oil based cutting fluids: These are fixed oil and mineral oil. Fixed oil has greater oiliness to become gummy and decompose when heated.

To combine stability of mineral oil with lubricating properties of fixed oils they are often mixed. There are different types of oil based cutting fluids. They are soluble oils, straight fatty cutting oils, sulphurised and aqueous solution. Following are the different types of cutting fluids based on different operating conditions.

Straight mineral oils for light duty and high speed work. Mineral oil for light and medium duty. Mineral oil with extreme pressure additives, such that they are suitable for heavy duty and Mineral oil and extreme pressure additives for the heaviest duty. Effect of cutting fluid on cutting speed, tool life and chip concentration: Cutting speed: These are not only used to carry away the heat generated by also because of the lubricating effect of the fluid on the working surface of the tool. When a cutting fluid is sued for machining touch material the productivity may be increased from 15% to 30% more when compared with dry operation. But using cutting fluids, high speeds may be used. Tool life: By using cutting fluids effectively during machining operations the tool life increases. Carbon steel rods have less heat resistant have maximum increase in tool life for HSS it is around 25%. Chip concentration: Without the use of cutting fluid chips are accumulated near the work tool interface and are difficult to remove because of its high temperature. By the use of cutting fluid the temperature of the chip is reduced and also the chips are washed away from the work tool interface. Application of cutting fluids: The cutting fluids may be applied to the cutting tool in the following ways. 1. By hand, using brush, 2. By means of drip tank and 3. By means of a pump.

For effective use of cutting fluid and for heavy and continuous cutting the fluid should penetrate into the cutting zone. The following are the famous methods of cutting fluid application. 1. Flood application (Hi-jet application): Here there is a continuous stream of cutting fluid is directed to the cutting zone with the help of nozzle. The used cutting fluid drops into a tank at the bottom. Before it is re-circulated by the pump, it passes through many filters to remove chips and dirt. In some applications the cutting fluid is supplied through the tool itself and directed along the flank face of the tool. Though economic it is not adopted universally because the high pressure jet may be dangerous to the operation. 2. Mist method of application:

In this the cutting fluid is atomized the order of 10 - 25 m. The mist is sprayed on cutting zone at high velocities of about 300 mpm and more under high pressure. This method is used in all cutting operation, but is generally more useful with high hardness work materials. The benefits of this process are listed below.

Due to high velocity the heat is dispersed immediately and maintains desired temperature gradient near tool surface. The surface area of coolant is greater when compared to flood application and hence increases the cooling capacity. Due to expansion of the mist in the issuing nozzle, it temperature falls down considerably.

The basic components of the system are 1. 2. 3. 4. Air pump with air storage, Cutting fluid container Piping and Spray nozzle.

Benefits of cutting fluids: Cooling: By flowing over a tool, chip and job a cutting fluid can remove heat and reduce temperature at he cutting zone. This reduction in temperature leads in increase in tool life and decrease in tool wear. The cooling effect is also important in reducing thermal expansion and distortion of work piece. The cooling action also bring about good surface finish, increase chip curl and reduces BUE formation. Friction reduction: A fluid passing through the cutting zone may be subjected to any one of the following conditions.

High temperature approaching melting point, Clean freshly produced surface and High local pressure approaching the hardness of the metal cut.

Under these conditions the chip may be made to react wit the fluid fro form a low shear strength solid lubricant. This thin layer prevents the formation of the weld between the chip and the tool and hence reduces the co-efficient of friction between chip and tool. Reduce shear strength: When the co-efficient of friction is reduced there is also a decrease in shear work, sue to the resulting increase in shear angle. An increase in shear angle results in a decrease in shear strain giving rise to smaller shear stress and hence the net result is a decrease of shear energy per unit volume when cutting with an increased shear angle.

Tool geometries: There are two distinct tool geometries. The are positive and negative rake angles. Positive is suitable for machining soft, ductile materials (like aluminum) and negative is for cutting hard materials, where the cutting forces are high (Hard material, high speed and feed).

Forces on a single point cutting tool : Following are the three forces acting on a tool 1. Axial force 2. Tangential force and 3. Radial force.

In the above figure (a) is for orthogonal cutting and figure (b) is for oblique cutting. Wattmeter is a indirect method for measuring cutting force. More exact method is the use of dynamometer. Of the total heat generated during machining process, given below is the rough heat distribution. Chip carries 70 % of heat. Work piece carries 15 % of heat and Tool carries the remaining 15 % of heat generated. Tool life : It could be defined from any of the below mentioned criteria.

Volume of material removed between two successive tool grind. Number of work piece machined between two successive tool grinds. time of actual cutting between 2 successive tool grinds.

Tool failure occurs by chipping or breakage or wear ( Takes place by crater formation or by flank wear ) or deformation. Machinability : It could be evaluated by using

Tool life mm3 of stock removed

Cutting force required. Temperature of tool and chip.

Machinability Index ( % ) = ( Cutting speed of work piece for 20 mm Tool life ) / ( Cutting speed of SAE 1112 steel for 20 mm min tool life ) X 100.

TOOL FAILURE: A tool is said to fail when it losses its usefulness though wear, breakage, chipping and deformation. During the machining operation high temperatures are reached and leads to the softening of tool point. At a high temperature localized phase transformation occurs. This gives rise in residual stress due to which cracks appear on tool point and it is more prone to failure. In some cases tool point may even melt and is frequently accompanied by sparking and hence can be easily recognized. Thermal cracking occurs when there is a steep temperature gradient due to intermittent cutting. Failure can be reduced by the proper selection of cutting parameters. Wear of cutting tools: Flank wear ( or edge wear ):

This type of wear takes place when machining materials like cast iron or when the feed is less than 0.15 mm / rev. The worn region at the flank is called as wear land. This wear land is measured with the help of brinell microscope. The work and the tool are in contact at the cutting edge only. Usually wear appears on the clearance face of the tool and is mainly the result of friction and abrasion. Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge, which eliminates some clearance on relief. Flank wear is a progressive form of detoriotion and will result in failure in spite of best precautions. There are three stages in flank wear. They are primary, secondary and tertiary stage. In the primary stage wear is rapid due to high stress at tool point. In secondary stage, wear is less and linear. In the third and final stage called as the tertiary stage the wear increases leading to catastrophic failure.

Abrasion by hard particles and inclusions in the work piece, shearing of micro welds between tool and work material and abrasion by fragments

of build up edge plowing against the clearance face of the tool are some of the causes of this wear. Crater wear ( or face wear ):

This is caused by the pressure of the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool. Due to the pressure of the sliding chips the cool face wears out gradually. On the faces of the tool there is a direct contact of tool with the chip. Wear takes place in the form of cavity or crater, which as its origin above the cutting edge. The crater occurs on the rake face and does not actually reach the cutting edge by ends near the nose. This type of wear takes place when cutting ductile material. This wear weakens the tool. Cutting temperature is increased. Friction and cutting force will also increase. When the crater becomes large the tool will totally fail.

Severe abrasion between chip and tool interface and high temperature in the tool-chip interface reaching the softening (or melting temperature) of tool resulting in increased rate of wear. These are the two causes of crater wear. To combat crater wear, tool manufacturers can increase the chemical stability of the tool material, as when they added titanium carbide (TiC) to tungsten carbide (WC) in the first successful steel-cutting carbide tool. Applying a hard coating to put a hard, inert barrier between tool and work piece at high cutting speeds will also minimize crater wear. Tool geometry can also make a difference. A positive-rake tool will reduce tool pressure and decrease contact between the chip and the insert, and the reduction in pressure and contact can reduce crater wear. Nose wear: This is similar to flank wear in certain operations like finish turning. It takes place at the nose of the tool. When the nose of the tool is rough, abrasion and friction between the tool and work piece will be high. Due to this, too much heat is generated. Also more cutting force is required. As a result the nose of the tool wears quickly. This is more pre-dominant than flank wear. Breakage:

Because of high pressure acting on cutting edge of a tool there ay be immediate failure. Breakage is usually attributed to mechanical shock, thermal shock, thermal cracks and fatigue. Chipping: The cutting edge may crumble due to improper relief angle, excess clearance and insufficient support of the tool. This could also happen if the work piece is very hard. It is a microscopic form of breakage due to loss of many small particles caused due to unhoned carbide edges, excessive vibration and chatter. Deformation: When a heavy load is applied close to the cutting edge of tool the surface becomes indented while the adjacent face shows a bulge. Because of which crack occurs on periphery of indentation and finally leads to failure.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS 1. The useful tool life of a HSS tool at 18 m/min is 3 hours. Calculate the tool life when the tool operates at 24 m/min. Solution: VTn = C V = 18 m/min T = 3 x 60 = 180 min Constant C = 18 x ( 180 ) 0.125 = 34.45 Now V = 24 m/min. T = ( 34.45 / 24 ) 1/0.125 = 18 minutes. ( Here n = 0.125 )

UNITS AND CONSTANT

Definitions: Nominal size: The size designation used for general identification. The nominal size of a shaft and a hole are the same. This value is often expressed as a fraction. Basic size: The exact theoretical size of a part. This is the value from which limit dimensions are computed. Basic size is a four decimal place equivalent to the nominal size. The number of significant digits imply the accuracy of the dimension. example: nominal size = 1 1/4 basic size = 1.2500 Design size: The ideal size for each component (shaft and hole) based upon a selected fit. The difference between the design size of the shaft and the design size of the hole is equal to the allowance of the fit. The design size of a part corresponds to the Maximum Material Condition (MMC). That is, the largest shaft permitted by the limits and the smallest hole. Emphasis is placed upon the design size in the writing of the actual limit dimension, so the design size is placed in the top position of the pair. Tolerance: The total amount by which a dimension is allowed to vary. For fractional linear dimensions we have assumed a bilateral tolerance of 1/64 inch. For the fit of a shaft/hole combination, the tolerance is considered to be unilateral, that is, it is only applied in one direction from design size of the part. Standards for limits and fits state that tolerances are applied such that the hole size can only vary larger from design size and the shaft size smaller. Basic hole system: Most common system for limit dimensions. In this system the design size of the hole is taken to be equivalent to the basic size for the pair

(see above). This means that the lower (in size) limit of the hole dimension is equal to design size. The basic hole system is more frequently used since most hole generating devices are of fixed size (for example, drills, reams, etc.) When designing using purchased components with fixed outer diameters (bearings, bushings, etc.) a basic shaft system may be used. Allowance: The allowance is the intended difference in the sizes of mating parts. This allowance may be: positive (indicated with a "+" symbol), which means there is intended clearance between parts; negative("-"), for intentional interference: or "zero allowance" if the two parts are intended to be the "same size". Base and Supplementary Units
Quantity Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Luminous intensity Molecular substance Plane angle Solid angle Unit meter kilogram second ampere Kelvin candela mole radian steradian Symbol m kg s A K cd mol rad sr

Derived Units
Quantity Space and Time Area Volume Velocity Acceleration Angular velocity square meter cubic meter meter per second meter per second per second radian per second m m m/s m/s rad/s Unit Symbol

Angular acceleration Frequency Rotational speed

radian per second per second hertz revolution per second revolution per minute Mechanics

rad/s Hz (cycle/s) r/s r/m

Density Momentum Moment of inertia Force Torque, moment of force Energy, work, heat quantity Power Pressure, stress

kilogram per cubic meter kilogram meter per second kilogram meter squared newton newton meter joule watt pascal Heat

kg/m kgm/s kgm N (kgm/s) Nm J (Nm) W (J/s) Pa (N/m)

Customary temperature Thermal conductivity Entropy Specific heat

degree Celsius watt per meter Kelvin joule per Kelvin joule per kilogram Kelvin Light

C W/(mK) J/K J/(kgK)

Luminous flux Illumination Luminance

lumen lux candela per square meter Viscosity

lm (cdsr) lx (lm/m) cd/m

Kinematic viscosity Dynamic (absolute) viscosity

square meter per second pascal second

m/s Pas

Quantity
Mass

Equivalent

Dimensions
M

S.I. units
Kilogram (kg)

Length Time Frequency Area Volume Density Velocity Acceleration Force Weight Pressure or Stress Moment of Inertia Work Energy Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Power Momentum cycles/unit time length x width length x height x width Mass/unit volume Distance/unit time Velocity/unit time mass x acceleration mass x gravitational acceleration force/unit area mass x length2 force x distance Work capacity mass x gravitational acceleration x height raised 1/2 mass x velocity2 Work/unit time Mass x velocity

L T T-1 L2 L3 ML-3 LT-1 LT-2 MLT-2 MLT-2 ML-1T-2 ML2 ML2T-2 ML2T-2 ML2T-2 ML2T-2 ML2T-3 MLT-1

Metre (m) Second (s) Hertz (Hz) m2 m3 kg/m3 m/s m/s2 Newton Kilogram Pascal (Pa) kg m2 Joule (J) Joule (J) Joule (J) Joule (J) Watt (W)

CONVERSIONS
Millibar (mb): 1 mb = 100 Pa; 1 Pa = 0.01 mb Celsius: oC = K 273.15; K = oC + 273.15 Fahrenheit: oF = 9/5(oC) + 32; oC = 5/9(oF-32)

USEFUL NUMERICAL CONSTANTS

Universal Gas Constant (R) Stefan-Boltzmann constant () Planck constant (h) Velocity of light (c) Wiens constant Acceleration due to gravity 8.3143 J K-1 mol-1 56.696 x 10-9 W m-2 K-4 0.66262 x 10-33 J s 299.8 x 106 m s-1 2897 m 9.80665 m s-2

Molecular weight of dry air Density of dry air Specific heat of air at constant pressure (Cp) Gas constant for dry air (Rd) Standard atmospheric pressure Gas constant for water vapor (Rv) Specific heat of water vapor at constant pressure

28.97 g mol-1 1.209 kg m-3 1004 J K-1 kg-1 287 J kg-1 K-1 101.3 kPa 461 J kg-1 K-1 1952 J K-1 kg-1

ENGINEERING MECHANICS - DYNAMICS

Engineering mechanics is the science that deals with the state of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. It is further divided into mechanics of rigid bodes, deformable bodes and fluids. Dynamics: deals with bodies in motion. This is further divided to kinetics and kinematics. Kinetics, deals with the bodies in motion due to the application of force, by considering the force that causes the motion. Kinematics, is the study of displacement, velocity and acceleration without considering the force causing the motion. Following are the definition of important terms in dynamics Speed: The speed of a body, may be defined as its rate of change of displacement with respect to its surroundings. The speed of a body is irrespective of its direction and hence is a scalar quantity. Velocity: The velocity of a body may be defined as its rate of change of displacement, with respect to its surroundings, in a particular direction. As the velocity is always expressed in a particular direction, it is a vector quantity. Acceleration: The acceleration of a body may be defined as the rate of change of its velocity. It is said to be positive, when the velocity of a body increase with time, and negative when the velocity decreases with time. The negative acceleration is also called as retardation. In general acceleration denotes the rate at which the velocity is changing. It may be uniform or variable. Uniform acceleration: If a body moves in such a way that its velocity changes equal in magnitude in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a uniform acceleration. Variable acceleration:

If a body moves in such a way that its velocity changes unequal in magnitude in equal intervals of time, it is said to be moving with a variable acceleration. Types of motion: Rectilinear motion: When a particle moves in a straight line then it is called as rectilinear motion. Curvilinear motion: If the particle traces a curve, then curvilinear motion. If the curve lies in a plane, then it is called as plane curvilinear motion. Uniform motion: A particle in this case should move with a constant velocity and zero acceleration Uniformly accelerated motion: A particle moving with a constant acceleration is called as uniformly accelerated motion. Motion with uniform acceleration:

Here 'a' is constant. Hence a = dv / dt dv = a.dt ( Integrating on both sides, within their limits ) dv = a dt ( v - u ) = at

v = u + at

v = dx / dt dx = v dt Substituting the value of v dx = ( u + at ) dt

( Integrating on both sides, within their limits ) dx = ( u + at ) dt = ut + at2 x = ut + at2

a = v dv / dx a dx = v dv ( Integrating on both sides, within their limits ) a dx = v dv ax = V2 - U2 V2 = u2 + 2ax

Derivation: Acceleration (a) = Rate of change of velocity with respect to time = dv / dt Velocity (v) = Rate of change of distance with respect to time = dx / dt a = dv / dt = d2x / dt2 a = dv / dt = ( dv / dx ) x (dx / dt ) = v dv / dx Equation of motion:

Fx = max Fy = may Fx is the resultant of all forces acting along the x axis. Fy is the resultant of all forces acting along the y axis.

Equations of dynamic equilibrium:

Fx + ( - max ) = 0

Fy + ( - may ) = 0

The value ( - max ) and ( - may ) is called as inertia force or D' Alembert force. Curvilinear motion: The direction of acceleration and velocity may not be the same in curvilinear motion. There are two components of acceleration. They are tangential component ( at ) and normal component ( an ) Tangential component: at = dv / dt It is equal to the rate of change of speed of the particle. It is positive and is along the direction of tangent of the motion. Normal component: an = v2 / It is the ratio of square of velocity and radius of curvature of the part at that point. The directions is towards the center of curvature of the path. This is also called as the centripetal ( centre seeking ) acceleration. a = ( at2 + an2 ) Direction = Tan-1 ( an / at ) Momentum: consider the motion of particle of mass 'm' acted by a force F. Then the equation of motion in a generalized from is given as F = ma = m ( dv / dt ) = d ( mv ) / dt Thus the force acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the particle. The quantity mv is called as momentum. It unit is Ns. Impulse: When a large force acts on a body for a small interval of time then that force is called as impulse force. It can be visualized as the area under the force Vs time diagram. Impulse is nothing but, change in momentum.

Conservation of Momentum: When the sum of impulses due to external forces is equal to zero, the momentum of the system remains conserved. Elastic bodies: The property of a body by virtue of which they rebound after impact is called elasticity. A body which rebounds to a greater height is said to be more elastic and the body that bounces less is called lesser elastic. If a body does not rebound, then it is inelastic. When two bodies collide with each other, the phenomenon of collision takes place as given below. 1. The body, immediately after collision, come momentarily to rest. 2. The two bodies tend to compressed each other, so long as they are compressed to the maximum value. 3. The two bodies attempt to regain its original shape due to their elasticity. This process of regaining the original shape is called as restitution. The time taken by the two bodies in compression, after the instant of collision, is called as the time of compression and time for which restitution takes place is called the time of restitution. The sum of the two times is called the period of impact or the period of collision. Impact : The phenomenon of collision of 2 bodies which occurs for a short period of time, during which the two bodies exert a very large force on each other. Line of Impact: The common normal to the surface of two colliding bodies is called line of impact. Central / Non-central impact: The centers of body m1 and m2 coincide with Line of impact, hence called as central impact. Direct / Indirect ( Oblique ) impact: There are the types of collision. If the velocities of two bodies are collinear with line of impact before collision, then is called as direct impact. Else it is indirect impact. Coefficient of restitution: It is the ratio of the velocity of separation (v2 - v1) and velocity of approach (u1 - u2). Its value lies between 0 to 1. If e = 0 then the two bodies are inelastic. If e = 1, then the two bodies are perfectly elastic. Projectile:

Any motion which is given just a initial velocity and after which its motion is influenced by acceleration due to gravity is called as projectile. Thus a projectile is moving under the combined effect of vertical and horizontal forces. The vertical component of the motion is always subjected to gravitational acceleration and the horizontal component remains constant. The combined effect of both the forces causes the body to move along a parabolic path. Following are the important terms used in projectiles.

Trajectory is the path traced by a projectile in space. Velocity of projection is the velocity, with which a projectile is projected. Angle of projection is the angle with the horizontal, at which a projectile is projected. Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile t reach maximum height and to return back to the ground. Range is the distance, between the point of projection and the point where the projectile strikes the ground.

Equation for the path of projectile is y = x.tan - ( gx2 / 2.u2.coss2 ) Time of flight of projectile t = 2.u.sin / g g

Horizontal range of projectile R = u2.sin 2/

Maximum height of projectile H = u2. sin2 / 2 g

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS Problem 1: On turning a corner, a motorist rushing at 20 m/s, finds a child on the road 50 m ahead. He instantly stops the engine and applies brake, so as to stop the car within 10 m from the child. Calculate retardation and time required to stop the car. Solution: Let 'a' be the acceleration. v2 = u2 + 2as, Here u = 20 m/s and v =0 0 = (20)2 + 2.a.(50 - 10) a = - 5 m/s2 ( Retardation of the car ) We also know that v = u + at. Hence the time required to stop the car is 0 = 20 + (-5) t,

t = 4 seconds. Problem 2: A stone is dropped from the top of a tower, 50 m high. At the same time another stone is thrown upwards from the foot of the tower with a velocity of 25 m/s. When and where the two stones cross each other? Solution: Height of the tower is 50 m. First the stone that was dropped from the top is considered. For this u = 0 and a = g. Hence the distance traversed by the stone in time 't' is s = ut + at2 = 0 + 0.5gt2 Now consider the stone that was thrown from the bottom. u = 25 m/s and a = -g. Distance traversed by the stone in time 't' is 50 - s = 25t - 0.5gt2 Adding both the equations we get the value of t = 2 seconds. The distance at which both stones cross each other is s = 0.5gt2 = 0.5 x 9.8 x (2)2 = 19.6 m. Problem 3: A fly wheel runs at a constant 100 rad/s. When the drive motor is switched off the wheel takes 5 minutes to come to rest. What is the angular deceleration? Solution: Time t = 300 seconds. Initial angular velocity = 1 00 rad / sec and = 0. = + t, Hence retardation = ( 0 - 100 ) / 300 = -0.33 rad / sec2 Problem 4: A racing car takes a bend. Given that vA = 40 m/s , vB = 48 m/s Constant tangential acceleration and R = 300m. What is the total acceleration at B?

Tangential angular acceleration at = r, and angle = / 2 a = 40 / 300 = 0.133 rad / sec, b = 48 / 300 = 0.16 rad / sec Angular acceleration =(
b 2

- a2 ) / 2 = 0.00252 rad / sec2

Hence Tangential acceleration = r = 300 x 0.00252 = 0.76 m / s2 Normal acceleration an = vb2 / R = 7.68 m / s2 Total acceleration = 0.762 + 7.682 = 7.72 m / s2 DYNAMICS BOOKS 1. Engineering Mechanics by A. K. Tayal 2. Engineering Mechanics by R. S. Khurmi

FLUID MECHANICS
It is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of the fluids at rest as well as motion. Fluid mechanics study is classified into the following types.

Fluid statics - Study of Static Fluid Fluid Kinematics - Study of Moving fluid with no pressure acting on it Fluid Kinetics - Study of moving fluid with pressure acting on it

Fluid Properties: Viscosity : It is the property of a fluid with offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. Let there be two layers of fluid with a distance dy and velocities u and u+du respectively. The viscosity along with relative velocity causes a shear stress between the fluid layers. du / dy = du / dy Where = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity. Mathematically viscosity is the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. For liquids decreases with increase in temperature due to cohesive forces predominates than molecular momentum transfer. However for gases increase with increases with increasing temperature, because molecular momentum predominates cohesive forces.

Specific weight (or) weight density: It is the ratio of weight to volume. Its unit is N/m3. Specific volume:

It is the ratio of volume to weight. Its unit is m3/kg. Density: It is the ratio of mass to volume. It signifies what amount of mass is contained in a given amount of space. It is unit is Kg/m3. Thus specific volume is inverse of density. Pressure: It is the force exerted normally on a unit area of a body (Thus the force applied over a surface is pressure). Pressure increases with depth because of the additional weight of the fluid above. Pressure = Weight density x height. Its unit is N/m2 1 Atm = 101.325 Kpa = 101.325 KN/m2 = 760 mm of Hg = 14.7 psi = 2117 lb/ft2 1 bar = 105 N/m2. 1 Atm = 101.3 x 103 Pa = 1.01 bar. 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2 Differences between solids and fluids: The differences between the behaviors of solids and fluids under an applied force are as follows: i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied stress. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force is removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not recover its original form when the force is removed.

ii.

Differences between liquids and gases: Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have many distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid. A gas is comparatively easy to compress. Changes of volume with pressure are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes

of temperature. A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless restrained by a containing vessel. It will completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface. Fluid Classifications: All fluids can be classified as either Newtonian or non-Newtonian. The difference lies in the relationship between the fluid's tangential stress (friction force between the layers per unit surface) and the shear rate or gradient (difference in speed between the layers divided by the distance between them). If the relationship is linear and the fluid has zero stress at zero velocity gradient then it is Newtonian. If not, it is non-Newtonian, and is further classified into one of various subdivisions based on the curve of their stress vs. their velocity gradient. For non-Newtonian fluids, the velocity gradient is dependent on the viscosity; that is, the fluid has a higher or lower stress depending on its velocity. Based on these qualities, the fluid can be given its sub classification

. NEWTONIAN
Water Most salt solutions in water Light suspensions of dye High-viscosity fuels Gasoline Kerosene Most motor oils and mineral oils

NON-NEWTONIAN
YIELD PSEUDOPLASTIC, BINGHAM PLASTIC, YIELD DILATANT Clay Mud Tar Sewage sludge Digested sewage Thermoplastic polymer solutions

PSEUDOPLASTIC
Sewage sludge Paper pulp Grease Soap Paint Printer's ink Starch Latex solutions Most emulsions

DILATANT
Feldspar Mica Clay Beach sand Starch in water

THIXOTROPIC - RHEOPECTIC

Inks Most paints Silica gel Thixotropic - decreases viscosity over time Rheopectic - increases viscosity over time

Behaviour of Non-Newtonian fluid: Time-Independent behaviors: Properties are independent of time under shear.

Bingham-plastic: Resist a small shear stress but flow easily under larger shear stresses. e.g. tooth-paste, jellies, and some slurries. Pseudo-plastic: Most non-Newtonian fluids fall into this group. Viscosity decreases with increasing velocity gradient. e.g. polymer solutions, blood. Pseudoplastic fluids are also called as Shear thinning fluids. At low shear rates(du/dy) the shear thinning fluid is more viscous than the Newtonian fluid, and at high shear rates it is less viscous.

Dilatant fluids: Viscosity increases with increasing velocity gradient. They are uncommon, but suspensions of starch and sand behave in this way. Dilatant fluids are also called as shear thickening fluids. Time dependent behaviors: Those which are dependent upon duration of shear. Thixotropic fluids: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for which shearing forces are applied. e.g. thixotropic jelly paints. Rheopectic fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which shearing forces are applied. e.g. gypsum suspension in water. Visco-elastic fluids: Some fluids have elastic properties, which allow them to spring back when a shear force is released. e.g. egg white. Types of Fluid: Ideal fluid : Incompressible and where = 0. Real fluid : If > 0 then it is called as real fluid. Ideal plastic fluid : Shear stress is more than yield value and proportional to velocity gradient. Isothermal Process: Changes in density takes place at constant temperature. P / = constant. Adiabatic process: Changes in density occurs without any heat transfer to and from the gas in the absence of friction. Surface Tension: It is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids, such that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. It is denoted by . It is the magnitude of force per unit distance. SI unit = N / m. Surface tension of liquid droplet = pd / 4 Surface tension of hollow bubble = pd / 8 Surface tension of a liquid jet = pd / 2

Cohesion and Adhesion: Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. But adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with liquid. Capillarity: It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid, when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. Rise in liquid level is called as capillary rise and fall in liquid level is called as capillary depression. ( First figure shows capillarity rise and second figure shows capillarity depression ) Its value is expressed in Cm or mm. Its value is dependent upon

Surface tension, Diameter of pipe and Weight density of liquid. Capillary rise = h= 4 Cos / wd.

for glass and water = 0 and hence the above expression becomes h = 4 / wd.

Pascal's Law: Pressure at a point in static fluid is equal in all directions. Hydrostatic Law:

The rate of increase in pressure in vertically downward direction must be equal to specific weight at that point. w=P/z Where, z = Height of fluid element from the fluid surface ( Pressure head ) p = Pressure above the atmospheric pressure. Pressure management systems: Atmospheric pressure is the weight of air above an area. At sea level, a column of air extending up through the atmosphere, with a cross sectional area of 1 m2, encloses about 10,000 kg of air. This air weighs about 1 x 105 N. Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. If measurement is made above complete vacuum then it is called as absolute pressure. If the pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure than it is called as gauge pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15o is 101.3 KN / m2. There are two types of pressure measuring devices. They are manometer and mechanical gauges. Manometer: These are devices that are used for the measure of pressure at a point in fluid by balancing a column of the fluid by same or another column of fluid. There are two types of manometers. They are simple manometers and differential manometers. Simple Manometer: It is a glass tube where one end is connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open in the atmosphere. There are 3 types of simple manometers. They are 1. Piezometer, 2. U - Tube manometer and 3. Single column manometer. U - Tube manometer: It contains a u tube. One end of which is connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and the other end open to atmosphere. The U - Tube contains mercury. There are two types of manometer. They are 1. Single column manometer ( In this, there are further vertical single column manometer and inclined single column manometer )

2. Differential manometer : These are devised used to measure the pressure different between two points in a pipe or between two different pipes. It contains a U tube with a heavier liquid. ( There are types. They are differential U - tube manometer and inverted U - tube manometer. ) Mechanical gauges: These are device that are useful for measuring the pressure by balancing the fluid column by spring or dead weight. Buoyancy: When a body is immersed in a fluid a upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the body. Center of buoyancy: It is the point through which the force of buoyancy acts on the body. Buoyant force is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Hence center of buoyancy = center of gravity of fluid displaced. Meta centre: It is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small angle. Kinematics of flow: There are two methods to describe the fluid motion. They are lagrangian method and Euler method. In lagrangian method a fluid particle is followed during its motion and its velocity, acceleration and density are described. But in Eulerian method the velocity, acceleration and density are described at a point in flow field. This is most commonly used. Velocity Potential: It is defined as a scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction. Stream function:

It is defined as the scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles to this direction. Types of fluid flows: Steady Flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density at any point does not change with time. Unsteady flow : is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density at any point changes with time. Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space. Non-Uniform motion : is defined as the type of flow in which the velocity changes with respect to space. Laminar flow : is the one in which the fluid particles move in well defined paths, with one layer of fluid moving over another layer of fluid smoothly. Streamlines are straight and parallel. This is also called as viscous flow.

Turbulent Flow : is the one in which the fluid move in Zigzag manner randomly. Eddy formation takes place and thus there is a loss of energy. Compressible Flow : Here the density of fluid changes from point to point. Incompressible Flow :The density is constant. Thus gas is compressible fluid, but liquids are incompressible fluids.

Rotational Flow : In this the fluid particles when traveling in a stream line, rotate about their axis. Discharge : It is defined as the quantity of fluid flowing per second through a section of pipe or channel. For incompressible fluids discharge = Volume / second = Lit / sec. For compressible fluid discharge = Weight / second = N / s. Bernoulli's Equation : In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and continuous, the sum of pressure energy, potential ( or datum ) energy and kinetic energy is constant along a stream line. This law is based on the conservation of energy. Continuity Equation : It is based on the principle of conservation of mass. For a fluid flowing through a pipe, at any cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per second is constant. Any fluid must satisfy this equation. 1A 1V1 = 2A2V2 Venturimeter: It is a device used to measure the rate of flow of fluid in a pipe Orifice meter: It is a device used for the measurement of rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. Works on the same principle of venturimeter. But cheaper than the Venturimeter. By reducing the cross sectional area of flow passage a pressure difference between the two sections is developed and the measurement of pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe. Pitot's Tube: is a device used to measure the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or channel. When a velocity of a fluid is made zero by bringing it to rest, the kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy and hence pressure is increased.

Flow over notches: A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side at a tank or vessel such that the liquid surface in the tank is below the top edge of the opening. In general notches are used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid from a tank or in a channel. The sheet of water flowing through a notch is knows as the nappae (French term meaning sheet) or vein. The bottom edge of a notch over which the water flows is known as sill or crest, and its height above the bottom of the tank or channel is known as crest height. A notch is more often termed as sharp crested weir on account of similarity in the pattern of flow over a notch and sharp crested weir. Notches are classified as follows.

Rectangular notch, Triangular notch Trapezoidal notch Parabolic notch and stepped notch

Notches may be classified according to the effect of the sides on the nappe emerging from a notch, as notch with end contraction and notch without end contraction or suppressed notch. If the sides at a notch cause the contraction of nappe, then it is said to be notch with end contraction on the other hand if there is no contraction of the nappe due to the sides or in other words the end contractions are suppressed than it is known as a notch without end contraction. In a channel, if the crest length of the notch is less than the width of the channel then it is a notch with end contraction. But if the crest length of the notch is equal to the width of the channel then it is a notch without end contraction. Dimensional Analysis: It is a mathematical technique used in research works and for conducting model test. It deals with the dimension of various physical quantities involved in the phenomenon. Boundary Layer Flow: When a real fluid passes through the boundary, it adheres to it. Hence the velocity of fluid near the boundary will be same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationery then the velocity of fluid near the boundary is zero. But for away from the boundary there is a high velocity and hence a velocity gradient exists.

The increase in velocity from zero to free stream velocity is normal to the boundary. This variation takes place in a very small region near the boundary. This is called as boundary layer. In the boundary layer region, the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall equal to = du / dy But however outside the boundary layer velocity V = U and du / dy = 0 and hence shear stress = 0. Forces acting on a body: A force exerted by the fluid on the body. The total force Fr ( resultant force ) acts in a direction normal to the surface of the body. Drag : This is the component of resultant force, in the direction of motion. This force is exerted by the fluid in the direction of motion. Lift : This is the component of resultant force which is exerted by the fluid on the body normal to the direction of motion. Lift occurs only when the body is inclined at an angle to the direction of fluid flow. HYDRAULIC MACHINES: Hydraulic machines convert fluid energy into mechanical energy or vice versa. Turbines: Turbines convert Hydraulic energy to mechanical energy. A turbine is a device which converts the enthalpy and kinetic energy of a moving fluid into some form of mechanical work. A basic turbine consists of a rotor or series of rotors. These rotors are mainly composed of fins connected to a shaft. When a fluid flows through the fins, the angle of the fins causes the rotor or rotors spin, which causes the shaft to rotate. The torque in the shaft is then able to do some form of mechanical work, such as rotate a compressor or turn a generator which produces current. An important application is the steam power plant which utilizes steam pressure to rotate a generator and produce electricity. As the fluid passes through the turbine, it loses some of its velocity, pressure, and temperature. There are three types of turbines. They are Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines. Turbines are classified as

Impulse turbine : Here the water at the inlet of turbine contains only kinetic energy.

Reaction turbine :If the water at the inlet posses both kinetic energy and pressure energy then it is called as reaction turbine. Tangential flow. The water flows tangential to the runner. Radial flow : If the water flows in the radial direction through runner then it is called as radial flow. Further they are classified into Inward radial and outward radial. Axial flow : The water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of runner. Mixed flow : If the water enters radially, but leaves in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of runner, then it is called as mixed flow turbine.

Draft Tube: The pressure at exit in the reaction turbine is less than atmospheric pressure. Hence a pipe of gradually increasing area is used to carry the discharge from turbine outlet to tail race. Unit Quantities in turbines: In order to compare the performance of different turbines which operate with different speeds, blade angles the results are obtained in terms of quantities which is obtained when the head of the turbine is made unity. Unit speed and unit discharge are two such quantities. Unit speed is the speed of the turbine at unit head. and Unit discharge is the discharge is the discharge of turbine at unit head. Pumps: Convert mechanical energy to Hydraulic energy. A pump is a device used to raise, transfer, or compress liquids and gases. Water is a typical fluid used by pumps in applications such as irrigation and cooling, among others. Another very typical use of a pump is to force gas into a combustion chamber such as in a jet engine, where it is termed a compressor. Multitudes of uses have been discovered for pumps involving liquids varying from blood to sludge. Although a pump can be used with almost any liquid, certain attributes of the working fluid must be considered when designing a pump. For example, if the pump must displace an acidic fluid, the pump must be composed of materials which will not react with the acid. In a pump system, there must be some form of work done on the pump to make it operate. In most cases, this would be a motor which would drive either a piston or a type of rotor. The pump then does work on the fluid passing through it, and this work is translated into total energy within the fluid. Following are the different types of pumps.

Centrifugal Pumps: The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted to pressure energy by means of centrifugal force then that hydraulic machine is called as centrifugal pump. Principle: The centrifugal pump works in the principle of forced vortex flow. According to which when a liquid is rotated by a external tongue, there is arise in pressure head. This rise in pressure head at any point in the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of tangential velocity of the liquid at that point. At the outlet of the impeller, the pressure is more and hence the rise in pressure head is also more. The liquid will be discharged at the outlet at a high pressure. This high pressure will be sufficient to lift the liquid to a very great heights. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps: If the centrifugal pump contains two or more impellers then it is multistage pump. They may be mounted on same shafts or different shafts. This arrangement is done to obtain

High head or Discharge huge quantity of water.

To obtain huge quantity of water impellers are connect in series ( In same shaft). If the discharge is required is high the impellers are connected in parallel ( different shafts ) Reciprocating Pump: If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy by sucking a liquid into a cylinder in which a piston reciprocates and exerts a thrust on the liquid and increase the hydraulic energy is called the reciprocating pump. Following are parts in reciprocating pumps.

Suction Pipe and valve Delivery pipe and valve, piston, connecting rod and crank.

The piston moves back with the crank and connecting rod attachment. The crank rotates by electric motor. Both the valves are one way valves or Non return valves, allowing the water to flow only in one direction.

When the piston moves from right to left vacuum is created in cylinder. But the liquid is at atmospheric pressure. Hence because of this pressure drop, the liquid is forced through the suction valve into cylinder. When it moves from left to right the pressure in cylinder is above atmospheric suction valve closes and delivery valve opens and liquid is forced into delivery pipe.

FLUID MECHANICS BOOKS 1. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Robert W. Fox, Alan T. McDonald 2. Schaum's Outline of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Ranald V. Giles, Jack B. Evett, Cheng Liu, Jack Evett 3. Investigating Solids, Liquids, and Gases with Toys by Jerry L. Sarquis (Editor), Lynn Hogue, Mickey Sarquis, linda Woodward 4. Boundary-Layer Theory by Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, Egon Krause, Katherine Mayes 5. Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics by Joel H. Ferziger, Milovan Peric 6. 2,500 Solved Problems In Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Jack B. Evett, Cheng Liu 7. Fluid Mechanics, Second Edition by Pijush K. Kundu, Ira M. Cohen 8. Applied Fluid Mechanics (5th Edition) by Robert L. Mott 9. Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics by Ron Darby 10. Computational Fluid Dynamics by T. J. Chung

IC ENGINES
SI Engines work at constant volume. They have a compression ratio of around 6 - 10. But CI engines work at constant pressure and has a compression ratio of 16 - 20. In four stroke engines, one power stroke is generated for two revolutions of crank shaft. However in case of two stroke engines, the cycle is completed in one revolution of crank shaft. Differences between SI and CI engines:
SI Engine Constant volume cycle. Petrol is fuel, which has a high self ignition temperature These are high speed engines Low thermal efficiency Knocking takes place at the end of combustion. Homogenous mixture of fuel and hence a high pressure is formed CI Engine Constant pressure cycle Diesel is used, has a low self ignition temperature. Low speed engines High thermal efficiency Knocking takes place at the beginning of combustion. Heterogeneous mixture, hence low pressure is generated.

Differences between Four stoke and Two stroke engines:

Four stroke Engine Heavy flywheel is used Less lubrication, because of low wear and tear. Valve actuating mechanism is used High volumetric and thermal efficiency Two Stroke Engine Lighter flywheel is used Heavy lubrication Only ports are used. Lower volumetric and thermal efficiency.

Indicated power ( Ip ) = Energy in fuel - Loss in exhaust, coolant and radiation. Brake power = Indicated power - Friction power Mechanical efficiency = Brake power / Indicated power. Engine Construction: Cylinder Block: It contains the following parts. 1. Cylinders in which pistons slide. 2. Port or opening for valves. 3. Passage for cooling water.

Mirror finish required in cylinder block is obtained by accurate grinding and honing process. Cylinder Head : The top of cylinder is covered by cylinder head. It contains combustion chamber and spark plug and also passage for the flow of cooling water. Crank Case: It is attached to bottom of cylinder block. It supports the crank shaft and cam shaft in suitable bearings. Oil pan of sump: The bottom half of crank case is called as oil pan. It acts as a reservoir for storage of lubricating oil. The oil pump draws oil from this oil pan and sends to all working parts of engine. Cylinder Liner: There are used inside cylinder block. They are used to prevent wear of cylinder block. There are 2 types of liners. They are dry and wet liners. In Dry liners the outer surface of the liner bears against the cylinder block and hence has to be machined accurately. It is put in position by shrinking. This induces some amount of stress on the liners. The liner should not be too loose or tight in the cylinder block. Both can cause scuffing. The former because of poor heat dissipation and resulting in higher operating temperatures. The later due to distortion of the cylinder block, liner cracking , hot spots etc. They are not in direct contact with cooling water. The thickness is about 1.5 mm to 3.0 mm. They are hardened by nitriding or chrome plating. In Wet liners the surface is in direct contact with cooling water. Hence no need for accurate machining. Thickness is about1.5 mm - 6.0 mm. It forms the complete cylinder barrel and its flange fits with groove of cylinder block. Piston: This device converts chemical energy to mechanical energy. Transmits the energy to crank shaft via the connecting rod. The piston is provided with piston rings between the piston and cylinder wall. It operates

at a temperature of 2000o C -3000o C. The top of piston is called as head. Grooves are cut along the circumference of piston for piston rings. The parts below the ring grooves is called as skirt. This portion is separating the grooves are called lands. Piston Rings : These are fitted in the grooves of piston to maintain the seal between the piston and cylinder wall. The following are the important functions. 1. To prevent blow by because of which the burnt gas in CC escape via the piston into crank case. 2. To provide heat transfer from the piston crown to the cylinder liners. 3. Controls the flow of oil to the skirt and rings. Prevents excess oil to reach the combustion chamber and prevent carbonization. In the piston construction, there is a end gap. This is necessary in order to expand the ring and slip it over the piston into the ring grooves. The gap is almost closed when the engine runs. The ring width is usually 1.5 mm. Rings may be provided with porous phosphate coating to reduce the scoring of the surfaces during running. There are two types of rings. They are compression rings and oil control rings. The compression rings seals the Air / Fuel as the mixture is compressed. But the oil rings scrap off excessive oil from the cylinder wall and return to oil pan. The piston rings are split, so that they can be slipped insider the piston groove. Usually the Outer diameter of ring is larger than cylinder bore. When it is installed in the piston, the joint is closed and piston tightly presses against the cylinder walls. The number of compression rings depends upon the compression ratio. The Piston pin connects the piston and small end of connecting rod. Piston clearance : Some amount of clearance is provided between cylinder and piston. It is necessary for the following reasons. 1. A gap is necessary for lubricating fluid between piston and cylinder wall. 2. Prevents piston seizure at high operating temperature. usually a gap of 0.025 - 0.100 mm is provided. If the clearance is large, then piston slap results. It means the sudden tilting of cylinder. Here

the piston shifts from one side of the cylinder to another. If this clearance is small, then seizure of piston results. Combustion Chamber : The region between cylinder head and piston head when the piston is at TDC is called as combustion chamber. The inlet and outlet valves are closed and spark plug projects in it. Depending on the location of spark plug and valves there are different types of combustion chamber. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Spherical I shape T shape F shape and L shape.

Connecting Rod: Connects the piston and crank shaft. The small end is connected to piston and bigger end is connected to crankshaft. The function of the connecting rod is to convert the linear motion of the piston to rotary motion of crankshaft. It is has a I -Beam section. Crank Shaft: Contains crank pins, balancing weights and main journals. Fly wheel is attached to the rear end of crank shaft. Cam Shaft: It is simply a shaft in which a number of cams at required angular positions for operating the valves at exactly the timings relative to the piston movement and in sequence compatible with the firing order. It is responsible for opening and closing of valve. The Cam shaft is rotated by crank shaft by means of gears and chains. Gears are used when the cam shaft is nearer to crank shaft. In over head valve arrangements chains or toothed belts are used. The cam shaft turns at half the speed of crank shaft. Engine Valves: To admit the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and evacuate the exhaust gases at correct timings these valves are used. They are divided into three main categories namely Poppet valve, sleeve valve and Rotary valve. Cylinder valve:

There are attached to the top of the cylinder block by means of studs fixed to the block. Gaskets are used to provide a tight leak proof joint at the interface of the head and the block The cylinder head forms part of the combustion chamber. It also contains spark plug or the injector head and cooling water jackets. Valve openings are also provided in the head upon which is mounted the complete valve operating mechanism. Depending upon the valve and port layout, the cylinder head may be classified as loopflow type, offset cross flow type or the in-line cross flow type. In loop flow type the inlet and exhaust valves manifolds are in the same side. It facilitates preheating of the intake air. The offset cross-flow type gives lower exhaust valve temperature. The in-line cross flow type gives better engine performance though costlier. The cylinder head may be cast integrated with cylinder block in case of racing engines. However, detachable cylinder head offers many advantages over the integral construction. 1. Production is easier, 2. De-carbonizing and valve grinding is simplified and 3. Slight changes in compression ratio is possible. Engine Performance: Piston Displacement: The volume displaced by the engine, when it moves from TDC to BDC. Engine Displacement: The volume displaced by all pistons when they move from TDC to BDC. Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of volume of charge in cylinder when the piston is at BDC and volume when the piston is at TDC. Compression Ratio = ( Clearance volume + Displacement Volume ) / Clearance volume. Volumetric Efficiency: The volume of A / F mixture taken in to the cylinder to the volume of cylinders.

IHP: The actual power developed by the combustion of fuel is called IHP. BHP: The actual power that the engine delivers for outside work is called as BHP. It is usually 70 % of IHP. Stochimetric A / F ratio: A mixture that contains sufficient air for the complete combustion of all fuel in the mixture. Equivalent ratio = Actual A/F ratio / Stoichiometric A/F ratio. Different cycles:

Cycle Carnot Cycle Ericsson Cycle Otto Cycle Diesel cycle Dual Cycle Lenoir Cycle Brayton Cycle

Process Involved 2 Isothermal process & 2 adiabatic process

2 Isothermal process & 2 Constant volume process 2 Isothermal process & 2 Constant pressure process 2 Isentropic & 2 Constant volume process 2 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 1 Constant Pressure process 1 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 1 Constant Pressure process

2 Isentropic, 1 Constant volume & 2 Constant Pressure process

Rating of fuels: Octane number is used for rating petrol engines. Resistance to knock is the important characteristic of fuel for SI engines.

Cetane number is used for rating diesel engines. Lead tetraethyl lead is used as anti knock agent in petrol engines and Amyl nitrate is used as antiknock agent in diesel engines. Carburetion: The formation of required combustible fuel mixture by mixing fuel and air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion. There are three different types of carburetors. 1. Solex carburetor. 2. Carter carburetor 3. SU Carburetor. Dual fuel engines: Availability of liquid fuel is less. Gaseous fuel is cheaper. Hence both fuel could be successfully used in high compression ratio engine. The dual fuel engine works on diesel cycle. The gaseous fuel (The primary fuel) is added to the air inducted. The mixture of air and gaseous fuel is compressed in the cylinder just like air in a normal diesel operation. At some point in the compression stroke, near top dead center, a small charge of liquid fuel called secondary fuel is injected through a conventional diesel fuel system. Pilot injection acts as a source of ignition. The gas-air mixture at the vicinity of the injected spray ignites at number of places establishing a number of flame fronts. Thus combustion starts smoothly and rapidly. In a dual fuel engine combustion starts in a manner similar to CI engine but it propagates by flame front in a manner similar to SI engine. The power output of the engine is normally controlled by changing the amount of gaseous fuel. The pilot oil quantity is usually kept constant for a given engine and is 5 - 7 percent of the total heat of engine at full load. The dual fuel engine is capable of running on either gas to diesel or a combination of these two over a wide range of mixture ratios. Without gaseous fuel the pilot fuel burns like that in a diesel operation. Multi fuel operating engines: A multi fuel engine is the one which would operate satisfactorily on a wide variety of fuels ranging from diesel oil, crude oil, lubricating oil, kerosene to gasoline. The main reason for the development is military requirement. They require open combustion chamber and the injection pump needs modification. Variable compression ratio engines and stratified charge engines are examples of multi fuel engines. Methanol and Ethanol

are good source of alternate fuels. Ethanol can be produced by fermentation of carbohydrates. Methanol It can be produced from coal, a relatively abundant fossil fuel. Methanol has a lower heating value than petrol and is a poisonous liquid. It is made of bio mass and is in liquid state under normal pressure and temperature. Following are the unique merits.

It is in liquid state at Normal conditions of pressure and temperate and can be easily stored. Can be handled easily and safely. Can be transported over a long distance by pipeline. Has a higher conversion efficiency. It can be obtained from renewable bio mass. Single boiling point unlike petrol More power from the same engine.

Biomass: The potential for application of bio mass as an alternative source of energy in our country is very great. Bio mass is produced in nature through photosynthesis achieve by solar energy conversion. The conversion cycle is shown below Solar Energy -------- Photosynthesis -------- Biomass -------- Energy generaation Bio mass means organic matter. The simplest form of reaction in the process of photosynthesis is given by H2O + CO2 ------- CH2O + OO2 CH2O is the basic molecule forming carbohydrate stable at low temperature. Bio mass falls under three categories. 1. In its traditional form (Wood and agricultural residue) 2. Bio mass in non traditional form (Converted into liquid fuels) 3. Bio mass is fermented an-aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called bio-gas.

MECHANICS OF MACHINES
Plane Motion: When the motion may be confined to one plane then it is called as plane motion. There are two types 1. rectilinear motion - In rectilinear the motion is along a straight path. 2. curvilinear motion - It is in circular path. Simple Harmonic Motion ( SHM ): For a body to execute SHM, it should satisfy the following two conditions. 1. Its acceleration is always directed towards the center called as the mean position. 2. The acceleration is proportional to the distance from that point. The following are the basic concepts to be worth noting. Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a body from its mean position. Time Period: Is the time taken for the complete revolution. Tp = 2 Frequency: Number of cycles per second. Center of Percussion: Also called as the center of oscillation. It is the point at which a blow may be struck on a suspended body so that the reaction at the support is zero. Simple Mechanisms: Types of Links: There are three types of links. They are - Rigid link - Flexible link and - Fluid link. Structure: It is an assemblage of a number of members having no relative motion between them and are meant for carrying loads. E.g.. Bridge, Truss and Machine Frames.

Difference Between a Machine and Structure: * In machines, the parts move relative to one another, but in structure, it is not so. * Machine transforms energy to useful work, but in structure there is no such things. * Links in machines transmit power and motion. But links of structure transmit force. Types of Motion 1. Completely Constrained Motion: In this the motion is limited to a definite direction, irrespective of direction of force. E.g.. Piston and cylinder 2. Incompletely Constrained Motion: Here the motion between a pair takes place in more than one direction. 3. Successfully Constrained Motion: When the motion between the elements is such that the completed constrained motion is not completed by itself, but a external source. E.g.: Shaft in a foot bearing. Kinematics Pair: Two elements in contact in a machine is called a pair. If the relative motion between them is completely constrained, then it is called kinematic pair. Classification of Kinematic Pairs: a. Sliding Pair :- Piston and cylinder ( Example of CCM ) b. Turning Pair :- Two elements of a pair are such that one element turns about the fixed axis of another element. c. Rolling Pair :- One element rolls over another fixed element. E.g.. Roller and Ball bearing. d. Screw Pair :- One element can turn about the other by means of screw threads E.g.. Bold and nut. e. Spherical Pair :- One element is spherical in shape, turns or swivels about another fixed element. E.g.. Car mirror attachment.

Lower Pair:- When two elements of a pair have surface contact during relative motion, then it is called as lower pair. E.g.. Sliding, shaft in bearings, turning and Screw pairs. Higher Pair:- When two elements in the pair have line or point contact

when relative motion takes place and the relative motion between them is partly turning and sliding then it is a higher pair. E.g.. - Belt and rope drives. - Cam and - Ball and roller Bearings.

Kinematic Chain: When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion. It is a combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each link forms a part of the pair and the relative motion between the links is in CCM or SCM. Mechanism: When one link in a kinematic pair is fixed then the chain is called a mechanism. It is used for transmitting or transforming motion. A simple mechanism contains around four links and a complex mechanism contains more than 4 links. Friction: Laws of Dynamic Friction:

Force of friction always acts opposite to direction of motion. For moderate speed, force of friction is constant but decreases slightly at higher speeds.

Laws of Fluid Friction:

Friction force reduces with increase in temperature. The force of friction is different for different lubrication substance.

Screw friction: Threads are of two types. They are V-Threads and Square threads. V threads are stronger and offer more frictional resistance to motion. VThreads are used in nuts and bolts. Square threads are used in Screw jacks. Simple Pendulum: In its simples form this type of pendulum has a heavy bob, suspended at the end of a light inextensible, flexible string and the other end of the string is rigidly fixed to wall. 'm' is the mass of the bob and 'l' is the length of string. Following laws of simple pendulum are important.

1. Law of isochronism: It states that the time period (t) of simple pendulum does not depend on its amplitude of vibrations, and remain the same provided the angular acceleration does not exceed 4. 2. Law of mass: States that the time period of a simple pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the body suspended at the free end of the string. 3. Law of length: states that the time period of a simple pendulum is proportional to l, where l is the length of the string. 4. Law of gravity: states that the time period of simple pendulum is inversely proportional to g. Hence the time period t = 2 l / g Belt Drives:

Belts are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of a pulley. When the driver rotates, it carries the belt due to grip between its surface and the belt. The belt in turn carries, the driven pulley which starts rotating. The grip between the pulley and the belt is obtained by friction. This friction grip if required is increased by tightening the belt. The amount of power transmitted depends upon 1. Tension under the belt. 2. Velocity of belt. and 3. Arc of contact. Leather, Rubber, cotton and Balata are the materials used for belt. Flat belt, V-Belt and round belt are the different types of belt. The following are the common terms used in belts. Slip: This is caused because of less friction. The effect is that, it educes the overall velocity ratio. S1 - % Slip in driver belt. S2 - % Slip in driven belt. The speed ratio is given by N2 / N1 = ( d1+ t ) / ( d2 + t ) x ( 1 - S / 100 ) Creep: When the belt passes from slack side to the tight side, a certain portion of belt extends and contracts again when moving from tight to slack side. Because of this, there is a relative motion between belt and pulley called creep.

V- Belts: These belts are used when two pulleys are nearby each other. The included angle is usually 30o -40o. In order to have good grip the V-Belt is in contact with side faces of the groove. Chain Drives: The advantage of chain drive are that it prevents slipping. Steel chains are used. The chains are made of rigid links, which are hinged together. They wrap around the driving and driven wheels. The wheels are also called sprocket and resemble spur gears. Pitch of Chain: It is the distance between the hinge center of one link and the hinge center of the adjacent link. Gears: Following are the different types of gears. Parallel Gears: The shafts are parallel. Spur gears are where the teeth is parallel to axis of wheel. But in helical gears the teeth are inclined at an angle to the axis. A double helical gear is called as herringbone gears. Non Parallel and Intersecting Gears: Bevel and Helical bevel gears are the examples. Non Parallel and Non Intersecting Gears: Spiral Gearing. Terms Used in Gears:
S. No 1 Terms Definition

Pitch Circle

A imaginary circle which by pure rolling action would give the same motion as the actual gear. The diameter of Pitch circle. Gears are specified by this PCD.

Pitch Circle Diameter Addendum

The radial distance between the PCD and top of tooth. Addendum circle is drawn through the top of teeth and concentric to PC. The radial distance been the PC and bottom of teeth.

Deddendum

Circular Pitch

The distance measured from the circumference of the pitch circle from a point in one tooth, to the corresponding point in next tooth. it is the ratio of PCD to the number of teeth. Inverse of Module. Addendum + Deddendum Width of the tooth measured along pitch circle. Surface of gear above the pitch surface. Surface of gear above the pitch surface.

6 7 8 9 10 11

Module Diametrical pitch Total depth Tooth Thickness Face of Tooth Flank of Tooth

System of Gear Teeth:

14.5o Composite System. 14.5o Full depth involute system. 20o Full depth involute system. 20o Stub involute system. Gear ratio = T / t = Teeth on Wheel / Teeth on pinion.

Gear Trains: Two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from one shaft to another shaft. Such a combination is called as gear train. 1. 2. 3. 4. Simple gear train compound gear train Reverted gear train Epicyclic gear train.

Flywheel: It acts as a reservoir which stores energy when the energy supply is more than requirement and releases it during the period when required energy is less than supply. Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed in Flywheel : The difference between Max. and Min speeds is called as Maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio between max. fluctuation of speed and mean speed is called as Coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed.

Cs = 2 ( N2 - N1 ) / ( N2 + N1 ) 1 / Cs = m =Coefficient of steadiness. Energy stored in a fly wheel = mk2w2Cs Governors : The function is to regulate the mean speed of the engine with changes in load. The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed with the certain limits. Governors are broadly classified into Centrifugal governors and Inertia governors. Centrifugal governors :
The main principle of working of the centrifugal governor is based upon the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force.

Pendulum Type - Watt governor Load type o Dead weight governors - Proel and portel governors. o Spring controlled governors - Hartnell, hartung governors, Wilson-hartnell and Pickering governors.

Inertial governors : They operate on different principle .Governor balls are arranged that the inertia forces caused by an angular acceleration & retardation of the governor shaft tend to alter their position. The obvious advantage of this type of governor is quick response to load variation .This advantage is offset however by the practical difficulty of arranging for complete balance of the revolving parts of the governor. Equilibrium speed: Is the speed at which the governor balls are at complete equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move up or down. Sensitiveness: If there is more displacement in sleeve for the same speed then the governor is said to be sensitive. It is equal to 2 ( N2 - N1 ) / ( N2 + N 1 ) Hunting: In this the governor switches between the maximum and minimum position.

Lubrication : The different types of lubrication between two surfaces having relative motion can be classified as 1. 2. 3. 4. Fluid film lubrication Boundary lubrication Extreme boundary lubrication Surface contact of the sliding members

Fluid film lubrication: In this the moving or sliding surfaces are separated from each other by a thick film of fluid which is at least 1000 angstrom thick so that direct surface-to-surface contact and welding of junctions rarely occurs. This is also called as hydrodynamic lubrication. Fluid friction is considerably less than metallic friction and under such circumstances, the viscosity of the fluid plays an important role in the design parameters of the bearing. It is very clear that the lubricant chosen should have the minimum viscosity under the working conditions. At the same time it should remain in place and separate the surfaces. The coefficient of friction in such cases should be as low as 0.001 to 0.03. Fluid film lubrication prevails when there is high relative velocity between sliding surfaces. In a journal bearing the lubricating oil covers the irregularities of shaft as well as the bearing surfaces and the metal surfaces do not come into direct contact with each other. Boundary lubrication: This is also called as thin film lubrication. when t he relative velocity between the two sliding surfaces is very low, the fluid film will not be able to support the total load and under such circumstances boundary lubrication is done. The clearance space between the moving surface is lubricated with a lubricating oil., a thin layer of which is adsorbed, on both the metallic surfaces. These layers avoids direct metal-to-metal contact. The value of co-efficient of friction is usually, 0.05 to 0.15. The friction phenomena in this case is complicated and no exact theory is available for boundary lubricated bearings. However it has been found that certain metals and lubricants with less friction compared to others have the same viscosity improve the performance of such bearings.

Extreme boundary lubrication: When the moving surfaces are under very high pressure and speed, a high local temperature is attained and under such condition the fluid film is completely broken because of decomposition or vapoursation and there is direct metal to metal contact at that high spots of the sliding materials. High load and speed in turn generates heat with the following mentioned effects.

Welded junction and metal tearing. Deformation and seizure of surfaces. Change in physical and chemical properties of metals and lubricants that renders lubricants ineffective.

The mechanism of this type of lubrication is given below. Special additives that are capable of withstanding very high load and temperatures are added to the lubricants. These additives react with metallic surfaces at prevailing high temperatures to form metallic chlorides, sulphides or phosphides. These metallic compound posses high melting points and serve as good lubricant under high temperature and pressure conditions. If by chances, the low shear strength films are broken by the rubbing action of moving parts, they are immediately replenished. Since a chemical reaction takes place in this lubrication, the metal surface under goes certain wear. The function of lubricant is to reduce the loss of energy, to reduce surface deformation, war and tear, to increase the efficiency of engine, to reduce the frictional heat and thus prevents the expansion of metals, to reduce the maintenance cost of a machine etc. Application of Liquid Lubricants: Mechanical devices to supply lubricants are called lubricators. A simple form of lubricator is a container mounted over a bearing or other part and provided with a hole or an adjustable valve through which the lubricant is gravity-fed at the desired rate of flow. Wick-feed oilers are placed under moving parts, and by pressing against them they feed oil by capillary action. Horizontal bearings are frequently oiled by a rotating ring or chain that carries oil from a reservoir in the bearing housing and distributes it along the bearing through grooves or channels. Bath oiling is useful where an oil-tight reservoir can be provided in which the bearing journal may be submerged; the pool of oil helps to carry away heat from contact surfaces. Splash-oiling devices are used where gears, bearings, or other parts contained in housings have moving parts that dip into the lubricant and splash it on the bearings or into distribution channels. Centralized oiling systems usually consist of a reservoir, pump, and tubes through which oil is circulated, while heaters or coolers may be introduced to change the

viscosity of the lubricant for various parts of the system. Many oiling operations are automatically synchronized to start and stop with the machinery. Application of Semisolid and Solid Lubricants: Grease lubricants are semisolid and have several important advantages. They resist being squeezed out, they are useful under heavy load conditions and in inaccessible parts where the supply of lubricant cannot easily be renewed, and they tend to form a crust that prevents the entry of dirt or grit between contact surfaces. Grease is a mixture of a lubricant and a thickener; often it is made from a mineral oil and a soap. It may be applied in various ways: by packing enclosed parts with it, by pressing it onto moving parts from an adjacent well, by forcing it through grease cups by a spring device, and by pumping it through pressure guns. Solid lubricants are especially useful at high and low temperatures, in high vacuums, and in other applications where oil is not suitable; common solid lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulfide. CAM: Is a rotating machine element which transmits oscillating or reciprocating motion to the follower. They have line contact and constitutes higher pair. According to the type of follower they are classified as 1. 2. 3. 4. Knife edge follower. Roller follower. Flat faced follower and Spherical faced follower.

The four types of motion of follower are 1. 2. 3. 4. Uniform Velocity Uniform acceleration SHM and Cycloidal motion.

Types of Vibrations: 1. Free ( or natural ) vibration. 2. Forced vibration and 3. Damped vibration.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
There are three types of Materials. They are 1. Elastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and deformation disappears upon unloading. 2. Plastic : Undergoes deformation on loading and it is permanent upon unloading the effect is not reversed. 3. Rigid : No deformation on loading. Stress: When a material is subjected to a load, it undergoes deformation. Against this deformation the material offers resistance to prevent it from deformation. This force of resistance offered by a body against this deformation is called stress. The external force is called load. Load is applied on the body, while the stress is induced in the body. Load may be of two types. They are dead and live load. Dead load remains constant, but a live load varies continuously. Stress = Force ( or Pressure ) / Area = N / m2 There are different types of stress. They are tensile stress, compressive stress and shear stress. Tensile stress : When the resistance by a body is against the increase in length then it is tensile stress. e = Increase in length / Original length. Compressive stress : If the resistance offered by the body is against the decrease in length, then the stress induced is compressive stress. e = Decrease in length / Original length. Shear stress: If two equal and parallel forces F, not in the same line act on parallel faces of a member, then the member is said to be loaded in Shear. Consider the rectangular block shown in the figure, a force F is applied tangentially along the top and bottom face. ( The force is called as shear force ). The shear stress formula indicates only the average shear stress. In reality the distribution of shear stress is far from uniform. In reality it varies parabolically from zero at the edges to a maximum at the center.

Shear stress = Shear force / Area = P / ( L x H ) Shear strain = Transverse displacement / Distance form lower face. Thermal Stress : The size of a body will change as the ambient temperature fluctuates, expanding as it rises and contracting as it falls. If the natural change ( +ve or - ve ) in the length of the rod is not prevented, then the stress is not induced. The increase in length of a rod = TL. = Coefficient of linear expansion. T - Temperature rise. L - Actual change in length. Bending stress: When bending a piece of metal, one surface of the material stretches in tension while the opposite surface compresses. It follows that there is a line or region of zero stress between the two surfaces, called the neutral axis. Make the following assumptions in simple bending theory: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The beam is initially straight, unstressed and symmetric The material of the beam is linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic. The proportional limit is not exceeded. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression All deflections are small, so that planar cross-sections remain planar before and after bending.

Strain: It is the ratio of change in length to the original length. It has no units. It is expressed with the Greek word (epsilon) = dl / l Hooke's Law: Within in elastic limits, the ratio of stress to strain is constant. This constant is called Young's modulus of elasticity. In case of shear force, if the ratio of shear

stress to shear strain is also constant. That constant is called as shear modulus of rigidity. This young's modulus of elasticity is a measure of stiffness. The greater the Young's modulus for a material, the better it can withstand greater forces. More about the relation between, stress and strain is discussed in the following paragraphs. Young's modulus ( E ) = Stress / Strain.

Stress-strain curve: The relationship between the stress and strain that a material displays is known as a Stress-Strain curve. Stress-strain diagrams can be generated foraxial tension and compression, and shear loading conditions.

Tension specimens have a narrow region in the middle along the socalled gage length. Compression specimens are much thicker and shorter than tension specimens with no cross-sectional variations.

In either case, data are collected in terms of applied force and the change in the gage length. The normal stress is obtained by dividing the applied force by the cross-sectional area of the specimen, and the normal strain is obtained by dividing the change in gage length by its original value. The plot of stress versus strain gives the stress-strain diagram.. These curves reveal many of the properties of a material (including data to establish the Modulus of Elasticity, E). A typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile metal undergoing tension is given below.

Proportional limit: During the first portion of the curve (up to a strain of less than 1%), the stress and strain are proportional. The greatest stress at which a material is capable of sustaining the applied load without deviating from proportionality or stress to strain. This holds until the point 'a', the proportional limit, is reached. Stress and strain are proportional because this segment of the line is straight. Elastic limit: From a to b on the diagram, stress and strain are not proportional, but nevertheless, if the stress is removed at any point between O and b, the curve will be retraced in the opposite direction and the material will return to its original shape and length. In other words, the material will spring back into shape in a reverse order to the way it sprung out of shape to begin with. In the region Ob, then, the material is said to be elastic or to exhibit elastic behavior and the point b is called the elastic limit. The point on the stress strain curve beyond which the material permanently deforms, upon removal of the external load. If the material is stressed further, the strain increases rapidly, but when the stress is removed at some point beyond b, say c, the material does not come back to its original shape or length but returns along a different path to a different point, shown along the dashed line in figure. The length of the material at zero stress is now greater than the original length and the material is said to have a permanent set. Plastic behavior: Further increase of stress beyond c produces a large increase in strain until point d is reached at which fracture takes place. From b to d, the metal is said to undergo plastic deformation. If large plastic deformation takes place between the elastic limit and the fracture point, the metal is said to be ductile. Such materials are capable of being drawn out like a wire or hammered thin like gold leaf. If, however, fracture occurs soon after the elastic limit is passed, the metal is said to be brittle.

Ultimate strength: The maximum stress that a material withstands when subjected to an applied load. Dividing the load at failure by the cross sectional area determines the value. Yield strength: This is the point at which the material exceeds the elastic limits and will not return to the original shape, if stress is removed. This value is determined by evaluating a stress-strain diagram produced during a tensile test. The stress-strain curve for different material is different. The figure below shows the comparison of the curves for mild steel, cast iron and concrete. It can be seen that the concrete curve is almost a straight line. There is an abrupt end to the curve. This, and the fact that it is a very steep line, indicate that it is a brittle material. The curve for cast iron has a slight curve to it. It is also a brittle material. Both of these materials will fail with little warning once their limits are surpassed. Notice that the curve for mild steel seems to have a long gently curving "tail". This indicates a behavior that is distinctly different than either concrete or cast iron. The graph shows that after a certain point mild steel will continue to strain (in the case of tension, to stretch) as the stress (the loading) remains more or less constant. The steel will actually stretch like taffy. This is a material property which indicates a high ductility.

If the original cross-sectional area is used to calculate the stress for every value of applied force, then the resulting diagram is known as the Engineering StressStrain Diagram. However, if the applied force is divided by the actual value of the cross-sectional area, then the resulting diagram is known as the True Stress-Strain Diagram. Therefore, in engineering stress-strain diagram the ultimate and failure strength points do not coincide whereas in the true diagram they do. The difference in the two diagrams becomes apparent in the inelastic region of the curve where the change in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes very significant.

Yielding:
Yielding occurs when the design stress exceeds the material yield strength. Design stress is typically maximum surface stress (simple loading) or Von Mises stress (complex loading conditions). The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding

occurs when the Von Mises stress, v exceeds the yield strength in tension. Often, Finite Element Analysis stress results use Von Mises stresses. Von Mises stress is -----------------------------------------( 1- 2 )2 + ( 2- 3 )2 + ( 13 )2 = ---------------------------------------2 Where 1, 2, 3 are principal stresses. Safety factor is a function of design stress and yield strength. The following equation denotes safety factor, fs. Where Y S is the Yield Strength and D S is the Design Stress YS fs= --DS Poisson Ratio: Within elastic limits the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant and is equal to Poisson ratio. When a load is applied on a body, there is a dimensional increase along the longitudinal direction and dimensional decrease in lateral direction. Poisson ratio is constant for a given material.

Rubber has a Poisson ratio close to 0.5 and is therefore almost incompressible. Cork, on the other hand, has a Poisson ratio close to zero. This makes cork function well as a bottle stopper, since an axially-loaded cork will not swell laterally to resist bottle insertion. For non-dilatant materials the Poisson ratio is 0.6. The Poisson ratio for most metals falls between 0.25 to 0.35. However the limiting values of Poisson ratio is -1 and 0.5 Theoretical materials with a Poisson ratio of exactly 0.5 are truly incompressible, since the sum of all their strains leads to a zero volume change.

Volumetric Strain ( ev ): Because of increase in length, and decrease in breadth and depth, there is a change in volume. Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in Volume to original volume. Ductility: It is the capability of a material to be drawn into wires. There are two methods used for its measurement. One based on total elongation produced and other based on total reduction in sectional area. % increase in elongation = ( L- l ) / l % reduction in cross sectional area = ( A - a ) / A x 100

Impact Test: This test is used to find out the resistance of a body against shock load. This is called as Izod impact test. The test specimen is a 10 mm square rod and notched at a face. The notch is at a depth of 2 mm and a radius of 0.25 mm at the bottom. It is fixed in a vice. The pendulum is raised and the value stored is around 165 joules. Fatigue: Sometimes members are subjected to loads that vary in magnitudes. They may be even reversible loading. ( The member is subjected to repeated tensile and compressive stress ). These members fail at point lower than ultimate stress. This property is called fatigue of materials. At a certain range of applied stress, the number of cycles becomes infinite. That limit is called as Endurance limit.

Strain Energy: It is the energy stored on a member when work is done on it to deform it. Types of Loading: There are three types of loading. They are

Gradually applied load, Suddenly applied load and Impact load.

Torsion in Shafts: A shaft of circular cross section is said to be in torsion, when it is subjected to equal and opposite end couples. Whose axes coincide with axes of shaft. As a result of torsion, a shaft twists. Torsional Rigidity: It is the amount of torque required to produce a twist of 1 radian at unit length of shaft. Beams: These are structural members in which the load is applied at right angles to the axis. The following are the different types of beams.

Cantilever beams, Freely supported beams,

Fixed beams and Continuous beams.

Column and Struts: These are members that are subjected to compressive load along the axis. Short columns fail by crushing. Thus we have to take care of crushing load. But long columns fail by buckling or bending, hence we have to take care of crippling load. This buckling load is less than the crushing load. This value of bucking load is low for long members and vice versa. Thus buckling load depends on

Length of member and Least lateral dimensions.

Effective length: Of a given column with the given end conditions is the length of the equivalent column of the same section with hinged ends. The crippling load is same in both cases. The effective length under different conditions is given by

Both ends pinned L = l One end fixed and other end free L = 2l Both fixed L = l / 2 One end fixed and other end hinged L = l / 2

Proof resilience: It is the maximum energy stored at elastic limits. Factor of Safety: It is the ratio of Ultimate stress / allowable stress. Following are the reasons why factor of safety is used in manufacturing and design. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Loading uncertainty Type of loading - Static, dynamic and impact. Machine strength uncertainty Work environment - corrosive Reliability requirements and Effect of manufacturing process.

Bulk Modulus: It is the ratio of applied Stress to volumetric strain. Stress concentration: Sometimes the cross section of a member changes abruptly because of presence of a hole, notch, groove or shoulder. In regions close to the abrupt change the stress is of high magnitude. This change in section is called discontinuity or stress raisers. Following are the causes. 1. Variation in properties of materials due to presence of internal cracks, air holes in casting, cavities in welds 2. Abrupt changes in cross sectional area or due to surface conditions like cuts and grooves. Disc springs: Disc spring / Belleville spring, Occupy small space and gives high spring rates. Parallel arrangement takes a higher load for a given deflection and series arrangement gives a larger deflection. Leaf springs are used in automobiles. They are energy absorbing devices. There are two types. Constant width and constant strength springs. HARDNESS Hardness of a substance is the resistance that a body offers or indentation by other bodies. For testing hardness, there are two tests. They are Scratch test and Indentation test. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation. In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to being scratched by another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist plastic deformation. Hardness measurement methods: These hardness tests measure a metal's hardness is to determine the metal's resistance to the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth which such a ball or cone will sink into the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time. The followings are the most common hardness test methods used in today's technology. More details about each test is given in subsequently. 1. Rockwell hardness test 2. Brinell hardness

3. Vickers 4. Knoop hardness 5. Shore Rockwell Hardness Test: The Rockwell Hardness test is based on the net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no units and are indicated R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the number in each of the scales means the harder the material. The type of indenter and the test load determine the hardness scale (A, B, C, etc). In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, the depth of penetration of an indenter under certain arbitrary test conditions is determined. The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120 angle and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The Rockwell test uses two loads, one applied directly after the other. The first load, known as the "minor", load of 10 kilograms is applied to the specimen to help seat the indenter and remove the effects, in the test, of any surface irregularities. In essence, the minor load creates a uniformly shaped surface for the major load to be applied to. A minor load causes an initial penetration and holds the indenter in place. Then, the dial is set to zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The difference in the depth of the indentation between the minor and major loads provides the Rockwell hardness number. The hardness number may then be read directly from the scale. The Rockwell hardness tester to measure the hardness of metal measures resistance to penetration like the Brinell test, but in the Rockwell case, the depth of the impression is measured rather than the diametric area. With the Rockwell tester, the hardness is indicated directly on the scale attached to the machine. This dial like scale is really a depth gauge, graduated in special units. For soft materials a 1/16" diameter steel ball is used with a 100kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "B" scale. In testing harder materials, a 120 degrees diamond cone is used with up to a 150 kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "C" scale. There are several Rockwell scales other than "B" & "C" scales, (which are called the common scales). The other scales also use a letter for the scale symbol prefix, and many use a different sized steel ball indenter. A properly used Rockwell designation will have the hardness number followed by "HR" (Hardness Rockwell), which will be followed by another letter which indicates the specific

Rockwell scale. An example is 60 HRB, which indicates that the specimen has a hardness reading of 60 on the B scale. Brinell Hardness Test: Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified diameter under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the diameter of the indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, is obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in square millimeters. The result is a pressure measurement, but the units are rarely stated. The BHN is calculated according to the following formula

where BHN = the Brinell hardness number F = the imposed load in kg D = the diameter of the spherical indenter in mm Di = diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm The Brinell hardness test uses a desk top machine to press a 10 mm diameter, hardened steel ball into the surface of the test specimen. The machine applies a load of 500 kilograms for soft metals such as copper, brass and thin stock. A 1500 kilogram load is used for aluminum castings, and a 3000 kilogram load is used for materials such as iron and steel. The load is usually applied for 10 to 15 seconds. After the impression is made, a measurement of the diameter of the resulting round impression is taken. It is measured to plus or minus 0.05mm using a lowmagnification portable microscope. The hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the area of the curved surface of the indention, (the area of a hemispherical surface is arrived at by multiplying the square of the diameter

by 3.14159 and then dividing by 2 -As shown in the formula above). A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Vickers Hardness Test: It is the standard method for measuring the hardness of metals, particularly those with extremely hard surfaces, the surface is subjected to a standard pressure for a standard length of time by means of a pyramidshaped diamond. The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under a microscope and the Vickers Hardness value read from a conversion table. The indenter employed in the Vickers test is a square-based diamond pyramid whose opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of 136. The diamond material of the indenter has an advantage over other indenters because it does not deform over time and use The diamond is pressed into the surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately 120 kilograms-force, and the size of the impression (usually no more than 0.5 mm) is measured with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The Vickers number (HV) is calculated using the following formula HV = 1.854(F/D2), Where F is the applied load (measured in kilograms-force) and D2 the area of the indentation (measured in square millimeters). The impression left by the Vickers penetrator is a dark square on a light background. The Vickers impression is more easily "read" for area size than the circular impression of the Brinell method. The load varies from 1 to 120 kilograms. To perform the Vickers test, the specimen is placed on an anvil that has a screw threaded base. The anvil is turned raising it by the screw threads until it is close to the point of the indenter. With start lever activated, the load is slowly applied to the indenter. The load is released and the anvil with the specimen is lowered. The operation of applying and removing the load is controlled automatically. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers machine more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.

Vickers hardness test.

Knoops Hardness Test

Knoop hardness: This test method was devised in 1939 by F. Knoop at the National Bureau of Standards in the United States. By using lower indentation pressures than the Vickers hardness test, which had been designed for measuring metals, the Knoop test allowed the hardness testing of brittle materials such as glass and ceramics. In this test, a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter with apical angles of 130 and 17230 (called a Knoop indenter) is pressed against a material. Making a thombohedral impression with one diagonal seven times longer than the other. The hardness of the material is determined by the depth to which the Knoop indenter penetrates. The diamond indenter employed in the Knoop test is in the shape of an elongated four-sided pyramid, with the angle between two of the opposite faces being approximately 170 and the angle between the other two being 130. Pressed into the material under loads that are often less than one kilogram-force, the indenter leaves a four-sided impression about 0.01 to 0.1 mm in size. The length of the impression is approximately seven times the width, and the depth is 1/30 the length. Given such dimensions, the area of the impression under load can be calculated after measuring only the length of the longest side with the aid of a calibrated microscope. The final Knoop hardness (HK) is derived from the following formula

HK = 14.229(F/D2), Where F is the applied load (measured in kilograms-force) and D2 the area of the indentation (measured in square millimeters). Knoop hardness numbers are often cited in conjunction with specific load values. Shore: The shore scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material. A diamond-tipped hammer in a graduated glass tube is allowed to fall from a known height on the specimen to be tested, and the hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds; the harder the material, the higher the rebound. Shore hardness is a measure of the resistance of material to indentation by 3 spring-loaded indenter. The higher the number, the greater the resistance. The Shore hardness is measured with an apparatus known as a Durometer and consequently is also known as 'Durometer hardness'. The hardness value is determined by the penetration of the Durometer indenter foot into the sample. Because of the resilience of rubbers and plastics, the hardness reading may change over time - so the indentation time is sometimes reported along with the hardness number. Shore Hardness, using either the Shore A or Shore D scale, is the preferred method for rubbers/elastomers and is also commonly used for 'softer' plastics. The Shore A scale is used for 'softer' rubbers while the Shore D scale is used for 'harder' ones. The shore A Hardness is the relative hardness of elastic materials such as rubber or soft plastics can be determined with an instrument called a Shore A durometer. If the indenter completely penetrates the sample, a reading of 0 is obtained, and if no penetration occurs, a reading of 100 results. The reading is dimensionless. EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS Introduction: When mathematical methods become too cubersome or impossible for application as in the case of determining stress concentration around openings ( discontinuity ) or member with unusual cross section, experimental methods are used to determine the stresses. This methods are known as "Experimental stress analysis". Number of methods are available to obtain stress or strain distribution in loaded members. Often it is necessary to know either the stress or strain distribution in the whole field on the stresses or strains at selected points. The stress distribution in the entire field is obtained by the following methods.

Whole field method: This method gives the overall (entire) stress distribution in the loaded member. Two techniques, namely, the photo elastic method and the brittle lacquer technique are available to evaluate the stress distribution in the entire field. Point by point method: This gives the stress or strain at selected points, usually strain gauges are used to obtain stresses at selected points. Photo elastic method: This method is one which is extensively used to solve the problem in practical way. Basic principle involved in this method is "double refraction" or "Bi-refringence". So, this method depends upon the property of certain transparent solids by which they become doubly refractive under the action of stress, the magnitude of optical effect bearing a definite relation to that of the stress. This optical phenomenon is called as photo elastic effect. The photo elastic method of evaluating the stress in a stress field is based on the following two photo elastic laws. 1. "The light on passing through a stressed model becomes polarized in the direction of principle stress axes and is transmitted only on the plane of principal stress" 2. "The velocity of transmission in each principal plane is dependent on the intensity of the principal stress in these planes. When a ray of light is incident on certain crystals, it is split at entry into components which generally, are transmitted through the crystal in different directions with different velocities. This phenomenon is known as "Natural double refraction" or "Bi-refringence". One of the component which is not deviated is known as the "Ordinary ray" and the other ray, which is always deviated is called the "Extra ordinary ray". For some crystalline transparent materials such as mica, calcite, the property of double refraction is a permanent property of material. Certain transparent materials such as perpix, bakelite, araldite are optically sensitive and exhibit the property of double refraction when external loads are applied. This optical effect disappears when the external loads are removed. In other words these materials are ordinarily isotropic, optically but become optically anisotropic when loaded and display double refraction characteristics temporarily. Such materials are called as photo elastic materials.

When a material is subjected to external loads, it develops principal stresses P1 and P2 at any point 'O' along two mutually perpendicular directions. Because of this property of the material to exhibit double refraction when stressed, the refractive index of the material which is n1 in the direction of the principal stress P1 changes to n2 in the direction of the principal stress P2. The changes in the refractive indices is fount to be linearly proportional to the stresses. The color of light is due to the frequency of waves and each frequency produces a different color (VIBGYOR). A monochromatic light may be considered as a light corresponding a particular wave length and color. Thus, light from mercury vapor lamp produces green and violet color with different wave frequencies. However, when a suitable filter is used, violet waves may be absorbed and only green light may be obtained. "Monochromatic light' is a light corresponding to a particular wave length or color and are obtained by using suitable filters. "Polarization" denotes the ability to extinguish light in all direction except one. "Polariscopes" are devised to produce polarization of light. For the photo elastic investigations two types of polariscope are used.

Plane polariscope, plane polarized light is used, Circular polariscope, circular polarized light is used.

A plane polariscope consists of a light source, to emit monochromatic light and white light, condensing lens to collect white rays, the field lens to give a parallel light beam, the polarize to produce plane polarized light, the loading frame by which external load can be applied as the model itself made out of photo elastic material such as Epoxy resins, columbic resin (CR - 39), homolite 100, Bakelite (carsalin 61 - 893), glass etc. An analyzer which would combine the two beams emerging out of the model to produce "Interference fringes". The projection lens projects the image or the stress pattern on the screen. A camera may also be used in pace of the screen to get the permanent record of the fringe patterns. A typical arrangement of a plane polariscope is shown in the figure below.

To analyzing the stress pattern, a scale model of the loaded member is made using a photo elastic material. The model is subjected to loads similar to the one that might be applied on the original member. Light, on passing through the polarizer, will be plane polarized, on entering the stress model, the light vector decomposes into two vectors along the two principal plane directions. As the result of this optical effect stress patterns known as "fringes" are developed. Fringes represent the loci or points of equal "Phase difference" produced by "temporary double refraction". There are points of equal brightness or darkness. "Phase difference" is proportional to the difference of principal stresses or maximum shear stress. The fringe pattern related to the principal stress difference is called "Isochromatic fringe pattern" the fringe pattern consists of 'isoclinic and isochromatic' fringes. Using law of elasticity and stress-optic law the stress pattern produced are transformed into stress differences and ultimately the state of stress at all points of the model are obtained. One such advanced automatic polariscope is shown in the figure.

Brittle coating method: In this method, a brittle coating is sprayed over the surface of the specimen for about 0.1 to 0.25 mm thick. The coating is allowed to dry completely. The loads are applied on the sample. Since the coating is very ting the strains on the surface of the specimen are totally transmitted to the coating without any increase or decrease. White wash on walls represent the very common example of brittle coating, but these coatings require large strains to cause them crack. When the specimen is stressed, the coating cracks in a direction perpendicular to the maximum principal stress. Stresses in the specimen and the stresses in the coating are related using the theory of elasticity. This method represent on the non-destructive methods of stress determination and the coating fails at very low stresses and the specimen is not over stressed. Commonly used coating is known as "Stress coat" and consist of a zing resinate as base, carbon di sulphide as solvent and dibutyl pthlate as plasticizer to control the plasticity of the coating and to vary the degree of brittleness of the coating. This method is inexpensive and stress evaluation is easy and quick and also provides a simple and direct approach for failure analysis or is service components, determining the location and direction of stress sensors such as strain gauges. It is also useful in determining areas of stress concentration, measurements of thermal and residual strains in members and estimating the magnitude and directions of principal stresses in a stress fields. Following are the advantage of this method. Enables stress in the whole field to be determined, Directly applied to a prototype, no need for a model, This technique may be applied to an actual machine component while working, and hence no need for simulation. Analyzing the specimen stressed from coating stresses is simple and easy. Disadvantages: 1. Behavior of coating depends upon temperature and humidity. 2. Behavior of coating should be properly understood as a number of variables affect the behavior. 3. The technique is more qualitative than quantitative. Strain gauges:

A strain gauge may be defined a any instrument or device that is employed to measure the linear deformation over a given gauge length, occurring in the material of a structure during the loading of structure. Depending upon the magnification system, the strain gauges may be classified as follows

Mechanical gauges ( wedge and screw, lever spindle and compound, rack and pinion, combination of lever and rack and pinion and dial indicators) Optical strain gauges. Interferometric type Electrical (Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance, Pieze electric and Piezo resistive) Magnetic Acoustical and Photo stress gauge. Mechanical strain gauge:

To meet the demand for greater sensitivity while retaining the advantage of relative ease of applying the mechanical gauges, mechanical magnification is used. Two commercially available gauges are Berry gauge and Tinius olsen strain gauge. BERRY GAUGE

TINIUS AND OLESON GAUGE Rack and Pinion: The rack and pinion principle along with various types of gear trains is employed in gauges in which the magnification system is incorporated in an indicating dial. In general a dial indicator consists of an encased gear train actuated by a rack cut in the spindle, which follows the motion to be measured. A spring imposes sufficient spindle force to maintain a reasonable uniform and positive contact with moving part. The gear train terminates with a light weight pointer which indicates spindle travel on a graduated dial. Lost motion in the gear train is minimized by the positive force of a small coil spring. Dial gauges are permanently attached to structure to indicate the deflection on deformation obtained under working conditions These gauges then indicate excessive deformation due to either an overload or damage to the structure. Electrical strain gauges: These are usually measured on a small area. A very thin wire, usually 20 - 25 microns in diameter and having a considerable initial resistance is used to measure the strain at a point. This think wire is attached to the specimen surface using a suitable adhesive at the point where strain is to be measured in such a way that the strains on the surface of the specimen is totally transmitted to the wire. When the specimen suffers a tensile strain, the length of the wire increases, thus its area decreases and consequently the resistance will increase. This change in resistance is

proportional to the tensile strain suffered by the specimen therefore, by measuring the change in resistance the strain at the surface of the specimen may be evaluated. Most commonly used alloys as strain gauges are constantan (Nickel copper alloy), Nichrome (Nickel chromium alloy) and Isoelastic (Nickel, chromium, Molybdenum and Iron alloy). Resin adhesives are commonly used. BOOKS ON STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 1. Schaum's Outline of Statics and Strength of Materials by by John H. Jackson 2. Problem Solver in Strength of Materials and Mechanics of Solids by James R. Ogden 3. Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Robert Cook 4. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design by Alexander Blake 5. Advanced Strength of Materials by J. P. Den Hartog 6. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design by Alexander Blake 7. Mechanics of Materials by James M. Gere 8. Advanced Mechanics of Materials by Richard J. Schmidt, Arthur P. Boresi 9. Mechanics of Materials by Anthony Bedford, Kenneth M. Liechti 10. Applied Statics and Strength of Materials (3rd Edition) by Leonard Spiegel, George F. Limbrunner 11. Strength of Materials and Mechanics of Solids Problem Solver by James Ogden

GRINDING
Grinding is a finishing process used to improve surface finish, abrade hard materials, and tighten the tolerance on flat and cylindrical surfaces by removing a small amount of material. In grinding, an abrasive material rubs against the metal part and removes tiny pieces of material. The abrasive material is typically on the surface of a wheel or belt and abrades material in a way similar to sanding. On a microscopic scale, the chip formation in grinding is the same as that found in other machining processes. The abrasive action of grinding generates excessive heat so that flooding of the cutting area with fluid is necessary. Following are the reasons for using grinding operation.

The material is too hard to be machined economically. (The material may have been hardened in order to produce a low-wear finish, such as that in a bearing raceway.). Tolerances required preclude machining. Grinding can produce flatness tolerances of less than 0.0025 mm (0.0001 in) on a 127 x 127 mm (5 x 5 in) steel surface if the surface is adequately supported. Machining removes excessive material.

Principle of Operation: To grind means to abrade, to war away by friction or to sharpen. In manufacturing it refers to the removal of metal by an abrasive wheel rotating at high speeds and working on the external or internal surface of a metallic or other part hard enough to be abraded, rather than indented by the grinding wheel. The action of the grinding wheel is similar to that of a milling cutter. The grinding wheel is composed of many small abrasive particles bounded together, each one acting as a miniature cutting point. Grinding removes metal from the work piece in the form of small chips by the mechanical action of abrasive particles bonded together in a grinding wheel. Grinding operations : Following are the different grinding operations that could be performed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Grinding flat surface Grinding vertical surface Grinding slot Grinding angular surfaces Grinding a radius

6. Cutting off. TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES: Grinding machines are designed principally for finishing parts having cylindrical, flat or internal surfaces. The kind of surface machined largely determines the type of grinding machine. Following is the classification of various types of grinding machines. 1. Surface grinding machine: It is a precision grinding machine to produce flat surfaces on a work piece. It is more economical and practical method of accurately finished flat surfaces than filling and scraping. The grinding is done on the circumference of the plain wheel. Area of contact is less. Following are the different types of surface grinders. In general, following are the parts of any grinding machine. Base: It has a driving mechanism ( hydraulic device, tank and motor. ) It has column at the back for supporting the wheel head. Saddle: It is the frame. It carries the table in its cross wise movement. It is used to give cross-feed to the work. It can be moved by hand feed or autofeed. Table: It is fitted on the saddle. It reciprocates along the guide ways to proved the longitudinal feed to the work. It has 'T' slots for clamping purposes. It is moved by hand or auto-feed. Wheel head: It is mounted on the column. It can be moved vertically up and down to accommodate work piece of different lengths. The wheel rotates at a constant speed of 1500 m / min.
Horizontal spindle reciprocating table Horizontal spindle rotary table

Vertical spindle reciprocating table

Vertical spindle rotary table

Specification of surface grinder:

Maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held one the spindle. Maximum size of the job that can be ground. The type of drive of the work table ( Hydraulic / electrical )

2. Centered Grinding: Grinding for surfaces of rotation (axially symmetric surfaces) can be either centered or centerless. Centered grinding involves fixturing the part on a spindle axis as it is ground, as illustrated below. This configuration can be compared to fixturing a part on a lathe with or without a tail stock. The abrasive material is on a grinding wheel that rotates in a direction such that rolling or sliding contact occurs where the wheel and work piece touch. Centered grinding is accurate and stable, but set-up takes time and throughput suffers.

3. Centreless Grinding: Center less grinding is similar to centered grinding except that there is no spindle. This allows high through-put since parts can be quickly inserted and removed from the process. Out of the two wheels the large wheel is the grinding wheel, and the smaller one is the pressure wheel. In operation, the pressure exerted by the grinding wheel on the work forces the work against the work rest and regulating wheel. The regulating wheel is of rubber bonded abrasive having the frictional characteristics to rotate the work at its own rotational speed. The axial movement of the work piece past the grinding wheels is obtained, by tilting the regulating wheel at a slight angel from horizontal. An angular adjustment of 0o to 10o is provided in the machine for this purpose. There are three main types of center less grinding. Through-feed grinding: In through-feed grinding, the part rotates between the grinding wheel and a regulating wheel as shown below. For through-feed grinding, one or both wheels of the centerless grinding machine are canted out of the horizontal plane, as shown below. This imparts a horizontal velocity component to the work piece, so that outside feed mechanisms are not necessary. The grinding wheel is canted with respect to the other two axes so that a component of its surface velocity pushes the part in the direction shown below. This auto feeding characteristic is useful for rapidly processing many parts in quick sequence. Because of the axial movement, through-feed parts can only have right circular cylindrical ground surfaces. The wheel cannot be dressed to grind more complex shapes.

In-Feed Grinding: It is used for jobs that, because of a shoulder or some other obstruction on the part, can only enter the machine so far and then, after the grinding is done, must be with drawn. In-feed grinding differs from through-feed grinding in that the part is not fed axially so that the ground surface does not need to be a right circular cylinder. The grinding wheel can be dressed to accommodate the part. Once the work piece part is in place, the grinding wheel is fed in radially. Because of the set up time involved for each part, in-feed grinding does not have the high throughput of through-feed grinding. In-feed grinding is illustrated below.

End-Feed Grinding: In end-feed grinding, the part moves in axially between the grinding wheels, stops for grinding, and then moves out again. The wheel can be dressed to form more complex shapes, but the part can only get progressively smaller in diameter. End-feed grinding is illustrated below.

Advantage: Center less grinding is used when large quantities of the same part are required. Production is high and cost are relatively low because there is not need to drill center holes nor to mount the work in holding device. Almost an material can be ground with this technique. Minimum time is lost in loading and unloading. Since no axial force is acting on the work piece, long slender work pieces can be used without being distorted. Large grinding wheels are used and hence wear is less and minimum amount of adjustment. A low order of skill is required to attend the centerless grinding much of the time. 4. Cylindrical grinder: It produces a cylindrical or conical shape on a work piece. The work piece is mounted between centers or in a chuck and the face of the grinding wheel passes over the external surface of the revolving work piece. There are two types of cylindrical grinders. They are Plain cylindrical grinders: These are the machines that are designed for simple external grinding. The wheel head is made to operate to and from the work table but cannot be swiveled. The work table holds the work head and tail stock and can be swiveled for slight tapers. The head stock is rigidly attached to the work table and cannot be swiveled. It is located to the left of the operator. These grinders are used to produce

Plain or stepped surface, External cylinders. Tapers, Concave or convex radii, Under cuts and Form grinding by dressing the grinding wheel the desired shape.

Universal cylindrical grinders: It is different from the above grinder in the sense that the wheel head can be swiveled on its base and can be fed to and from the table. The upper work table can be swiveled and is equipped with scales and adjusting screws for setting the table to produce slight tapers. Steep tapers may be ground by swiveling the headstock on its base. The universal grinding machine is a tool room machine. 5. Internal Grinder: It is designed to facilitate the finishing of holes. There are three type of internal grinders. They are

Work rotating type machine is commonly used in tool and die rooms. In this grinder, the wheel head may be stationary with a reciprocating work table or the wheel head may reciprocate and the work table remains stationery. Planetary internal grinder is where the wheel spindle is arranged that besides rotating on its axis it can be made to run eccentrically, thus making it possible to grind large holes of varying diameter depending upon how much the wheel spindle is made to run eccentric. The work is mounted on a table which has vertical, horizontal and longitudinal adjustments similar to those of the plain milling machine. Centreless internal grinder works on a roller chucking principle in which the rollers hold the work and impart the rotary motion to the work. The wheel head has reciprocating motion and may be fed in and out by hand. This machine issued for work of a repetitive nature.

6. Tool and cutter grinder: In a machine shop, many of the operations are done by single point cutting tools or multipoint cutting tools called as milling cutters. The cutting tools become blunt and becomes important to carry out resharpening. This is done in tool rooms where a tool and cutter grinder is sued for this purpose. A universal tool and cutter grinder is used to resharpen reamers, taps, single point tools dies and punches. A tool and cutter

grinder is also used as a surface, grinding, cylindrical grinding and internal grinding machine with the help of certain attachments.

GRINDING WHEELS: A grinding wheel may be considered as a multipoint cutting tool with a cutting action similar to that of a milling cutter except that the cutting points are irregularly shaped and randomly distributed over the active face of the wheel. In order to make the grinding wheel suitable for different work situations, the features such as abrasive, grain size, grade, structure and bonding materials can be varied. Those grains which actually perform the cutting operation are called active grains. In peripheral grinding, each active grain removes a short chip of gradually increasing thickness in a way that is similar to the action of a tooth on a slab milling cutter. Because of irregular shape of the grains, there is considerable plowing action, between each active grain and the new work surface. The plowing results in progressive wear, causing the formation of worn areas on the active grains. As grinding proceeds the number and size of these worn areas increase, thus increasing the interference or friction, resulting in an increase in the force acting on the grain. Eventually this force become large enough to tear the work grain from the bond of the wheel and thus expose a new cutting edges. Thus grinding wheel has self sharpening characteristics. A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the cutting and a bond that holds the abrasive particles together. There are two types of abrasives. They are Natural and Artificial abrasives. The natural abrasives are emery and corundum. These are impure forms of aluminum oxide. Artificial abrasives are silicon carbide and aluminum oxide. The abrasives are selected depending upon the materials to be ground. Following are important criteria in grinding wheel manufacture. Grain size: The number indicating the size of the grit represents the number of openings in the sieve used to size the grain. Larger the grit size number, finer the grit. Grade: Indicates the strength of the bond and, therefore the hardness of the wheel. In a hard wheel the bond is strong and it securely anchors the grit in place, and therefore, reduces the rate of wear. In a soft wheel, the bond is weak and he grit is easily detached resulting in a high rate of wear.

Structure: This indicate the amount of bond present between the individual abrasive grains, and the closeness of the individual grains to each other. An open structure will cut more freely. That is, it will remove more material in a give time and produce less heat. Bond: Is a substance which, when mixed with abrasive grains holds them together, enabling the mixture to be shaped in the form of the wheel, and after suitable treatment to take on the form of the wheel and the necessary mechanical strength for its work. The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called as 'grade' of the wheel, and this indicates the ability of the bond to hold the abrasive grains in the wheel. There are several types of bonding materials used for making wheels. Types of bonding: Vitrified bonding ( V ): Vitrify means to change into glass by heat and fusion. Thus when clay, feldspar or flint are mixed with the abrasive grains and heated to 1200o C, the ceramic material melts and forms a lass like coating and bonding agent for the grains. The forming of wheels is mostly done by the puddled or pressed process. In puddled process, the correct proportion of grain and bonding material are mixed wet and poured into a molt to dry. The wheel is then shaped on a machine operating on the principle of potters wheel. The wheel are then charged into a kiln for the burning process which takes 2 - 3 weeks. In pressed process the grains and bonding clay are mixed in a semi-dry state and the wheel moulded under pressure. But this process the wheels can be made under better control as regards density, giving a wider range of grades. It has high porosity and strength which makes this type of wheel suitable for high rate of stock removal. It is not adversely affected by water, acid, oils at ordinary temperature conditions. Silicate bonding ( S ): Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less hardness than vitrified wheels. For this reason they are suitable for grinding fine edge tools, cutlery etc. Shellac bonding ( E ):

This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where a fine finish is required. These are expensive and comparatively very rare. They are used where their exceptionally cool cutting abilities are essential to prevent burn damage or to provide very fine finish. Applications include metallurgical sample cutting and Tool & Cutter grinding for reclaiming broken slot and end mills. Shellac wheels may be made to 3 mm or less in thickness. Shellac wheels posses considerable elasticity. Rubber bonding ( R ): This is used where a small degree of flexibility is required on the wheel as in the cutting of the cutting off wheels. They produce good quality of cut with minimal of burr formation. This could be uses in places where there is polishing of metals such as ball bearing races and for cutoff wheels where burr and burn must be avoided. Resinoid bonding ( B ): This is used for high speed wheels. Such wheels are used in foundries for dressing castings. Resinoid bond wheels are also used for cutting off parts. They are strong enough to with stand considerable abuse. Resinoid bond is made from powdered synthetic resin used as phenol formaldehyde. This is mixed pressed and heated to 177o C. After cooling, this makes a wheel which is less brittle, tougher and more flexible than the vitrified bond and which can be run up to 2900 m/min. Wheel structure: Wheel structure defines how "open" or "closed" the wheel surface is. An "open" wheel is one with the grits spaced relatively far apart, a "closed" wheel is one with the grits spaced close together. For conventional wheels, it is assigned a number, normally between 1 [most closed] and 15 [most open]. It is a measure of the percentage of grit by volume. The less volume of grit, the more open the wheel structure is with more space for coolant and chip clearance. Vitrified bond wheels naturally have a certain amount of porosity in their structure. The porosity level can typically be up to 50%. The structure can be artificially changed to increase the porosity level by introducing an additional material when the grit and bond are mixed together before firing. This material is in particle form of a specified size. During firing of the wheel, this material is removed to leave pores of the same size as the original particles. This type of wheel is called an induced porosity wheel. The wheel then contains natural porosity plus induced porosity as shown in the figure. Induced porosity wheels provide additional space for chip

clearance and for coolant. They are particularly useful for grinding processes which have a long arc of contact between wheel and component. For this reason, they are used almost invariably for creep feed grinding. They are also used for the grinding of rubbers, plastics and polyurethane.

Types of Lay: Each method will produce a characteristic finished determined by the lay of the surface of the work piece after the grinding operation. A straight wheel with reciprocating motion produces fine straight lines on the work piece. Where as a cup wheel with reciprocating motion will produce curving lines. A cup wheel with rotating work piece will produce concentric circles. Marking system for grinding wheels: Standard wheel markings specify all the important wheel characteristics. The marking system comprises of seven symbols which are arranged in the following order. E.g.. 51 - A46 H5V8 51 - Manufacturers symbol for abrasive AA - Type of abrasive grit 46 - Grain size H - Grade 5 - Structure

V - Type of bond 8 - Manufacturers own mark. Specification of grinding wheels: A grinding wheel is specified by the marking, shape, outside diameter, bore diameter, thickness etc. A recessed wheel is specified with all the above given particulars plus the diameter of the recess and the depth of the recess. Selection of grinding wheel: For grinding a job the right grinding wheel is to be selected. The selection of a grinding wheel will depend on the following factors. Material to be ground: For grinding high tensile material an aluminum oxide wheel, and for low tensile material silicon, a carbide wheel should be selected. For grinding hard materials a soft wheel and for grinding soft material, a hard wheel is chosen. Amount of stock to be removed: When the stock of material to be removed is more with heavy cuts select a coarse grain, open structured and hard grade wheels. For removing less stock of material with light cut, select fine dense structured soft wheel. Finish required: Rough finish requires coarse grains and open structure. High finish requires fine grain and dense structure. Area of contact: The are of contact depends on the size of the work piece, the grinding wheel and the nature of operation. When the area of contact is more a soft grade and coarse grain wheel is to be selected. For less area of contact select hard grade and fine grain wheel. Type of grinding operation: The selection of grinding wheel is affected by the grinding operation to be done. The wheel shape and size are to be selected on the basis of the grinding operation such as surface, cylindrical or tool grinding. Wheel speed: Generally the speed at which a grinding wheel is to be used will be marked on the wheel by the manufacturer. Select a soft wheel for high speed and a hard wheel for low speed. Work speed: Select a hard wheel for high work speed and a soft wheel for low work speed.

Condition of the machine: For rigid and new machines, select a soft grade and open structured wheel. For light and old machines, select a hard grade and dense structured wheel. Personal factor: A skilled person can do the operation effectively, even if there is a slight deviation in the selection. But for a semi skilled labor, perfect selection is essential. Method of cooling: If better cooling is required select an open structured wheel. Always the coolant should be directed at the cutting areas to minimize the heat and to wash away the grain particles. Balancing of grinding wheels: When a new grinding wheel is used it should be checked for balancing. Most manufacturers balance their wheels before selling them. For checking the balance of the grinding wheels, it is mounted at the center of a perfect straight and round spindle, the assembly then being rested on level knife-edge ways on a lathe bed or on a special stand. For the test to be really satisfactory the wheel should be mounted on its won spindle. The wheel is then rolled a little and left. Any out of balance will result in the wheel coming to the rest with the heavy side underneath. Balancing may be achieved by adding lead weight to the light side. This may be accomplished by removing small amounts of the wheel beneath the flanges and then filling the hole thus made with lead. The wheel is mounted on its own spindle kept on knife edge ways, and again give a slight push, allowing it to roll back and forth until it comes to rest, which it will do with the heavy portion of the wheel at the bottom. Continue adding weight from the wheel, until it is balanced. This will be evident when the wheel rolls to a gentle sop with no apparent tendency to roll backward.

Types of grinding fluid: There are 5 main types of grinding fluid. Of these four are water based and the other is a neat oil. With the water based fluids, the main constituent is water with a concentrate added to a specified percentage. The concentrate should always be added to the water, rather than the other way round, so that a stable emulsion will be formed. 1. Emulsion: The concentrate normally has an oil content of 30-80%. When mixed with water, oil droplets are formed and these are

2. 3.

4.

5.

dispersed evenly throughout the fluid. Droplet size is typically 38 um, which gives the fluid a milky appearance. Semi-synthetic: The concentrate contains both oil and a synthetic lubricant. The oil content is in the range 4-30%. Micro-emulsion: The concentrate has an increased emulsifier system to reduce the oil droplet size to less than 2 um. This makes the fluid transparent. Oil content in the concentrate can be up to 60%. Synthetic: The concentrate contains no oil and a clear solution is formed. It can contain non-mineral lubricity materials at levels between 0 and 60%. With no oil content, a rust inhibitor is an essential additive. Neat oil: The main constituent is a mineral oil. The type of base oil determines the viscosity. The viscosity affects the power required from the coolant pump and friction losses in the pipe work. A higher viscosity requires more pumping power and loses more velocity through friction in the pipes. The type of base oil, and the viscosity, selected depends on the application. Values of viscosity can range from 2 to 100 cSt @ 40oC, with 80% of applications in the range 6 to 40 cSt @ 40oC. Additives are usually included, with the types of additive depending on the application.

GLAZING, LOADING, WHEEL DRESSING AND DRESSING TOOLS: Glazing: When the surface of a grinding wheel develops a smooth and shining appearance, then it is said to be glazed. This indicates the abrasive particles on the wheel face are not sharp. These are worked down to their bond level. Loading: When soft materials like aluminium, copper, lead etc are ground the metal particles get clogged between the abrasive particles. This condition is called as loading. The effects of glazing and loading are almost same. Following are the effects.

Excessive cutting pressure between wheel and work. More heat generation, Burning of the ground surface, Poor surface finish, Inaccuracies in the size and shape of the work piece and Wheel breakage.

Causes of glazing:

Wrong selection of grade and size, High wheel speed, Feed too fine Dirty coolant

A glazed or loaded grinding wheel can be reused after removing the glazed or loaded particles from the grinding wheel face. Grinding wheel dressing: Dressing is an operation to change the cutting action of a wheel or to recondition its grinding surface. Mostly dressing and truing are done at the same time. Grinding wheels should be dressed and trued regularly to improve

Work production, Wheel performance and Grinding economy.

Dressing Truing

Refers to the removing of clogs and blunt abrasive grains from the surface of the grinding wheel. Dressing exposes the cutting edges which restore the correct cutting action of the wheel. Dressing is done on a glazed or loaded wheel to recondition it.

Refers to the shaping of the wheel to make it run concentric with the axis. When a new grinding wheel is mounted, it must be trued before use to remove the run out. Truing is done on the wheel which is out of shape due to long use. Sometime a wheel is also trued to change the shape of the grinding wheel face for a specific grinding operation like form grinding.

There are three types of wheel dressers. They are

Diamond, Steel and Abrasive.

Dressing tools:

A diamond dressing tool has a hard diamond point mounted in a metal shank. The shank is fitted in a tool holder for location on the grinding machine to perform dressing. Diamond dressers are most effective for precision grinding wheels. The low feed of a diamond dresser can glaze the wheel. They are specified by their weight in carats. Usually 0.5 carat to 1 carat diamond is used for dressing up to 300 mm diameter of wheels. Steel dressers for dressing a grinding wheel have rotary cutting surfaces made from hard steel. They are held in place against the grinding wheel by hand and moved across the face of the grinding wheel to do the dressing. The tool rest or other rigid support must be used during this operation. When only light dressing is required abrasive sticks are used. There are abrasive materials made in the form of square or round sticks or put in metal tubes for convenient handling. This type of dresser is more common in tool and cutter grinders where truing and dressing is necessary. Measurement of Grinding process: There are two types of measurement. Those that are necessary to check component quality and those that can be used to check efficiency of the grinding process. Measuring quality: There are three main checks on component quality. [1] Accuracy: This involves overall dimensions and profile shape. [2] Surface finish: This is often specified as a value of a surface roughness parameter. Ra is probably the most common, other parameters such as Rz and Rt are also used. As well as conforming to a measured value, visual appearance is also important in some applications. This may mean avoiding vibration or chatter marking and deep scratches. [3] Component material condition: In many grinding applications it is essential to avoid grinding burn (also called grinding abuse). This usually means damage to the material structure of the component. There are three degrees of abuse: [a] Rehardening burn. This is the most severe type of grinding damage. It produces a hard, brittle layer on the surface. This is often associated with grinding cracks. [b] Temper burn. This is a softening of the material through overheating during grinding. It is less severe than re hardening

burn. Requirements vary from no temper burn allowed to no check required. In between, specifications are sometimes laid down for the amount of surface softening that can be allowed. [c] Residual stress. Grinding can leave stresses in the component material, even when there is no burn. This can be critical for certain applications such as gears and bearings, since fatigue life can be affected. Rehardening burn and temper burn are commonly assessed using a Nital etch. Temper burn shows up as a darker area. Re hardening burn shows up as a lighter area, usually surrounded by an area of temper burn. Residual stress measurement is not common, but may become more so, as component quality requirements become more stringent. Specialized equipment is needed. Measuring grinding efficiency: The following are three ways in which grinding efficiency can be measured, additional to the quality checks above. These have not traditionally been measured, but the trend is to add these to quality checks as a way of improving the control of the grinding process and as a means of ensuring defects do not occur, rather than leaving inspection to discover them and then scrap the component. [1] Grinding power: A measurement of grinding power will show how efficiently the wheel is cutting. A blunt or worn wheel will tend to rub so creating friction and increased grinding power. This can be used to indicate when dressing is required. Grinding power can also be used to detect if burn is likely to occur, since in some cases, the start of burn can be related to a specific level of grinding power. [2] Grinding ratio: This is defined as the ratio of the volume of component material removed to the volume of the wheel consumed in the process. It is therefore a measure of the efficiency with which the wheel is being used. This measurement can be used to check if the wheel specification is correct. A low grinding ratio may mean the wheel is too soft and is therefore breaking down too easily under the grinding forces. Care is needed here, as too hard a wheel can sometimes give a low grinding ratio as well. Too hard a wheel encourages chips to stick to the wheel surface and this can cause grits to fall out too soon. [3] Vibration: Vibration can be caused by many factors including a low stiffness machine, too high a work speed, too hard a wheel, faulty bearings, out-of-balance, etc. It usually leads to more efficient cutting as the vibration

gives a self-dressing effect. However, it is detrimental to surface finish, wheel life and machine life. Also, it often causes excessive noise. Grinding speed, feed and depth of cut: Grinding speed: It is the rate of travel of the wheel surface past a point on the work piece. Wheel speed is otherwise called surface speed. It is expressed in terms of meters per second. N = V x 1000 / x d V D N 1000 60 Feed: In grinding refers to the movement of the wheel per stroke across the work surface. The feed in grinding depends on the work speed, wheel width and the finish required. It is generally 3/4th to 2/3rd of the wheel face width for rough grinding and 1/4th to 1/8 of the wheel face width in case of the finish grinding. When feed is high the wheel wear increases surface finish deteriorates and the dimensional accuracy of the work piece is affected. Depth of cut: It is the thickness of the material removed in surface grinding for one cut. Depth of cut depends on the cutting load, power of the machine and finish required. Generally the depth of cut is 0.02 to 0.03 mm for rough cut and 0.005 to 0.01 mm for finish cut. Surface speed in meters / second. Diameter of the wheel in mm. RPM of the machine spindle. to convert mm to meters. to convert RPM to revolution per second.

Mechanical Engineering Sites

Tutorial Sites No. Site Address
http://www.mech.f2s.com/ 1 Basic Thermodynamics 2

Brief Description
Contains information on statics & dynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics. This web site is intended for new thermodynamics students to gain a basic understanding of cycles and components. Contains tutorials on using Ansys Package. Contains tutorials and tips for Using PRO-E. Provides millions of component drawings from manufacturers free for download. A Unique site for CAD Engineers, with coverage on CAE, GIS and other Advanced concepts. Contains rich information on CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) This site contains AutoCAD tutorials. Contains resources on various disciplines of engineering such as Aerospace, geology, Mechanical engineering etc. Contains information about CAD / CAM / CAE, Machine shop, semiconductors and finite element methods. Details about the working of the famous "fire and forget" Stinger missile. A site ( Indeed a treasure ) which contains lot of

3 4

Ansys Tutorials http://www.proedesigns.com/ http://www.cadregister.com/

http://www.tenlinks.com/ 6

http://www.cfd-online.com/ 7 http://www.mossdesigns.com/ http://www.englinks.com/ 9

http://www.gearhob.com/ 10

www.howstuffworks.com/stinger2.htm 11 http://www.howstuffworks.com/

12

information about the functioning of various engineering components and structures. 13 www2.lib.udel.edu/subj/mee/internet.htm#sites A guide to internet resources in Mechanical Engineering. www.efunda.com 14 This site contains exhaustive information on fundamentals of various disciplines of Engineering

Job Sites

These sites contain information that would be useful for Mechanical Engineers. More information about what the site contains can be found from the respective Sites. I thank Mr. Sanjay Kumar Singh for contributing a majority of these valuable sites.
http://www.ugjn.com/ http://www.acjn.com/ http://www.pejn.com/ http://www.ideasjn.com/ http://www.cncjn.com/ http://www.catjn.com/ http://www.sejn.com/ CAD Jobs CADForum Unigraphics Job Junction. AutoCAD Job Junction. PRO-E Job Junction. I-Deas Job Junction. CNC Job Junction. Catia Job Junction. Solid Edge Job Junction. This site contains about CAD jobs and services. Contains CAD jobs and services.

Composite Materials
Many of our modern technologies require materials with combinations of properties that cannot be met by conventional metals, alloys, ceramics and polymeric materials. This is especially the case of aerospace industries, underwater and transportation applications. A composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibit a significant proportion of properties of both constituent phases such that a better combination of properties is realized. Most composites have been created to improve combinations of mechanical characteristics such as stiffness, toughness and ambient temperature and high temperature strength. Many composite materials are composed of just two phases one is termed the matrix, which is continuous and surrounds other phase often called dispersed phase. The properties of composites are a function of properties of constituent phases, their relative amounts and geometry of dispersed phase. Dispersed phase geometry means the shape of particles an particle size, distribution and orientation. The special property exhibited by the composite materials is that they exhibit directional properties, strongly only where required. Thus the designer can achieve optimum weight. This is also called as selective strengthening. Apart from Aircraft industry composite materials are also used in

Compressor blades, Engine ducts, Panels connecting rods and Axle castings.

Fibres like boron, glass or carbon has greater tensile strength, stiffness than High speed steel. To use the superior property of fibres, composite materials are made with a two phase structure. 1. A fibre which acts a reinforcement. 2. A matrix which bonds and holds the fibres. Classification of composites:
Particle reinforced Fibre reinforced

1 2

Large particle Dispersion strengthened Continuous Discontinuous ( Aligned

and randomly oriented) Structural composites

Laminates Sandwich panels

Dispersion phase for particle reinforced composites is equiaxed. Fibre reinforced composites the dispersed phase has geometry of a fibre (Large length to diameter ratio). Structure composite are combination of composites and homogenous materials. 1. Particle reinforced composites: Large particle and dispersion strengthened composites are classification of particle reinforced composites. Distinction between these is based upon reinforcement or strengthen mechanism. The term large is used to indicate that particle matrix interaction cannot be treated on atomic level or molecular level rather continuous mechanics is used. For most of these composites the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of matrix phase of applied stress to particle which bear a friction of load, the degree of reinforcement or improvement of behavior depends on strong bonding at matrix particle interface E.g.. Concrete. For dispersion strengthened composites particles are normally much smaller having diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 x 10-6 m. Particle matrix interactions that lead to strengthening occur on atomic level. The matrix bears the major portion of an applied load the small dispersed particles hinder or impede motion of dislocations. Thus plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile strength as well as hardness improve E.g.. Thoria dispersed nickel. 2. Fibre-reinforced composites: Technologically important composites are those in which dispersed phase is in the form of fibre. Design goals are to include high strength or stiffness on a weight basis. These characteristics are expressed in terms of specific strength i.e.. Ratio of modulus of elasticity to specific gravity. Fibre reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strength and moduli having been produced that utilize low density fibres and matrix materials. 2a. Fibre phase:

On the basis of diameter and character fibres are grouped into three different classifications as

Whiskers, Fibres and Wires.

Whiskers are thin single crystals that have extremely large length to diameter ratios. As a consequence of their small size that have extremely high degree of crystalline perfection and are virtually are strongest known materials. In spite of these high strengths whiskers are not utilize extensively as a reinforcement medium because they are very expensive. Moreover it is difficult and often impractical to incorporate whiskers into matrix. Whisker material include graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride. Materials that are classified as fibres are either polycrystalline or amorphous and have small diameters. Fibrous materials are generally either polymers or ceramics (Glass, carbon, Boron etc.) Fine wires have relatively large diameters. Typical material include steel, molybdenum, tungsten. Great strength of structural materials offers great strength and high load carrying capacity. Good ductility prevents sudden and catastrophic failures. However good strength and ductility are generally incompatible. Composite materials provide a balance of both properties (Strength and ductility). The stiff reinforcing fibres fibres are responsible for carrying load and ductility, toughness is offered by matrix. Fracture of fibres in brittle manner is retarded by soft matrix. Thus combination of matrix and reinforcement offers strength as well as toughness which cannot be separately attained by either components. 2b. Matrix phase: It is the phase of fibrous composites may be a metal, polymer or ceramic. In general metals and polymers are used as matrix material because some ductility is desirable. For ceramics matrix composites the reinforcing component is added to improve fracture roughness. Matrix materials should be ductile. In addition the elastic modulus of fibres should be much higher than that of matrix. Secondly the function of matrix is to protect the individual fibres from surface damage as a result of mechanical abrasion or chemical reactions with environment. Such interactions may introduce surface flows capable of forming cracks, Which may lead to failure at low tensile stress levels. Finally the matrix separates the fibres and virtue of its relative softness and plasticity prevents the propagation of brittle cracks from fibre to fibre which could result in catastrophic failure. In other words the matrix phase serves as a barrier to crack propagation.

2c. Polymer-Matrix composites: It consists of polymer resin as matrix with fibre as reinforcement medium. These materials are used in greatest diversity of composite application due to ease of fabrication and cost. Various classification are discussed according to the type of reinforcement. Glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites: It consists of glass fibres either continuous or discontinuous contained within a polymer matrix fibre diameter normally in the range between 3 and 20 x 10-6 m. Glass is used because of the following advantages. 1. It is easily drawn into high strength fibres from molten state. 2. Readily available and may be fabricated into glass reinforced plastic. 3. As a fibre it is relatively strong and when embedded with plastic matrix it produces a composite having high specific strength. 4. When cooled with various plastics it possess a chemical inertness that renders composite very useful in variety of corrosive environment. Carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites: Carbon is a high performance fibre material most commonly sued reinforcement in advanced polymer matrix composites. Following are the important characteristics. 1. Carbon fibres have highest specific modulus and specific strength of all reinforcing material. 2. Retain their high tensile modulus and specific strength at elevated temperature, high temperature. However oxidation may be a problem. 3. At room temperatures, carbon fibres are not affected by moisture nor a wide variety of solvents, acids and bases. 4. These fibres exhibit a diversity of physical and mechanical characteristics allowing composites incorporating these fibres to have specific engineering properties. 5. Carbon fibres are normally coated with protected epoxy size which also improves adhesion with polymer matrix. Aramid fibre reinforced polymer composites: Aramid fibres are high strength, high modulus materials. This group of materials is known as polyparaphenylene tere pthalamide (Trade name is Kevlar). There are various grades, with various mechanical properties.

Even though Aramids are thermoplastics they are resistant to combustion and stable to relatively high temperatures. The temperature range over which they retain their high mechanical properties is between -200 to 200 degree centigrade. They are cheaper than carbon fibres. They are 50% cheaper than carbon fibre for the same weight, and thickness. For a heavily loaded structures a hybrid combination of Kevlar and carbon fibres are used. Boron fibre reinforced composite is used mainly in the manufacture of Helicopter blades. Metal matrix composites: These materials may be used at higher temperatures than their base metal counterparts. The reinforcement may improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance, creep superior with respect to strength, stability, better hazardous environment conditions. Carbon-carbon composite: One of the most advanced and promising engineering materials is carbon fibre reinforced carbon matrix composite. Both reinforcement and matrix are carbon. They are expensive and are not used extensively. Their desirable properties include high tensile moduli, tensile strength which are retained even at 2000oC. These materials have a high resistance to creep and relatively large fracture toughness values and low coefficient of thermal expansion and relatively high thermal conductivity. The biggest drawback of this material is the high temperature oxidation. 2d. Processing of fibre reinforced composites: To fabricate continuous fibre reinforced plastics that meet design specification the fibres should be uniformly distributed within plastic matrix and in most instances all oriented in virtually same direction. Various process are

Pultrusion Filament winding Pre preg production process.

3. Structural composites: It is normally composed of both homogenous and composite materials. The properties of which depend not only on properties of constituent materials but along on the geometrical design of various structural elements.

Laminar composites and Sandwich panels.

3a. Laminar composites: It is made of two dimensional sheets or panels that have a preferred high strength direction such as in wood and continuous and aligned fibre reinforced plastics. Layers are stacked and subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of high strength direction varies with each successive layer laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as cotton, paper etc. Thus a laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of directions. However the strength in any given direction is of course lower than it would be if all fibres were oriented in that direction. 3b. Sandwich panels: Consists of two strong outer sheets, or faces separated by a layer of less dense material or core which has lower stiffness and lower strength. The faces bear most of the in-plane loading and also any traverse bending stresses. Typical face materials include Aluminum alloys, fibre reinforced plastics, Titanium, steel core serve two functions. First it separates the faces and resists deformation perpendicular to face plane. Secondly it provides certain degree of shear rigidity along planes which are perpendicular to faces. Various materials and structures are utilized for cores, including foamed polymers, synthetic rubber, inorganic cement. Another popular core consist of honey comb structure. Here thin foils that have been formed into interlocking hexagonal cells with axes oriented perpendicular to the face planes. Material of honey comb is made my be similar to face material. Advantages of using composite:

Light weight, Stiff, Resistant to corrosion, resistant to fatigue, Easily moldable to complex shapes and Weight reduction of the range of 20 % - 40 %.

Difficulties associated with composites: The conditions for machining are different from metals. There is a limit to the temperature that can be attained while machining otherwise the

curing temperature will be reached ( or exceeded ) and the materials gets destroyed. Hence maintaining dimensional accuracy is difficult. Specials tools and drills are to be used for this purpose.

Basics of Flight
Forces on a Plane : When a plane flies there are four forces at work that keep the plane flying. These forces are lift, thrust, gravity, and drag. For the aircraft to generate lift, it wings have a special airfoil section as shown in the figure. Lift & Pressure : Airplane wings are created with a special design called an airfoil. The airfoil design bulges out more on the top than on the bottom, as shown in the figure. This causes the air that hits the wing to go off into two different streams, one that goes over the top and one that goes under, and they both meet up in the back. The air moving over the top of the wing is caused to go faster than the slower moving air on the bottom. Faster moving air has less pressure, so this causes the pressure on the bottom of the wing to be greater and the plane is lifted. This effect is known as the Bernoulli Principle. When a plane creates sufficient lift it overcomes the force of gravity that is pulling the plane down. Air pressure plays a big part in flight also. Air pressure is a force pushing on every square inch of an airplane. When a plane is parked the air pressure is distributed evenly around the plane's surface. When a plane is in flight the pressure on top of the wings pushes down less and the pressure on the bottom of the wings pushes more. This is what causes the plane to feel a lift.

The Lift Diagram shows some of the basic terms relating to a wing section. These terms are common to R/C flight.
Airfoil Angle of Attack - The cross section of the wing - The angle between the chord line and the relative

direction of flight Chord Line Direction of Flight Leading Edge Trailing Edge The line between the leading edge and the trailing edge of the airfoil

- The relative direction of the wing in relation to still air - The most forward edge of the wing - The most rearward edge of the wing

Drag: Another force that has a great part in flight is drag. Drag is the force pulling the plane backwards. Drag is the resistance created by the air molecules struck by the aircraft, being spread apart and flowing around the plane as it flies through them. Drag is created when the air collides with the airplanes wings and creates friction. This friction causes the plane to slow down and feel a drag. When wings are produced the designers make the wings in such a manner to create lift but also minimize friction with the air. Drag increases in proportion to the square of the velocity. So if the aircraft flies three times as fast, then drag is nine times. Total drag produced by an aircraft is the sum of the profile drag, induced drag, and parasitedrag. Total drag is primarily a function of airspeed. The airspeed that produces the lowest total drag normally determines the aircraft best-rate-of-climb speed, minimum rate-ofdescent speed for autorotation, and maximum endurance speed. The following picture illustrates the different forms of drag versus airspeed

Profile drag is the drag incurred from frictional resistance of the blades passing through the air. It does not change significantly with angle of attack of the airfoil section, but increases moderately as airspeed increases. Induced drag is the drag incurred as a result of production of lift. Higher angles of attack which produce more lift also produce increased induced drag. In rotary-wing aircraft, induced drag decreases with increased aircraft airspeed. The induced drag is the portion of the total aerodynamic force which is oriented in the direction opposing the movement of the airfoil. Think of it as lift which is in the wrong direction. Parasite drag is the drag incurred from the non lifting portions of the aircraft. It includes the form drag and skin friction associated with the fuselage, cockpit, engine cowlings, rotor hub, landing gear, and tail boom to mention a few. Parasite drag increases with airspeed.

Curve "A" shows that parasite drag is very low at slow airspeeds and increases with higher airspeeds. Parasite drag goes up at an increasing rate at airspeeds above the midrange. Curve "B" shows how induced drag decreases as aircraft airspeed increases. At a hover, or at lower airspeeds, induced drag is highest. It decreases as airspeed increases and the helicopter moves into undisturbed air. Curve "C" shows the profile drag curve. Profile drag remains relatively constant throughout the speed range with some increase at the higher airspeeds. Curve "D" shows total drag and represents the sum of the other three curves. It identifies the airspeed range, line "E", at which total drag is lowest. That airspeed is the best airspeed for maximum endurance, best rate of climb, and minimum rate of descent in autorotation. Weight: Weight is the force of gravity trying to pull the plane back to earth. The important thing about this force is that it acts as though all the weight of the aircraft is centered at one point. That point is called the Center of Gravity or CG. When loading passengers and their baggage, always keep in mind that the CG must be located within specified limits for that particular aircraft. Thrust: Thrust is the force that causes a plane to move forward and is created by the plane's propeller or jet engines. Thrust is created by a propeller by

using the same concept as lift. The propeller is specially shaped like an airfoil but it uses the lift to pull the plane forward instead of pushing the plane up.

Axes in a Flight: An aircraft pivots about three (3) axes; the yaw or vertical axis controlled by the rudder, the pitch or lateral axis controlled by the elevator, and the roll or longitudinal axis controlled by the ailerons. It can pivot about any one of these individually or in combination based on the control surfaces that are moved and the direction of the movement.

When the rudder is moved to the right, the aircraft will rotate to the right about the yaw axis and vice versa. When the elevator is moved up, the aircraft will pitch the nose upwards. The ailerons move in opposite directions. When the left aileron is moved up and right one down, the aircraft will rotate to the left and vice versa. Aircraft during Flight: The aircraft moves forward because of the thrust produced by propellers rotation or by Jet efflux in case of jet engines. When Thrust produced is greater than ( Drag and Rolling resistance ), the aircraft moves forward. As the aircraft moves forward, air flows over the wings such that there is a Low pressure above the wing and High pressure below the wing. Thus producing lift. Lift and Drag increases proportionately with forward speed. Lift also increases with angle of attack. When lift is greater than Weight of aircraft, the plane flies and landing gear is retracted to reduce drag. Lift, drag and moment ( Resultant force X arm of the aerofoil ) are the forces in a aircraft during flight. These values can be determined experimentally in a wind tunnel. Major Components of Aircraft: 1. Wings

2. 3. 4. 5.

Fuselage ( Passengers and Pay load ) Empennage ( Tail plane and fin ) Control surface ( Ailerons, flaps, elevators and rudders ) and Landing gear.

The wings and Empennage are attached to Fuselage. Following are the different attachments. Wings and Empennage are attached with Fuselage. Ailerons and flaps are attached to wings. Elevators are attached to Tail plane. Rudder is attached to Fin. Landing Gear / Power plant is attached to Wings. Major Aircraft Systems : 1. Brakes 2. Navigation 3. Communication 4. Fuel and power plant 5. Instrumentation 6. Blind landing aids. 7. Weapons and electronic counter measures. 8. Cabin furnishing 9. Cabin equipment 10. Cargo equipment 11. Air pressurization and 12. Air-conditioning & Oxygen. The uses of different aircraft components are given below.

Wings - Produce lift. Control surface - Control the aircraft movement in different direction Landing gear - Support the aircraft in land. Power plant - Provides Thrust.

Aircraft Maneuvers : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Take off Climb Cruise Turn and bank Descent and Landing. Fighter aircrafts do additional maneuvers which include,

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Loop Roll Dive Tight turn Side slip Inverted flight and Spin. Mach Number (M) = Speed of aircraft / Speed of sound.

The Landing Gear: On a modern single engine the landing gear (or undercarriage) consists of a nose wheel and a right and a left main wheel. Older aircraft with a tail wheel were said to have "conventional" landing gear. The modern type gear is called a "tricycle" landing gear. Although some tricycle gear are fixed in place, most are retractable into housing to reduce aircraft drag in flight. Multi-engine aircraft usually have a steer able nose wheel which is controlled by the rudder pedals. Many aircraft accidents are caused by pilots attempting to land their aircraft without lowering their landing gear. On a normal landing approach, the gear should be lowered when leaving or passing through airport pattern altitude which is usually about 1200 feet AGL. On take-off, the gear should not be raised until the pilot is certain he could not land on the runway if his engine should quit. On real aircraft it's a good idea to touch your brakes before you retract your landing gear to stop the wheels from spinning and save wear and tear on your tires. The basic flight instruments : Magnetic compass -- Like the compass in a car or boat, it tells about the airplane's heading -- the direction it's flying. It requires no power source. Airspeed indicator -- It shows the speed of the airplane through the air. This instrument measures the speed of the aircraft through the air NOT OVER THE GROUND in knots. The speed it shows is called True Airspeed (TAS) if it has been corrected for the density of the air outside the aircraft. Without this correction it is called Indicated Airspeed (IAS). The instrument operates by comparing the pressure of the air being pushed into a probe under the aircraft, called a Pitot Tube, with the static air pressure inside the aircraft. Many pilot had crashed on take-off because they neglected to remove the cover from his Pitot Tube. Attitude indicator -- This instrument is like the horizon we see looking out from the pilot's seat. It tells whether the nose of the airplane is pointed above

or below the horizon and whether the airplane is turning (banking) to the left or right (left wing down or right wing down). This instrument uses a gyroscopically controlled horizon, moving behind a fixed representation of an aircraft, to indicate your plane's movement about both the lateral axis (nose position) and the longitudinal axis (wing position) relative to the actual horizon. When flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR), the pilot should ignore this instrument and use the actual horizon instead. In fact, the other instruments should be only checked periodically. in a quick scan pattern, as the pilot should be mostly looking outside the aircraft. Altimeter -- This instrument shows the airplane's altitude in feet above sea level. The altimeter uses a sealed tin called an aneroid barometer to measure altitude. It compares the atmospheric pressure outside your aircraft to the pressure inside the tin. As outside pressure changes, the tin expands or contracts from the pressure sealed inside. Each tick mark on the instrument face represents one hundred feet of altitude. Each rotation of the needle represents 1000 feet. Vertical speed indicator -- This instrument tells you how quickly the aircraft is climbing or descending in feet per minute. When in level flight, it reads "0". It operates by measuring the relative change in atmospheric pressure. Since the change is relative, unlike the altimeter, it does not require calibration. There is a lag in the measuring process, however, and therefore it is important not to take any corrective action until you have given the instrument time to do it's thing. A second or less is all it takes. Heading indicator (directional gyro) -- This instrument is another compass. It shows the direction that the airplane is flying. It's usually bigger and easier to read than the magnetic compass, but requires some source of power to work. Turn coordinator -- When turning the airplane, this instrument shows the rate and the direction of the turn. In this way we can adjust to a slower or faster rate of turn. This instrument has a representation of an aircraft which banks to indicate the direction and rate of the aircraft turns. It also has a liquid-damped ball which will be in the center of the glass tube when the aircraft is in a coordinated turn. If the aircraft is skidding around the turn, the ball will be displaced to the side of the tube in the direction of the turn. Application of rudder in the direction of the turn will bring the aircraft back to coordinated flight and the ball back to it's middle position in the tube. Angle of Attack : The angle made by the chord of aerofoil to the relative air flow.

Chord is obtained by line joining lead edge with trailing edge. Stall : It is the condition where the air separates from wing surface and causes loss in lift and drag. C L and CD increase with increasing angle of attack. But at 16o there is a drop in CL and rapid rise inC D. At this point, ( Stall ) the aircraft cannot fly safely. The ratio of Lift to Drag is important from the point of fuel economy. The optimum value of L/D is obtained at an angle of attack of 4o. Designer should consider the ratio of Thickness to chord. For low speed aircraft the ratio is 12% - 15%. In case of supersonic aircrraft, it is about 4%. This leads to thin thickness which cannot support other structural members. But delta plan solves the problem. MIG has a Delta plan. Sweep Angle : is the angle made by Quarter chord line along the lateral axis. In Mig 27 and Tornado, the sweep angle can be varied during flight. The curvature of mean line between top and bottom surfaces is called Camber. Increase in Camber increase Lift and Drag. Leading edge radius also affects lift and drag. A large radius is used in low speed aircraft. Aspect Ratio : It is defined as Span / Mean Chord or Span2 / Area. If Lift / Drag is high, when aspect ratio is high. For passenger aircrafts Aspect Ratio is around 8 - 12. But in fighter aircrafts, long wings are not acceptable, hence 2 - 4 is preferred. Control Surfaces in a Aircraft : Flaps : Flaps are attached to the trailing edge of the wings, they are used to change the camber of wings. Flaps augment lift at the time of take off, but during normal flight, it is retracted back to reduce drag. Slats are attached to the front portion of wings. Flaps are relatively large, movable, hinged panels located inboard of the ailerons on each wing. Lowering them into the airflow under the wing increases both lift and drag significantly. Their main purpose is to permit a slower airspeed during a landing approach.

They are also useful in shorten the distance required to take-off from short runways or from airports at higher altitudes. It is recommended that onethird flaps be set routinely for any take-off. Hanging low to the ground they can be easily damaged by debris being kicked up by the propeller or the landing gear. The Rudder : The Vertical Stabilizer is the vertical fin at the rear of the aircraft. The rear portion of the vertical stabilizer is a hinged section called the rudder. The rudder is moved on its hinges by pedals on the floor of the cockpit. The truth of the matter is that the rudder is of little or no real value in controlling the aircraft in the air during normal flight. On the ground, in single engine aircraft, it is useful for taxiing and take-off when the other control surfaces are still ineffective due to the low speed of the aircraft. In multi-engine aircraft it can be necessary to counter the loss of an engine. It is useful, and sometimes necessary, during stall and spin recovery when other control surfaces have lost effectiveness, and it is helpful in maintaining co-ordinated flight during turns. In a turn the inside wing has lost some lift and without the use of the rudder the aircraft would "skid" through the turn, a very sloppy and uncomfortable way to fly. Once this option is set permanently, your aircraft will fly with simulated rudder movement and keep your turns coordinated automatically. The Ailerons : The ailerons are a set of hinged surfaces found at the rear edge of each wing. They are controlled by the side-to-side movement of the joystick or yoke (control wheel). By moving the aileron, on the side of the aircraft you wish to turn toward, up into the flow of air over the wing, some lift is lost and the wing drops. At the same time the aileron on the outside wing has been moved downward, producing additional lift on that side and that wing rises. The combined effect is to turn the plane in the direction you have moved the stick. Are ailerons the only way to turn an aircraft? The answer is no. A Piper Cub, for instance, can be turned by merely sticking your arm out of the open cockpit as if you were signaling a turn in that direction. The drag produced will turn the plane in the direction you signaled. The Trim Tabs : Holding the control surfaces in one position for long periods of time can be tiring. This is especially true of the elevator. So small tabs on the edge of the control surfaces can be set to hold the surface in a steady position. On most modern aircraft this allows the pilot to remove his hands

from the controls and/or use only light pressures to maintain steady flight conditions. The Brakes : At the tip of each rudder pedal is a foot brake. These brakes are not only used to help stop the aircraft, but are necessary to steer the aircraft on the ground if the plane does not have a steerable nose wheel. This is especially true at lower speeds when the rudder is ineffective. Aircraft are also equipped with a parking brake. Any time the aircraft is stopped with the engine running the parking brake MUST be set for safety reasons. Brakes should be used sparingly on landing to avoid blowing out the tires. Jet aircraft use spoilers which are inserted into the air stream to slow down the plane and most jet engines are capable of reversing thrust to slow the aircraft. This feature is also helpful in backing out of parking spaces at the gate. Different types of Loads on Aircraft :

Gust load ( Vertical air ) Control load Thermal load Crash load Landing load Power plant load and Pressurization load.

Loads in Consideration from Design Point of View :

Limit Load :- The maximum load on any aircraft member. Proof Load :- Limit load X ( 1.1 or 1.125 ). When loaded upto this limit, safety of aircraft should not be impaired. Design Load :- Limit load X 1.5. When a load lower than this is applied there should not be any breakage but may deform permanently in any way.

Riveting in Aircraft Industry

Prior to riveting, drilling is done, after which de-burring and cleaning operation is done. Air operated drill guns are used. Straight and angular drill guns ( 30o & 90o ) are available. After drilling counter sunk operation is carried out to accommodate CSK rivets correct depth of CSK is required. Else the rivets will be either depressed or protruding. How do solid rivets work? Riveting can be explained by using the classic "swinging balls" physics demonstration. One ball swings in and strikes the other balls, the ball on the other end swings off, and the process repeats back and forth. Riveting is just like that. On one end, is the rivet gun. On the other end is a bucking bar ( Bucking bar is a chunk of steel of some convenient shape and weight, with a smooth striking surface ). In the middle is the rivet itself. The pneumatic rivet gun impacts the rivet, which acts as a medium and sends the impulse through to the bucking bar resting on the other end. The bucking bar swings away from the rivet. The small force of the bucker holding that bar in place "swings" the bucking bar back at the rivet. Now here's where riveting diverges from the ball demonstration, if the rivet gun had shot a single impulse, the bucking bar would strike the rivet and then the gun would get pushed away in turn, conservation of momentum and all that. But the difference is that the gun is held firmly in place and is sending a continuous stream of impulses through the rivet. As soon as the bucking bar hits the rivet, another impulse from the gun counteracts that momentum and cancels it out. In the process, the momentum canceling effect is absorbed by the rivet, which gets smushed a little bit. This happens several times per second, and the rivet gets driven down and flattened. The most common types of rivets fall into the following categories:

Universal (or standard head) rivets Countersunk head rivets Blind rivets

The universal rivet is used where a smooth exterior surface is not needed. It is also used in areas which do not have to fit flush with another part. Such areas of an aircraft might be in the interior. The round head of the rivet could interfere in areas that have to meet close tolerances. The diameter of the rounded head by a general rule is about twice the diameter of the shank of the rivet.

Countersunk rivets are used in areas where the surface finish is important or where parts have to fit closely together. A countersunk rivet usually has a flat head and from the top of the head to the shank the rivet is chamfered. The standard chamfer is 100 degrees. The hole in the material must also be made to account for the chamfer. When joining materials with countersunk rivets it is important that the seam between the materials is either at or below the place on the rivet where the head and the shank meet. Otherwise the joint will fail do to stress fractures at the edge of the rivet head. Countersunk rivets are used on the exterior of aircraft to reduce the drag. Blind rivets are used in places where it is not possible to place a bucking bar on one side of the sheets being joined. These places where only one side of the joint is accessible are places such as the wings and tail. There are several types of blind rivets. The most common type is the Cherry rivet. Cherry rivets can have universal or countersunk heads. These rivets are hollow with a stem which protrudes from the top of the head and a small bulb at the bottom. The stem is pulled through the center. Depending on the type of Cherry rivet the stem either breaks when the bulb has sufficiently spread the bottom end of the rivet or the bulb deforms and the shaft is pulled through the hollow center. Another type of blind rivet is the Du Pont explosive rivet. In these rivets the shank is filled with an explosive compound and the head of the rivet is heated to ignite the explosives. The explosion forces the bottom of the rivet which extends past the edge of the material to expand to be larger than the diameter of the drilled hole. Solid rivets: These are driven by a rivet hammer ( either on head of shank side ) and bucked on opposite side by using bucking bar. Bucking facilitates the formation of head. Solid rivets need access on both sides. Aluminum rivets may be installed by using a rivet squeezer. Squeezed rivets are preferable, because there is no damage to sheet metal and we have a well formed heads. Also it could be operated by a single person. The first few blows should be hard. The objective is that the shank portion should swell full up the holes and a well bucked head is formed. Precautions:

Riveted joints should be used, where there is shearing load. Generally the drilled hole is oversize by 0.1mm to accommodate the expansion of shank during riveting process. The rivet holes should be free of burrs. Length of rivets is very important fact. Correct size is total thickness of sheets to be riveted up + 1.5 times the diameter of rivet.

Riveting Techniques: There are several common methods or techniques for performing riveting operations. There is the standard hand riveting with a bucking bar or a blind rivet. Three basic alternative methods of riveting are cold riveting, hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each method is used to achieve different characteristics. In the standard riveting process and in cold or hot riveting a bucking bar is used at the bottom end of the rivet to cause it to form a head when the rivet is driven through the hole. Bucking bars are of different weights depending on the size of the rivet being used. In the cold riveting process the rivets are kept in a refrigerator until they are ready to be used. The rivet is driven while it is still cold. While it is cold the rivet remains soft and is more malleable. The rivet will cure at room temperature and become hardened. This process is necessary for rivets produced from certain aluminum alloys. The hot riveting process is done for the same reasons. The difference is the rivet will be at room temperature before its use. When the rivet is needed it will be heated and then driven while it is still hot. When it cools again it will return to its hardened state. Automated riveting processes are cheaper, but do to lengthy setup time they are usually limited to one rivet type. Automated riveting can include the hot or cold riveting methods. The most common types of riveting other than the standard methods are cold riveting, hot riveting, and automated riveting. Each of the riveting methods have advantages, whether it is strength, ease of production, or cost. Countersinking of Rivets: For external surfaces of aircrafts, protruding rounded rivets is not used, rather CSK rivets are used to achieve aerodynamic efficiency. Normally 100oCSK rivets are used for thick skins and 120o CSK is used for thin skins. Correct depth is maintained by using proper tools ( Depth control equipment ). Some times from the design point of view, both sides would have to be countersunk. Counter sinking rivets over a concave or convex surface causes a bird eye. Advantages of Riveting: Riveting has several advantages over other types of fasteners. Rivets are relatively inexpensive, they offer several surface finishes, they are easy to assemble, they may be used to join different materials with different thickness, and they are strong. In the case of the aircraft industry rivets offer other advantages. In the aircraft industry aluminum alloys are the most

common material used to produce rivets. This allows for lighter fasteners and resistance to atmospheric and chemical corrosion. Rivets are usually constructed with straight shanks. They are not threaded like bolts or screws and are therefore easier and less expensive to produce. Rivets can come with various head configurations which offer different surface finishes. They can be produced such that the head of the rivet is flush with the surface or some types can have the head ground to be flush with the surface. Standard rivet types have a round smooth head which can be polished or painted to match the surface of the fastened material. Rivets can be assemble in a variety of methods. There are hand tools and hand guns which are used for riveting and there are large machines that perform riveting operations. The advantage of the hand-held rivet guns is that they are very maneuverable. They can also be used on curved or varying surface contours. Rivets can be used to join different types of materials. A rivet can join metal and plastic, whereas other fasteners may have to be specially made to join metal and plastic. If the materials are of different thickness, rivets could still be used to join them. Depending on the type of rivet it may be preferable to have the rivet head on one side or the other, but rivets could fasten the materials together. The rivets which are used in the aircraft industry are generally strong enough to meet the needs of the product although they are usually weaker than a bolt. Aluminum alloy rivets offer several advantages to the aircraft industries. They are lighter than bolts which aides in the industries strive to make the lightest products possible. Because many metals used in the aircraft industry are aluminum alloys, the aluminum rivets protect against chemical corrosion which could be possible if a steel or other metal bolt was used. Aluminum rivets also are protected from ordinary atmospheric corrosion.

Sheet metal works in Aircraft industry

Sheet-Metal Characteristics: Sheet metals are generally characterized by a high ratio of surface area to thickness. Forming of sheet metals is usually carried out by tensile forces in the plane of the sheet; otherwise the application of compressive forces could lead to buckling, folding, and wrinkling of the sheet. Unlike bulk deformation processes, in most sheet-forming processes any thickness change is caused by stretching of the sheet under tensile stresses (Poisson's ratio). This decrease in thickness should be avoided in most cases since it can lead to necking and failure. The major factors that significantly influence the overall sheet-forming operation are, Elongation: A specimen subjected to tension first undergoes uniform elongation that corresponds to the ultimate tensile strength. Then necking begins and non-uniform elongation occurs until fracture takes place. The material is being stretched in sheet forming, so high uniform elongation is desirable for good formability. Yield-point elongation: Low-carbon steels exhibit this behavior, which indicates that after the material yields, it stretches farther in certain regions in the specimen with no increase in the lower yield point, while other regions have not yet yielded. This behavior produces Lueders bands (or stretcher strain marks or worms) on the sheet, making elongated depressions on the surface of the sheet. To avoid this problem, the thickness of the sheet is reduced by 0.5 to 1.5% by cold rolling. Anisotropy: Anisotropy is the directionality of the sheet metal. It is acquired during the thermo-mechanical processing history of the sheet. There are two types of anisotropy: crystallographic anisotropy (from preferred grain orientation) and mechanical fibering (from alignment of impurities, inclusions, voids, and the like, throughout the thickness of the sheet during processing). Anisotropy may be present in both the plane of the sheet and its thickness direction. Grain size:

The grain size is important because it affects the mechanical properties of the material and the surface appearance of the formed part. The coarser the grain, the rougher the surface. Residual stresses: Residual stresses can be present in sheet metal parts because of the non-uniform deformation of the sheet during forming. When disturbed, such as by removing a portion of it, the part may distort. Tensile residual stresses on surfaces can also lead to stress-corrosion cracking of sheet-metal parts unless they are properly stress relieved. Spring back: Sheet-metal parts are generally thin and are subjected to relatively small strains. Thus they are likely to experience considerable spring back, particularly in bending and other sheet-forming operations where the bend radius-to-thickness ratio is high. Wrinkling: Although the sheet metal is generally subjected to tensile stresses, the method of forming may cause compressive stresses to develop in the plane of the sheet, which cause wrinkling, buckling, folding, or collapsing of the sheet. The tendency for wrinkling increases with the unsupported or unconstrained length or surface area of the sheet, decreasing thickness, and non uniformity of the thickness. Coated sheet metal: Sheet metals, especially steel, precoated with a variety of organic coatings, films, and laminates are available and used primarily for appearance and corrosion resistance. Coating are applied to the coil stock on continuous lines, with thickness ranging from 0.0025 to 0.2 mm on flat surfaces. Sheet metal operations: Shearing: The operation is carried out beyond the ultimate strength. E.g. Blanking, piercing and perforating. Bending: In this one half of the material in neutral axis is subjected to tension and other half is subjected to compression. This operation is carried beyond the elastic limits and below the ultimate strength. Drawing: One shape is converted to another, by applying tensile load.

Stretching: The materials is prestretched to its yield point and formed around a tool of definite shape by stretching beyond the elastic limit and giving it a permanent set. Squeezing: Metals are worked in compressive load. E.g. Drop stamping and coining. Details of individual operations are given below. Blanking: The operation of making different shapes out of sheet metal is called as blanking. The raw material is called as blank. The tool contains a male member called as punch and a female member called as die. Piercing: The operation of punching holes on sheet metal. The holes may be circular or any other shape. It is also consists of a punch and die. Blanking and piercing: In this blanks and holes with smoother edges and closer tolerance are made. High cost savings are obtained. tolerances to the extend of 0.025 mm is obtained in thin metals and 0.08 in thick metals. In conventional blanking and piercing to attain the desired tolerance the parts have to be reworked. The process is slower. Perforation: Piercing a number of identical holes in a single or continuous rows on a sheet. Notching: It is a unbalanced or incomplete blanking operation, where only a portion of the metal is sheared out. Power Brake: It is primarily used for straight bending of sheet to form flanges. The forming pressure requires depending on material thickness, sharpness of bend, type of die used etc. Routing Machines:

Routers are used to create blanks with contours. There are two types of routing machines. They are 1. Radial arm router and 2. Fixed head router. In radial arm router, the work piece is held stationery and cutter moves around the work piece. But in case of fixed head router, the router had is stationery and the work is moved around cutter. this is used for smaller components. Routing time is usually few sections. In CNC routers, all operations except loading and unloading of sheet metals can be mechanized. Stretch Wrap forming: In this a sheet metal is stretched within elastic limits, the amount of stretch is proportional to pull. On release, the metal regains its original shape. However if the metal is stretched beyond the elastic limits it does not regain its original shape, also the amount of stretch is not proportional to pull. In this machine, the operation take place in the following stages. Stage 1 : The material is held on the machine and stretched equally on both sides upto the elastic limit of the material. Stage 2 : Maintaining this same pressure the materials is wrapped around a form block. Stage 3 : If the material is unloaded, it has a tendency to spring back t original shape. Hence it is stretched beyond the elastic limits to get a permanent set. Peen forming: It is a dieless forming process, performed at room temperature. In these machines, the surface of the work piece is impacted by small steel shots. Every piece of shot acts like a tiny hammer. Thus stretching the upper surface. This impact pressure causes local plastic deformation and produces a residual compressive stress. This residual compressive stress along with stretching causes a concave surface on the peened side. The size, velocity and angle of impingement of shots as well as distance between the nozzle and work piece, all these factors are controlled by specially designed machines. Stress peen forming:

In this, the part to be machines is pre-stressed to an arc with 90 % of elastic limit and peen formed as mentioned earlier. Pre-stressing increase the effect of peen forming in one direction and decrease the effect in opposite direction. Nozzle type machines are used for peen forming. Compressed air is used to properly steels hot. There are around 20 nozzles and each nozzle is capable of delivering around 23 Kgs / Min. The nozzle direction is adjustable. Centrifugal wheel machines are also used. Spinning: Metal with 3 dimensions are formed. The work piece is pressed by a blunt tool against a rotating die, whose outer contour matches with the inner contour of the finished part. Parts with hemispherical, conical, cylindrical shapes are produced by this method. Super plastic formation: Materials that have unusually large strains ( > 500 % ) without localized necking is called as super plastic. These materials can be formed into more complex shapes with much lower loads. Defects that can occur with Sheet Products:

Stretching may give rise to a grainy surface (orange peel). This is because the metals are polychristaline. Finer grain material reduces the effect. Initial yielding in some materials may be very localized leading to visible surface bands (Luders lines, stretcher - strain marks). Localised necking may occur, reducing load bearing capability. Usually materials are chosen with properties that delay the onset of necking. Once a neck has formed, further deformation occurs by local thinning, until finally fracture occurs.

Formability of Sheet Metals: Sheet-metal formability is defined as the ability of the metal to undergo the desired shape changes without failures such as necking and tearing. Three factors have a major influence on formability

Properties of the sheet metal Lubrication at various interfaces between the sheet and dies and tooling Characteristics of the equipment and tools and dies

Several techniques have been developed to test the formability of sheet metals, and the forming-limit diagram (FLD) is one of them. The region above the curves is the failure zone; R is the normal anisotropy. Sheet metal thickness affects the FLD also. The thicker the sheet, the higher its formability curve. However, in actual operation, thick blank may not bend as easily around small radii. The rate of deformation on FLD should be assessed for each material as well. The FLD is used to compare different metals. Strips of metal of different widths, covered with a grid of small circles, typically 2.5 to 6 mm diameter, are tested with a very good lubricant over a spherical punch. Sheet wide enough to be clamped on all edges undergoes balanced biaxial tensile strain over the center of the punch. As the width of the strip is decreased, the minor strain decreases. The minor strain may be +ve or -ve. The major and minor strains from the circle nearest to the tear can be considered to be a point on the boundary between safe and unsafe zones of the FLD. A typical FLD is shown below.

Dent resistance of sheet-metal parts: A dent is a small but permanent biaxial deformation. In certain applications involving sheet-metal parts, such as automotive body panels, appliances, and furniture, dent resistance is an important issue. Dent

resistance is determined by a combination of material and geometrical parameters, and is defined as: Dent resistance = ( alpha ) Y2t4/S, Where: Y = yield stress t = thickness S = panel stiffness = ( E )(t a)( shape) The value of a ranges from 1 to 2 for most panels. As for the shape, the smaller the curvature, the greater the dent resistance because of its flexibility. Therefore dent resistance increases with increasing strength and thickness and decreases with increasing elastic modulus, E, and stiffness and decreasing curvature.