LECTURE 7 AC Bridges and Their Applications

Contents : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7.1 7.2 Maxwell Bridge..................................................................................................... Hay Bridge............................................................................................................ Schering Bridge..................................................................................................... Unbalance Conditions........................................................................................... Wien Bridge.......................................................................................................... Wagner Ground Connection................................................................................. Universal Impedance Bridge................................................................................. Capacitance Comparison Bridge........................................................................... Inductance Comparison Bridge............................................................................. 87 88 90 92 92 94 95 82 84

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7.1

Maxwell Bridge [1] The Maxwell bridge, whose schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 7-1, measures an

unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance.

FIGURE 7-1 Maxwell bridge for inductance measurements [1] Rearranging the general equation for bridge balance, we obtain Z x = Z 2 Z 3Y1 .........................................................................................................(7-1) where Y1 is the admittance of arm 1. Reference to Fig. 7-1 shows that
Z 2 = R 2 ; Z 3 = R3 ; and Y1 =

1 + jC1 R1

Substitution of these values in Eq. (7-1) gives

1 Z x = R x + jL x = R2 R3 + jC1 ......................................................................(7-2) R Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields
Rx = R 2 R3 ..............................................................................................................(7-3) R1

and

L x = R2 R3 C1 ...........................................................................................................(7-4) The Maxwell bridge is limited to the measurement of medium-Q coils (1<Q<10) High-

where the resistances are expressed in ohms, inductance in henrys, and capacitance in farads. Q coils are measured on the Hay bridge The usual procedure for balancing the Maxwell bridge is by first adjusting R3 for inductive balance and then adjusting R1 for resistive balance. Returning to the R3 adjustment, we find that the resistive balance is being disturbed and moves to a new value. This process is

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repeated and gives slow convergence to final balance. For medium-Q coils, the resistance effect is not pronounced, and balance is reached after a few adjustments.
7.2 Hay Bridge [1]

The Hay bridge of Fig. [7-2] differs from the Maxwell bridge by having the resistor R1 in series with standard capacitor C1 instead of in parallel. It is immediately apparent that for large phase angles, R1 should have a very low value. The Hay circuit is therefore more convenient for measuring high-Q coils.

FIGURE 7-2 Hay bridge for inductance measurements [1] The balance equations are derived by substituting the values of the impedances of the bridge arms into the general equation for bridge balance. For circuits of Fig. 7-2 we find that
j (R x + jL x ) = R2 R3 ............................................................................(7-5) R1 C1

which expands to
R1 R x + Lx jR x + jL x R1 = R 2 R3 C1 C1
Lx = R 2 R3 ................................................................................................(7-6) C1

Separating the real and imaginary terms, we obtain

R1 R x +

and

Rx = L x R1 ........................................................................................................(7-7) C1

Both Eq. (7-6) and Eq. (7-7) contains Lx and Rx , and we must solve these equations simultaneously. This yields 88

Rx =
Lx =

2 C12 R1 R2 R3 ..............................................................................................(7-8) 1 + 2 C12 R12

R 2 R 3 C1

1 + 2 C12 R12

.................................................................................................(7-9)

These expressions for the unknown inductance and resistance both contain the angular velocity and it therefore appears that the frequency of the voltage source must be known accurately. That this is not true when a high-Q coil is being measured follows from the following considerations : Remembering that the sum of the opposite sets of sets of phase angles must be equal, we find that the inductive phase angle must be equal to the capacitive phase angle, since the resistive angles are zero. Figure 7-3 shows that the tangent of the inductive phase angle equals
tan L =
X L L x = = Q ...................................................................................(7-10) R Rx XC 1 = .....................................................................................(7-11) R C1 R1

and that of the capacitive phase angle is

tan C =

When the two phase angles are equal, their tangents are also equal and we can write tan L = tan C or Q = 1 .......................................................................(7-12) C1 R1

After substituting Eq. (7-12) in the expression for Lx, Eq. (7-9) reduces to
Lx = R 2 R 3 C1 1+ 1 Q
2

..............................................................................................(7-13)

For value of Q greater than ten, the term (1/Q)2 will be smaller than

1 and can be 100

neglected. Equation (7-9) therefore reduces the expression derived for the Maxwell bridge,
L x = R2 R3 C ...................................................................................................(7-14)

The Hay bridge is suited for the measurement of high-Q inductors, especially for those inductors having a Q greater than ten.

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FIGURE 7-3 Impedance triangles illustrate inductive and capacitive phase angles [1]

7.3

Schering Bridge [1]

The Schering bridge, one of the most important ac bridges, is used extensively for the measurement of capacitors. Although the Schering bridge is used for capacitance measurements in a general sense, it is particularly useful for measuring insulating properties, i.e., for phase angles very nearly 900. The basic circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 7-4.

FIGURE 7-4 Schering bridge for the measurement of capacitance [1] The balance equations are derived in the usual manner, and by substituting the corresponding impedance and admittance values in the general equation, we obtain
Z x = Z 2 Z 3Y1 ...........................................................................................................(7-15a)

or

Rx

j 1 j + jC1 ....................................................................(7-15b) = R2 C R C x 3 1

and expanding

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Rx

RC jR 2 j ............................................................................(7-15c) = 2 1 C x C3 C 3 R1 C1 ........................................................................................................(7-16) C3 R1 .......................................................................................................(7-17) R2

Equating the real terms and the imaginary terms, we find that
R x = R2 C x = C3

As can be seen from the circuit diagram of Fig. 7-4, the two variables chosen for the balance adjustment are capacitor C1 and resistor R2. There seems to be nothing unusual about the balance equations or the choice of variable components, but consider for a moment how the quality of a capacitor is defined. The Power Factor (PF) of a series RC combination is defined as the cosine of the phase angle of the circuit. For phase angles very close to 900, the reactance is almost equal to the impedance and we can approximate the power factor to
PF Rx = C x R x ...........................................................................................(7-18) Xx

The dissipation factor of a series RC circuit is defined as the cotangent of the phase angle and therefore, by definition, the dissipation factor
D= Rx = C x R x ..............................................................................................(7-19) Xx

The dissipation factor tells us something about the quality of a capacitor; ie., how close the phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 900. By substituting the value of Cx in Eq. (7-17) and of Rx in Eq. (7-16) into the expression for the dissipation factor, we obtain
D = R1C1 .........................................................................................................(7-20)

If the resistor R1 in the Schering bridge of Fig. 7-4 has a fixed value, the dial of capacitor C1 may be calibrated directly in dissipation factor D. This is the usual practice in a Schering bridge. Notice that the term appears in the expression for dissipation factor [Eq. (7-20)]. This means, of course, that the calibration of the C1 dial holds for only one particular frequency at which the dial is calibrated. A different frequency can be used, provided that a correction is made by multiplying the C1 dial reading by the ratio of the two frequencies.

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7.4

Unbalance Conditions [1]

It sometimes happens that an ac bridge cannot be balanced at all simply because one of the stated balance conditions cannot be met. Consider, for example, the circuit of Fig. 7-5, where Z1 and Z4 are inductive elements (pisitive phase angles), Z2 is a pure capacitance (-900 phase angle), and Z3 is a variable resistance (zero phase angle). The resistance of R3 needed to obtain bridge balance can be determined by applying the first balance condition (magnitudes) and we find that
R3 = Z 1 Z 4 200 600 = = 300 400 Z2

Hence adjusting R3 to a value of 300 will satisfy the first condition. Considering the second balance condition (phase angles) yields the following situation :

1 + 4 = +60 0 + 30 0 = +90 0 2 + 3 = 90 0 + 0 0 = 90 0
Obviously, 1 + 4 2 + 3 , and the second condition is not satisfied. In this case, bridge balance cannot be obtained.

FIGURE 7-5 An ac bridge that cannot be balanced [1]

7.5

Wien Bridge [1]

The Wien bridge is presented here not only for its use as an ac bridge to measure frequency, but also for its application in various other useful circuits. We find, for example, a Wien bridge in the harmonic distortion analyzer, where it is used as a notch filter, discriminating against one specific frequency. The Wien bridge also finds application in audio and HF oscillator as the frequency-determining element. In this chapter, the Wien bridge is discussed in its basic form, designed to measure frequency.

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The Wien bridge has a series RC combination in one arm and a parallel RC combination in the adjoining arm (see Figure 7-6). The impedance of arm 1 is Z 1 = R1 j admittance of arm 3 is Y3 = 1
R3

C1 . The

+ jC 3 . Using the basic equation for bridge balance and

substituting the appropriate values, we obtain

j 1 R4 R 2 = R1 R + jC 3 ........................................................................(7-21) C1 3

Expanding this expression, we get

R2 = RC jR 4 R1 R4 + ( jC 3 R1 R4 ) + 4 3 .......................................................(7-22) C1 R 3 C1 R3 R1 R4 R4 C 3 .............................................................................................(7-23) + R3 C1

Equating the real terms, we obtain

R2 =

which reduces to
R2 R1 C 3 .....................................................................................................(7-24) = + R4 R3 C1

Equating the imaginary terms, we obtain

C 3 R1 R4 =
where = 2f ,

R4 .............................................................................................(7-25) C1 R3

and solving for f, we get f = 1 2 C1C 3 R1 R3 ...............................................................................................(7-26)

Notice that the two conditions for bridge balance now result in an expression determining the required resistance ratio, R2/R4, and another expression determining the frequency of the applied voltage. In other words, if we satisfy Eq. (7-24) and also excite the bridge with a frequency described by Eq. (7-26), the bridge will be in balance. In most Wien bridge circuit, the components are chosen such that R1=R3 and C1=C3. This reduces Eq. (7-24) to R2/R4=2 and Eq. (7-26) to 1 .............................................................................................................(7-27) 2RC

f =

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which is the general expression for the frequency of the Wien bridge. In a practical bridge, capacitors C1 and C3 are fixed capacitors, and resistors R1 and R3 are variable resistors controlled by a common shaft. Because of its sensitivity, the Wien bridge may be difficult to balance (unless the waveform of the applied voltage is purely sinusoidal). Since the bridge is not balanced for any harmonics present in the applied voltage, these harmonics will sometimes produce an output voltage masking the true balance point.

FIGURE 7-6 Frequency measurement with the Wien bridge [1]

7.6

Wagner Ground Connection [1]

The discussion so far has assumed that the four bridge arms consist of simple lumped impedances which do not interact in any way. In practice, stray capacitances exist between the various bridge elements and ground, and also between the bridge arms themselves. These stray capacitances shunt the bridge arms and cause the measurement errors, particularly at the hogher frequencies or when small capacitors or large inductors are measured. One way to control stray capacitances is by shielding the arms and connecting the shields to ground. This does not eliminate the capacitances but at least makes them constant in value, and they can therefore be compensated. One of the most widely used methods for eliminating some of the effects of stray capacitance in a bridge circuit is the Wagner ground connection. This circuit eliminates the troublesome capacitance which exists between the detector terminals and ground. Figure 7-7 shows the circuit of capacitance bridge, where C1 and C2 represent these stray capacitances.

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FIGURE 7-7

The Wagner groundconnection eliminates the effect of stray capacitances ecross the detector [1]

7.7

Universal Impedance Bridge [1]

One of the most useful and versatile laboratory bridges is the universal impedance bridge. Several of the bridge configurations discussed so far are combined in a single instrument capable of measuring both dc and ac resistance, the inductance and storage factor

Q of an inductor, and the capacitance and dissipation factor Q of a capacitor. A representative

example of a universal impedance bridge is given in Fig. 7-8 which clearly shows the arrangement of the various front panel controls. Figure 7-9 shows the various bridge configuration used in this impedance bridge.

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FIGURE 7-8

Universal impedance bridge (courtesy John Fluke Manufacturing Company) [1]

FIGURE 7-9 Bridge configurations of universal impedance bridge of Fig. 7-8. [1]

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