Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Language
Language Development Thinking in Images Animal Thinking and Language
Intelligence
What is Intelligence?
Assessing Intelligence
Thinking
Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating.
Cognitive Psychologists
Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive psychologists study these in great detail.
1. 2. 3. 4.
Concepts
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair.
Category Hierarchies
We organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Development of Concepts
We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not.
J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube
Triangle (definition)
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Problem Solving
Problem solving strategies include:
1. 2. 3. 4. Trial and Error Algorithms Heuristics Insight
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Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms.
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.
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Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.
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Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
Insight
Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight.
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Insight
Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the Aha experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (JungBeeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.
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From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern University and John Kounios, Drexel University
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Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 2 3 would comply. Wasons students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).
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Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
From Problem Solving by M. Scheerer. Copyright 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
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Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
Candle-Mounting Problem
From Problem Solving by M. Scheerer. Copyright 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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From Problem Solving by M. Scheerer. Copyright 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Amos Tversky
Daniel Kahneman
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Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses Probability that that do you think his profession and likes poetry, whatperson is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because would be? there are more truck drivers than such professors. An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
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Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. How is retrieval facilitated? 1. How recently we have heard about the event. 2. How distinct it is. 3. How correct it is.
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Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.
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Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded.
AP/ Wide World Photos
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).
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Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.
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Language
Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others.
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Language Development
Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2. We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school.
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Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain.
David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images
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Critical Period
Learning new languages gets harder with age.
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Word Power
Increasing word power pays its dividends. It helps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual children to inhibit one language while using another.
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Thinking in Images
To a large extent thinking is language-based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However, we also think in images.
We dont think in words, when: 1. When we open the hot water tap. 2. When we are riding our bicycle.
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Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.
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Do Animals Think?
Common cognitive skills in humans and apes include the following:
1. 2. 3. 4.
William Munoz
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Insight
Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems.
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Problem Solving
Apes are, much like us, shaped by reinforcement when solving problems.
Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne, Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations.
Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society
Chimpanzee mother using and teaching a young how to use a stone hammer. 54
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Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution.
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3. 4.
Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a form of communication.
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Syntax Comprehension
Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi (shown below) developed vocabulary for hundreds of words and phrases.
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Conclusions
If we say that animals can use meaningful sequences of signs to communicate a capability for language, our understanding would be naive Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, chimps do not develop language.
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Intelligence
Do we have an inborn general mental capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this capacity as a meaningful number?
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What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be school smarts.
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General Intelligence
The idea that general intelligence (g) exists comes from the work of Charles Spearman (1863-1945) who helped develop the factor analysis approach in statistics.
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General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning ability factor.
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Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences and speculates about a ninth one existential intelligence. Existential intelligence is the ability to think about the question of life, death and existence.
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Robert Sternberg
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with Gardner, but suggests three intelligences rather than eight.
1. 2. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions (Salovey and others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.
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Description
Recognize emotions in faces, music and stories Predict emotions, how they change and blend Express emotions in different situations Utilize emotions to adapt or be creative
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Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a method for assessing an individuals mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores.
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Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his colleague Thodore Simon practiced a more modern form of intelligence testing by developing questions that would predict childrens future progress in the Paris school system.
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Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binets test for American school children and named the test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), introduced by William Stern:
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David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), an intelligence test for school-aged children.
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WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intelligence that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems.
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Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering the test to a representative sample of future test takers in order to establish a basis for meaningful comparison.
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Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
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Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures:
1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
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Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
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Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
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Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of people into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are significantly different.
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High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well adjusted, and unusually successful academically.
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Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded individuals required constant supervision a few decades ago, but with a supportive family environment and special education they can now care for themselves.
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Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.
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Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
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Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.
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Heritability
The variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetics. We credit heredity with 50% of the variation in intelligence.
It pertains only to why people differ from one another, not to the individual.
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Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also show the following: 1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show similarity in intelligence scores. 2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly less similarity in their intelligence scores.
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Romanian orphans with minimal human interaction are delayed in their development.
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Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork, projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.
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Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we make sense of these differences?
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Black-Americans
Average IQ = 85
Hispanic Americans
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Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are largely environmental, as if one environment is more fertile in developing these abilities than the other.
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6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math computation
7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do
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However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other.
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Test-Takers Expectations
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. This phenomenon appears in some instances in intelligence testing among African-Americans and among women of all colors.
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