2001 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.

Surface Engineering for Corrosion and Wear Resistance (#06835G)

www.asminternational.org

SURFACE ENGINEERING
FOR CORROSION AND WEAR RESISTANCE

Edited by J.R. Davis Davis & Associates

Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org

IOM Communications is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Institute of Materials IOM Book No. B751

 2001 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. Surface Engineering for Corrosion and Wear Resistance (#06835G)

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Copyright 2001 by ASM International All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, March 2001

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASMs control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. ASM International staff who worked on this project include Scott Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications; Bonnie Sanders, Manager of Production; Nancy Hrivnak, Copy Editor; and Kathy Dragolich, Production Supervisor. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance / edited by J.R. Davis p. cm. Includes index. 1. Corrosion and anti-corrosives. 2. Mechanical wear. 3. Surfaces (Technology) I. Davis, J.R. (Joseph R.) TA462.S789 2001 620.11233dc21 00-048537 ISBN: 0-87170-700-4 ASM International Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org Printed in the United States of America

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Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Surface Engineering for Corrosion and Wear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Surface Engineering to Combat Corrosion and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 CHAPTER 2: Principles of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Electrochemical Corrosion Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Corrosive Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Forms of Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Uniform Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Galvanic Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Crevice Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Erosion-Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Fretting Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Intergranular Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Exfoliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Dealloying Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Stress-Corrosion Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Hydrogen Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Coatings and Corrosion Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Corrosion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Field Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Simulated Service Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Salt Spray Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 Humidity Cabinet Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 Electrochemical Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

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CHAPTER 3: Principles of Friction and Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Classification of Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Abrasive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Solid Particle Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Liquid Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 Slurry Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Adhesive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Galling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 Fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 Rolling-Contact Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77 Modes of Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Wear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 CHAPTER 4: Surface Engineering to Change the Surface Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Selective Surface Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Flame Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Induction Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88 High-Energy Beam Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Laser Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Shot Peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 CHAPTER 5: Surface Engineering to Change the Surface Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 Phosphate Chemical Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 Types of Phosphate Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Chromate Chemical Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Aluminum Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 Chromic Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102 Sulfuric Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Hardcoat Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Sealing of Anodized Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Corrosion Resistance of Anodized Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 Oxidation Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Diffusion Heat Treatment Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 Carburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 Nitriding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Carbonitriding and Ferritic Nitrocarburizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

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Pack-Cementation Diffusion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Ion Implantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 Laser Alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 CHAPTER 6: Surface Engineering to Add a Surface Layer or Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Organic Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 Ceramic Coatings and Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Glass Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Porcelain Enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Concrete and Cementatious Coatings and Linings . . . . . . . . . . .134 High-Performance Ceramic Coatings and Linings . . . . . . . . . . .136 Hot Dip Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 Batch and Continuous Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 Coating Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 Galvanized Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Galvanneal Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Zinc-Aluminum Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Aluminum Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Terne Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 Electrochemical Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Aqueous Solution Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Continuous Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Fused-Salt Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Precious Metal Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Electroless Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150 Composite Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Weld-Overlay Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 Thermal Spray Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 Corrosion Control through Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 Chemical Vapor Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 Physical Vapor Deposition Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172 Thermoreactive Deposition/Diffusion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176 CHAPTER 7: Process Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 Process Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184 Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 Wear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 Cost of Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Distortion or Size Change Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191 Coating Thickness Attainable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192

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CHAPTER 8: Practical Design Guidelines for Surface Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 Surface-Engineering Solutions for Specific Problems . . . . . . . . . .196 Structural Parts in Corrosive Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Neutral Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Specific Corrosive Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 Parts in Static Contact with Vibration (Fretting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Contact Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Fretting Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 Oxidative Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 Parts in Static Contact with a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Parts in Sliding or Rolling Contact with Another Surface . . . . . . .201 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 General Contact Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 Surface-Engineering Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Specific Contact Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Parts in Low-Load Sliding Contact with an Abrasive Product . . . .206 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206 Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 Parts in High-Load Sliding or Erosion with an Abrasive Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Surface-Engineering Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Parts in Contact with Another Engineering Component in the Presence of an Abrasive and Corrosion Product or Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Base Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 Surface-Engineering Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 Preprocessing and Postprocessing Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 Coating Thickness, Case Depth, and Component Distortion Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Surface Roughness and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 General Design Principles Related to Surface Engineering . . . . . .213 Design Guidelines for Surface Preparation Processes . . . . . . . . . .218 Design Guidelines for Organic Coating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 Design Guidelines for Inorganic Coating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Other Important Considerations for the Design Engineer . . . . . . . .226 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

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Preface
Corrosion, wear, or the combined effects of these destructive failure modes cost industrial economies hundreds of billions of dollars each year. One of the more effective means of mitigating damage due to corrosion and wear is to treat, or engineer, the surface so that it can perform functions that are distinct from those functions required from the bulk of the material. For example, a gear must be tough and fatigue resistant yet have a surface that resists wear. For applications requiring only a moderate degree of impact strength, fatigue resistance, and wear resistance, a higher carbon through-hardening steel may be sufficient. For more severe conditions, however, a surface hardened steel may have to be used. What are the options? Should the gear be flame or induction hardened, carburized or nitrided, or would high-energy processes such as laser- or electron-beam hardening be more appropriate? As a second example, consider the use of steels for various outdoor structural applications. Steel is popular because it is inexpensive, strong, and easily fabricated. Unfortunately steel is highly susceptible to severe corrosion in many environments and must be coated to achieve a satisfactory service life. Once again there are a variety of options. Should the component be painted, hot dip galvanized or aluminized, electroplated, thermally sprayed, or clad with a more corrosion resistant material? For large steel components, such as bridge members, size, weight, and handling problems may limit the type of surface treatment considered. Finally, take into consideration parts that require wearresistant, thin-film coatings. Can more conventional chromium or hard nickel electroplating be used, or will harder coatings deposited by vapor deposition techniques or ion implantation be required? Will processing time or temperature be a factor in coating selection? From the above discussion, it is apparent that engineers are faced with a bewildering number of choices when selecting the appropriate surface engineering treatment for a specific corrosion and/or wear application. But where does one start? Where can a design engineer find practical guidelines to aid in the selection process? The answers to these questions

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lie within Surface Engineering for Corrosion and Wear Resistance. In addition to devoting an entire chapter to process comparisons (see Chapter 7), this book contains dozens of useful tables and figures that compare surface treatment thickness and hardness ranges; abrasion and corrosion resistance; processing time, temperature, and pressure; costs; distortion tendencies; and other surface treatment characteristics that must be considered when choosing the right coating for the job. The starting point for this publication was an excellent overview published by the Institute of Materials (IOM) entitled Surface Engineering to Combat Wear and Corrosion: A Design Guide, which was written by Keith Stevens (A.T. Poeton Ltd.). Assisting IOM in the project was AEA Technology plc. and their National Centre of Tribology located in Risley, United Kingdom. The IOM booklet presents a concise methodology for understanding corrosion and wear problems and the many factors that must be considered before selecting a surface treatment. Material from the IOM design guide can be found primarily in Chapter 7, Process Comparisons, and Chapter 8, Practical Design Guidelines for Surface Engineering. Special thanks are due to Stephen Harmer, the editor of the IOM Design Guide series, who also reviewed several key chapters, and Bill Jackson, Head of Publishing for IOM, who worked out the copublishing agreement with Scott Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications for ASM International. Other key contributions for this book originated from Volumes 4, Heat Treating, 5, Surface Engineering, 13, Corrosion, 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology, and 20, Materials Selection and Design, of the ASM Handbook series and from the Metals Handbook Desk Edition, Second Edition. Of particular note are articles authored by Arnold R. Marder (Lehigh University) and Eric W. Brooman (Concurrent Technologies Corporation) originally published in Volume 20 of the ASM Handbook. These are acknowledged at the conclusions of Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 8. Tabular data comparing various surface engineering processes were also adapted from the ASM Materials Engineering Institute course Surface Engineering Processes for Wear and Corrosion developed by Ralph B. Alexander (R.B. Alexander & Associates). Joseph R. Davis Davis & Associates Chagrin Falls, Ohio

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