Central Modals in An Aviation Corpus: Frequency and Distribution

LLTRAS DL HO}L LLTRAS DL HO}L LLTRAS DL HO}L LLTRAS DL HO}L LLTRAS DL HO}L
Letras de Hoje. Porto Alegre. v. 41, n 2, p. 215-240, junho, 2006

CenliaI ModaIs
in an Avialion Coipus:
Iiequency and Disliilulion
*

Coslas GabrieIalos

Lancasler Universily

Simone Sarmenlo

IUCRS

_______________________
_ __ __

1 Introduction

This aer viII examine lhe frequency and dislribulion of
cenlraI modaIs (can, ccu|!, naq, nigni, nusi, sna||, sncu|!, ui||,
ucu|!) in avialion manuaIs, using a corus-based, and redomi-
nanlIy quanlilalive, aroach. Ior lhal urose, a corus consisl-
ing of lhree manuaIs for lhe OIING 737 vas comiIed. The sludy
viII aIso exIore lhe exlenl lo vhich a moslIy aulomaled quanlila-
live anaIysis of an unannolaled corus
1
can yieId heIfuI insighls
inlo lhe frequency and dislribulion of cenlraI modaIs in avialion
manuaIs, and commenl on lhe uliIily of combining quanlilalive
and quaIilalive aroaches. The examinalion viII invoIve com-
arisons of frequencies of cenlraI modaIs, bolh as a grou and
individuaIIy, belveen lhe AC and a reresenlalive corus of
American IngIish (IROWN
2
), as veII as belveen lhe lhree manu-
aIs comrising lhe AC.
This aer is arlIy based on Sarmenlo (2005).
c.gabrieIalos+Iancasler.ac.uk e coslas+gabrieIalos.com
ssarmenlo+ucrs.br
1
Annolalion vas used in lvo inslances. Iirsl, vhen eslabIishing lhe frequency of
cenlraI modaIs in IROWN, in order lo avoid laking inlo accounl Maq (lhe monlh), as
veII as can, nigni, nusi and ui|| used as nouns. Second, manuaI annolalion vas car-
ried oul in order lo eslabIish lhe modaIily lye exressed by cenlraI modaIs in AC.
2
Abbrevialions can be found in Aendix 2.
Letras de Hoje Costas Gabrielatos, Simone Sarmento

216
The deveIomenl of lerminoIogy (i.e. a seciaIized Iexicon)
dales as far back as seciaIized knovIedge. IrofessionaIs in any
given area have aIvays been concerned vilh lhe secific vocabu-
Iary of lheir fieId of knovIedge. Hovever, lhe sludy of lhe IexicaI
comonenl in seciaIized communicalion is a reIaliveIy recenl
henomenon, having slarled in lhe second haIf of lhe 20
lh
cenlury
(Krieger & Iinallo, 2004). The reasons for lhe groving imorlance
of lhe area are manifoId. Iirsl, lhe conlinuing deveIomenl of sci-
ence and lechnoIogy requires nev lerms for nev discoveries and
invenlions. More recenlIy, gIobaIizalion foslered a vhoIe range of
inlercuIluraI, inler-lechnoIogicaI, and inler-scienlific encounlers.
This inleraclion has increased lhe need of rofessionaIs using
lechnicaI/scienlific lerminoIogy, such as lransIalors, inlerrelers,
lechnicaI vrilers, Iexicograhers and lerminograhers, for slan-
dardisalion in seciaIised Ianguages
Iugene Wusler (1998),
3
from lhe Vienna SchooI of TerminoI-
ogy, crealed lhe GeneraI Theory of TerminoIogy (GTT) (Krieger,
2001:49). The GTT, based on a osilivisl concelion of science,
aimed al coining and slandardizing seciaIized lerms vorIdvide.
Ior lhe GTT, lerms are nol simIy vords, bul unils of knovIedge.
Ior examIe, Wusler (ibid.: 21) makes a dislinclion belveen lhe
Iinguisls' and lhe lerminoIogisls' oinls of viev:

To slarl vilh, aII lerminoIogicaI vork slarls vilh concels aiming
al eslabIishing cIear deIimilalions. TerminoIogy considers lhe con-
cels as indeendenl from lheir denominalions (lhe lerms). Thus,
lerminoIogisls refer lo concels, vhereas Iinguisls refer lo vord
conlenls, or vords in generaI Ianguage. Ior lhe lerminoIogisls, a
lerminoIogicaI unil consisls of a vord vilh a searale concel as
ils meaning, vhereas for mosl currenl Iinguisls, a vord is an insea-
rabIe unil comosed of form and conlenl.
According lo lheir oinl of viev, lerms are nol considered lo
be arl of naluraI Ianguages, bul are seen as forming an arlificiaI
3
According lo Krieger (2001), Gcncra| |nirc!uciicn ic Tcrninc|cgq an! Tcrninc|cgica|
Icxiccgrapnq is a oslhumous ubIicalion vhich coIIecls Wuslers' ideas resenled in
his cIasses al lhe Universily of Vienna in lhe sevenlies. Il vas ubIished in Germany
in 1979, |usl afler his dealh, by his foIIover, HeImul IeIber. This reference is lo a
CalaIan lransIalion recenlIy ubIished by lhe AIied Linguislic Inslilule from lhe
Universily of Iomeu Iabra in arceIona.
Central Modals in an Aviation Corpus: Frequency and Distribution

217
and conlroIIed lye of Ianguage, free from ambiguily and
fuzziness. In lhis vay, lerms (and lhe seciaIised concels lhey
exress) vere nol lo be sludied by Iinguisls, bul by rofessionaIs
of a given area. In addilion lo lhe GTT's slandardizing roIe,
Wusler heIed lo eslabIish TerminoIogy as a fieId of knovIedge,
vilh an eislemoIogicaI basis and ils ovn ob|ecl of sludy: lhe lerm.
NeverlheIess, lhe aulhors argue lhal lhe underIying lheory of lhe
GTT is Iimiled, as far as descrilion of seciaIized Ianguages is
concerned (Krieger & Iinnalo, 2004).
Cabre el aI. (1998) vere lhe ioneers in oosing lhe ideas
of lhe Vienna SchooI. Their main crilicism is concerned vilh lhe
ideaIized vorId conceived by lhe GTT, in vhich concels, vhich
are lrealed as re-exisling in reIalion lo naluraI Ianguages, are
crealed in lhe Iaboralory, and IabeIIed rescriliveIy. The
underIying assumlion in GTT is lhal aII concels are universaI,
regardIess of differences in geograhicaI, socio-economic, cuIluraI,
and Iinguislic conlexls. Irom lhe crilicisms of Cabre el aI. (1988)
slemmed lhe Communicalive Theory of TerminoIogy (CTT), vhich
aims lo caler for lhe comIexily of seciaIized Ianguages, adoling
sociaI, Iinguislic, and cognilive erseclives. Ior Cabre el aI.
(ibid.:38), seciaIized Ianguages are nol differenl from naluraI
Ianguages, being sub|ecl lo lhe same Iinguislic ruIes. A seciaIized
Ianguage is a naluraI Ianguage used by a communily of seciaIisls
in a arlicuIar fieId of knovIedge. Krieger (2001) argues lhal many
generaI Ianguage IexicaI unils undergo a lerminoIogizalion
rocess, lhal is, lhey acquire seciaIized meanings in seciaIized
conlexls. These seciaIized meanings co-occur vilh non seciaIized
meanings vhen lhe unils are found in more generaI conlexls.
LexicaI unils acquire lhe slalus of lerms onIy vhen lhey are
embedded in a cerlain lechnicaI or scienlific area. According lo lhe
CTT, seciaIized Ianguages are lo be sludied by Iinguisls, and,
vhenever necessary, vilh lhe heI of seciaIisls in a given fieId.
The seciaIized Ianguage used in avialion lechnicaI
manuaIs, vhich is lhe focus of lhe resenl sludy, has ils ovn
characlerislics. To slarl vilh, IngIish is considered lhe officiaI
Ianguage, and lherefore, differenl avialion rofessionaIs
vorIdvide have lo use IngIish for differenl uroses al differenl
IeveIs. One of lhese uroses is reading avialion lechnicaI manuaIs.

218
IiIols, mechanics and lechnicians have lo undersland every delaiI
in lhe lexls. A generaI underslanding of lhe lexls viII nol suffice,
because even minor misunderslandings can cause serious damage,
as has aIready been lhe case in severaI air accidenls and incidenls,
in vhich communicalion faiIure has roven lo be a causaI or
conlribulory faclor (ICAO, 2004). Ior lhese reasons, a Iol of efforl is
ul inlo slandardizing avialion Ianguage. The Iuroean airIines
and airIane manufaclurers crealed SimIified IngIish (SI) vilh
an aim lo faciIilale lhe vork of vrilers (lechnicaI edilors) and users
(lechnicians, mechanics and iIols) of oeralion and mainlenance
manuaIs (Shavcross, 1993). AIlhough nol made exIicil in lhe
Iileralure, SI seems lo foIIov lhe rinciIes eslabIished by lhe
GeneraI Theory of TerminoIogy (GTT).
Al lhis oinl, ve musl caII allenlion lo an inleresling
discreancy. AIlhough a Iol of efforl has been exended on
slandardising avialion IngIish on a rescrilive IeveI, lhere is a
dearlh of emiricaI, descrilive sludies vhich viII heI eslabIish
vhelher, and lo vhal exlenl, slandardisalion guideIines are
foIIoved in raclice. Krieger (2001) oinls oul lhal mosl sludies
aboul seciaIized Ianguages sliII have a narrov focus on lhe slricl
lrealmenl of lerms.
4
Hovever, il has been mainlained lhal olher
vord cIasses (e.g. ad|eclives and verbs), as veII as olher lyes of
muIli-vord unils and hraseoIogies shouId aIso conslilule ob|ecls
of exIoralory sludies of seciaIised Ianguages. eviIacqua (1998),
vho is among lhe fev schoIars vho Iook beyond lerms in lhe slricl
sense, gives an accounl of seciaIized hraseoIogy and ils
aIicalion in diclionaries, gIossaries, elc. Sarmenlo (2004) anaIyzes
hov vords borroved from IngIish funclion in avialion
Iorluguese, and examines lhe exisling crileria for lhe incIusion of
lhese borroved vords in avialion gIossaries. MacieI (2001)
describes lhe use of erformalive verbs in Iavs, and, more
secificaIIy, in lhe raziIian conslilulion of 1988. Iinallo el aI.
(2002, quoled in Krieger and Iinallo, 2004) carried oul an
exIoralory sludy of lvo modaI verbs, pc!cr (can, may) and !ctcr
4
GTT lyicaIIy lakes onIy nouns, noun-noun comounds and noun hrases as lerms.
MuIli-vord unils conslilule around 80% of lhe lerms in aII areas of knovIedge
(Krieger, 2001:30).

219
(musl), in academic chemislry manuaIs vrillen in raziIian
Iorluguese. The aulhors ciled above beIieve lhal a beller
underslanding of hov lhese verbs occur in differenl lexls can
conlribule lo lhe descrilion of aulhoriaI slyIes or genres, as veII as
lhe fieId of knovIedge.
AIlhough nol direclIy Iinked lo lhe sludy of lerminoIogy,
bul sliII silualed vilhin lhe descrilion of seciaIized Ianguages,
lhere have been a number of corus-based sludies on IexicaI
asecls of academic and scienlific discourse. Ior examIe, Coxhead
(2002) used a corus of academic vriling lo comiIe a vord Iisl for
lhe leaching of academic IngIish, HyIand (2002) anaIysed lhe use
of direclives in academic vriling, and GIedhiII (2000) and Luzon
Marco (2000) focused on frequenl coIIocalions in harmaceulicaI
and medicaI research arlicIes resecliveIy. ecause of
lhe frequenl use of hedging in academic/scienlific vriling,
modaIily (in arlicuIar, eislemic modaIily) has been lhe focus of a
number of sludies. Ior examIe, Hegedus (2005) sludied eislemic
modaIily in drug informalion IeafIels, and Thomson (2002)
examined lhe use of modaI verbs in academic vriling. Olher
sludies have comared lhe use of modaIily in lhe
academic/scienlific vriling of nalive and non-nalive seakers, vilh
a viev lo informing lhe leaching of academic/scienlific vriling (e.g.
GabrieIalos & McInery, 2005, HyIand & MiIlon, 1997, McInery &
KiefIe, 2002).
Comaralive sludies of lhe Ialler lye can be adaled lo lhe
domain of manuaIs. The anaIysis of Iinguislic fealures of
comarabIe manuaIs vrillen by differenl aulhors, or roduced by
differenl comanies, can reveaI lo vhal exlenl guideIines
erlaining lo a given seciaIised Ianguage are foIIoved. In lurn,
lhe findings of such sludies can inform lhe lraining of manuaI
aulhors. This sludy aims lo conlribule lo lhe anaIysis and
descrilion of lhe Ianguage acluaIIy used in avialion manuaIs, and,
indireclIy, lo lhe slandardisalion of avialion IngIish.

2 ModaIity and modaIs in EngIish

ModaIily is reIaled lo lhe seaker's oinion or allilude lo-
vards lhe roosilion lhal lhe senlence exresses or lhe silualion

220
lhal lhe roosilion describes (Lyons: 1977, 452), or, more secifi-
caIIy, il is concerned vilh lhe seaker's allilude lovards lhe fac-
luaIily or acluaIisalion of lhe silualion exressed by lhe resl of lhe
cIause (HuddIeslon & IuIIum, 2002: 173). IaImer (1986: 16) ar-
gues lhal modaIily is concerned vilh sub|eclive characlerislics of
an ullerance, and il couId even be furlher argued lhal sub|eclivily
is an essenliaI crilerion for modaIily.
There are severaI roosaIs concerning lhe number and lye
of modaIilies lhal need lo be recognized. NeverlheIess, lhere seems
lo be a consensus regarding lvo: cpisicnic and !ccniic modaIilies.
The former exresses lhe seaker's beIiefs and degree of conviclion
concerning a given slale of affairs, e.g., Hc naq |c ai ncnc. The Ialler
exresses lhe seaker's ermission or in|unclion lhal an acl be
erformed or obIigalion fuIfiIIed (Hoye, 1997), e.g. 'Ycu naq gc
ncnc ncu'. Some accounls of modaIily (e.g. HuddIeslon & IuIIum,
2002, IaImer, 1990) aIso incIude a lhird lye, !qnanic modaIily,
vhich is reIaled lo lhe abiIily and voIilion of lhe sub|ecl, e.g., Hc
can p|aq inc pianc rca||q uc||. Hovever, reservalions have been
exressed, even among lhose vho incIude dynamic modaIily in
lheir framevorks, as lo vhelher abiIily and voIilion shouId be
lrealed as modaI nolions, because modaIily is "essenliaIIy sub|eclive
., for CAN and WILL mereIy make ureIy ob|eclive slalemenls aboul
lhe sub|ecl of lhe senlence, as do mosl olher verbs" (IaImer, 2003: 36).
Some framevorks (e.g. Coales, 1983) recognise lvo lyes of
modaIilies, cpisicnic and ncn-cpisicnic (or rcci), lhe Ialler of vhich
incIudes deonlic and dynamic modaIilies.
A furlher dimension of modaIily is lhal of !cgrcc (IaImer,
1986: 102-103) or sircngin (HuddIeslon & IuIIum, 2002: 176-179). In
eislemic modaIily, lhis dimension is underslood as lhe exlenl lo
vhich lhe seaker/vriler is commilled lo lhe IikeIihood or
facluaIily of vhal is exressed, in lhe case of deonlic modaIily, il is
lhe exlenl lo vhich an aclion or evenl is resenled as desirabIe. Ior
examIe, nusi exresses a higher degree/slrenglh of modaIily lhan
naq.
ModaIily can be exressed lhrough a variely of formaI
means, such as modaI auxiIiaries (e.g. naq, cugni ic), IexicaI verbs
(e.g. ncc!, uani), adverbs (e.g. pcssi||q, prc|a||q), conslruclions
invoIving ad|eclives (e.g. ii is |ikc|q/pcssi||c inai .), lhe imeralive,

221
and lhe asl lense (in some conlexls, e.g. condilionaIs). Hovever,
mosl accounls of, and sludies on, modaIily focus on a grou of
nine modaI auxiIiaries usuaIIy lermed ccnira| nc!a|s (can, ccu|!,
naq, nigni, nusi, sna||, sncu|!, ui||, ucu|!). IormaIIy, lhese
auxiIiaries share a number of roerlies, usuaIIy referred lo by lhe
acronym NICI (HuddIeslon & IuIIum, 2002: 93):

(1) Negalive form vilh nci/ni
5
, e.g. He can't come.
(2) Inversion vilh lhe sub|ecl lo form a queslion, e.g. Can he come`
(3) Code, e.g. She can come and sn can hc.
(4) Emhalic affirmalion, e.g. He may come.

There is no consensus as lo vhelher ccu|!, nigni, sncu|! and
ucu|!, shouId be lrealed as lhe asl forms of can, naq, sna|| and ui||
resecliveIy or as modaI auxiIiaries in lheir ovn righl. According
lo CeIce-Murcia & Larsen-Ireeman (1999), IngIish modaIs are
derived from verbs lhal carried lense and look agreemenl markers
during a much earIier slage on lhe Ianguage. Thus, lhey argue lhal
lhe hisloricaI derivalion from ordinary verbs sliII has some
semanlic imIicalions (see aIso HuddIeslon & IuIIum, 2002: 92).
Hovever, olher sludies lreal cenlraI modaIs nol as resenl/asl
lense airs, bul as dislincl modaI auxiIiaries. Quirk el. aI. (1985:
147) remark lhal 'modaIs mighl vilhoul much simIificalion be
regarded as modaI arlicIes vhich have Iosl lheir hisloricaI
conneclion vilh lhe infIeclionaI aradigm of verbs' (see aIso iber
el aI., 1999: 483-485, Leech, 2004: 141-143).
Irom a dislribulionaI erseclive, il seems lhal cenlraI
modaIs are much more frequenl in soken lhan in vrillen IngIish,
and lhal ui||, ucu|!, can and ccu|! are nolabIy more frequenl lhan
lhe olher modaIs (Quirk el aI, 1985). iber el aI (1999: 486), in lheir
ma|or descrilion of lhe dislribulion of modaIs in lhe 40-miIIion-
vord LSWI
6
Corus, aIso shov lhal ui||, ucu|!, can and ccu|! are
exlremeIy common, vilh sna|| being lhe Ieasl frequenl cenlraI
modaI. Kennedy (2002) reorls simiIar resuIls regarding lhe
reIalive frequency of modaI verbs in lhe NC
7
, vilh ui|| accounling
5
Maqni is nol a very frequenl form, il occurs onIy seven limes in lhe NC.
6
LSWI slands for Longman Soken and Wrillen IngIish Corus.
7
NC slands for rilish NalionaI Corus (100miIIion vords of vrillen and soken
IngIish).

222
for aImosl 23% of aII modaI lokens in lhe corus. Kennedy (2002)
and iber el aI (1999) observe lhal lhe dislribulion of cenlraI
modaIs varies according lo genre or lexl lye.
This sludy focuses on cenlraI modaIs for lhree reasons.
IirslIy, emiricaI sludies indicale lhal, in vriling, lhe exression of
modaIily lhrough lhis grou of modaIs is more frequenl lhan
lhrough olher Iinguislic means (GabrieIalos, 2003,
8
GabrieIalos &
McInery, 2005: 320). SecondIy, lhe facl lhal lhey are
morhoIogicaIIy fixed makes lhem good candidales for a
quanlilalive sludy on an unannolaled corus. IinaIIy, and more
imorlanlIy, cenlraI modaIs are normaIIy oIysemous, and,
lherefore, lheir examinalion in avialion manuaIs can rovide an
indicalion of lhe exlenl lo vhich lhe guideIines regarding
monosemy in simIified IngIish are foIIoved.

3 Corpus-based methodoIogy

Corus Iinguislics is emiricaI, in lhal one of ils basic
rinciIes is lhe examinalion of naluraIIy occurring Ianguage
ralher lhan inlroseclive examIes. Hovever, lhis shouId nol be
laken lo mean lhal in using allesled examIes as lhe basis of
Iinguislic anaIysis one is necessariIy emIoying a corus-based
melhodoIogy. A second, and comIemenlary, rinciIe is lhal of
lolaI accounlabiIily (Leech, 1992: 112), lhal is, lhe researcher
musl accounl for aII lhe inslances in lhe corus of lhe Iinguislic
henomenon under invesligalion. The Ialler rinciIe oinls
lovards a dislincl characlerislic of corus-based melhodoIogies,
9

lhal is, a focus on quanlilalive informalion and slalislicaI anaIyses.
Ior examIe, corus sludies frequenlIy, if nol invariabIy, lake inlo
accounl lhe frequency of occurrence of Ianguage fealures, and lheir
dislribulion in soken and vrillen Ianguage and/or in differenl
lexl lyes or genres. This is nol lo say lhal corus Iinguislics does
8
In a random samIe of ij-condilionaIs from lhe vrillen sub-corus of lhe NC, 82%
of lhe modaIised main cIauses conlained cenlraI modaIs (GabrieIalos, 2003).
9
There is some varialion in lhe secific (combinalions of) research rocedures used
vilhin lhe corus research aradigm (for a summary and examIes see McInery &
GabrieIalos, 2006).

223
nol invoIve quaIilalive anaIysis, ralher lhal lhe quanlilalive
anaIysis informs lhe quaIilalive inlerrelalion of lhe dala.
The exislence of reference and seciaIised corora makes il
ossibIe lo comare lhe use of Ianguage fealures in secific
domains in reIalion lo Ianguage use as a vhoIe. SimiIarIy,
comarisons can be made belveen differenl seciaIised domains.
Krieger & Iinallo (2004) menlion lhe imorlance of corus
Iinguislics for lerminoIogicaI sludies. The occurrence and
dislribulion of Iinguislic eIemenls reveaIs hov roduclive lhe
invesligalion of frequency, reguIarilies and arlicuIarilies in a Iarge
coIIeclion of seciaIized lexls can be for lhe descrilion of a
seciaIised Ianguage and diclionary roduclion. eviIacqua (1998),
Iinallo el aI. (2003), Hegedus (2005) and MacieI (2001) have aIso
used a corus-based aroach in lheir research.
AIlhough corora are usuaIIy reresenlalive samIes, il is
nol unfeasibIe, arlicuIarIy in seciaIised domains, lo creale
corora vhich conlain veII defined enlirelies (McInery &
GabrieIalos, 2006: 34). Ior examIe, if one creales a corus
conlaining aII avialion-reIaled manuaIs of a secific comany, one
viII be in a osilion lo describe lhe Ianguage fealures
characlerising lhe Ianguage in lhe manuaIs of lhal comany. As
nevIy roduced, or revised and udaled manuaIs couId be added
lo lhe corus, il vouId be ossibIe lo examine hov lhe use of
secific Ianguage fealures in manuaIs deveIos over lime. AIso, a
comany inleresled in lhe Iinguislic slandardisalion of ils manuaIs
(as manuaIs are nol lyicaIIy vrillen by lhe same aulhor) couId
examine lhe sub-corus conlaining manuaIs vrillen for a secific
urose (e.g. quick reference in-fIighl manuaIs) lo comare
vhelher lhey aII share lhe same Iinguislic characlerislics. The
avaiIabiIily of simiIar corora conlaining manuaIs by olher
comanies vouId make il ossibIe lo eslabIish vhelher aII manuaIs
beIonging lo lhe same calegory (e.g. mainlenance manuaIs) share
lhe same Iinguislic characlerislics, irreseclive of lhe comany
vhich roduced lhem. In olher vords, corus-based research
makes il feasibIe lo eslabIish vhelher a singIe slandardised
Ianguage for manuaIs exisls. This, of course, can aIso be examined
using samIes, lhal is, onIy a fev manuaIs from each comany. In
lhis case, hovever, concIusions vouId be Iess confidenl.

224
In lhis aer, comarisons are muIli-faceled. Iirsl, lhe
frequency of occurrence of lhe cenlraI modaIs in lhe Avialion
Corus is comared lo lhal in a reference corus. No informalion
is given aboul lhe aulhor(s) in lhe manuaIs, hovever, since lhey
have been ubIished by OIING, an American comany, il seems
more IikeIy lhal lhey vere vrillen by seakers of American
IngIish lhan seakers of any olher variely of IngIish. Ior lhis
reason, ve have decided lo use a reference corus of American
IngIish, IROWN (Hundl el aI., 1999), for lhe comarisons of
frequencies.
10
The dislribulion of cenlraI modaIs is comared
across lhe lhree manuaIs comrising lhe Avialion Corus. The
anaIysis of AC and lhe comarisons vilh IROWN vere carried oul
using Wcr!sniin Tcc|s (Scoll, 1998).
4 The Aviation Corpus

The Avialion Corus (AC) comrises lhree OIING 737
manuaIs: a mainlenance manuaI (MM), addressed lo avialion
mechanics and lechnicians, consisling of 42,382 vords, a Quick
Reference Handbook (QRH), addressed lo iIols, consisling of
29,928 vords, and an Oeralions ManuaI (OM), aIso addressed lo
iIols, vilh 46,895 vords - adding u lo a lolaI of 119,205 vords.
A corus is nol simIy a coIIeclion of naluraIIy occurring lexls
(soken or vrillen), bul, ideaIIy, a microcosm of a Ianguage or
Ianguage variely, or, more reciseIy, a finile coIIeclion of
machine-readabIe lexls, samIed lo be maximaIIy reresenlalive of
a Ianguage or variely (McInery & WiIson, 2001: 197). erber
Sardinha (2002) considers a corus of over a 100,000 vords lo be a
smaII-medium corus, vhich is deemed Iarge enough lo be
reresenlalive in lhe case of seciaIised or simIified Ianguages.
Hovever, given lhal lhe manuaIs comrising lhe corus come
from lhe same source, lhe quanlilalive informalion derived from
lhe anaIysis shouId be lrealed onIy as an indicalion, and any
concIusions need lo be lenlalive. To ul il differenlIy, lhe
informalion derived from lhe anaIysis of AC is conlingenl on lhe
exlenl lhal lhe corus is reresenlalive of lhe genre of avialion
10
IROWN conlains 1 miIIion vords of vriling from differenl genres, and vas com-
iIed in lhe earIy 1990s.

225
manuaIs, and, more secificaIIy, on lhe exlenl lhal lhe manuaIs
comrising lhe AC are reresenlalive of avialion manuaIs of a
simiIar lye in generaI. CIearIy, more sludies on differenl avialion
manuaIs are needed for more confidenl concIusions lo be dravn.
The MM conlains informalion required lo service,
lroubIeshool, check, reair, and reIace aII syslems and equimenl
inslaIIed in lhe 737-300/400/500 airIanes normaIIy requiring such
aclion on lhe Iine or in lhe mainlenance hangar. In addilion, il
conlains informalion aboul lhe inseclion and mainlenance of
airIane slruclure. The OM rovides lhe necessary oeraling
Iimilalions, rocedures, erformance, and syslems informalion lhe
fIighl crev needs lo safeIy and efficienlIy oerale lhe 737 airIane
during aII anlicialed airIine oeralions. Il is slruclured in a lvo-
voIume formal. VoIume 1 incIudes oeralionaI Iimilalions, normaI
and suIemenlary rocedures, and disalch erformance dala.
VoIume 2 conlains syslems informalion. The QRH consisls of
NormaI and Non-NormaI CheckIisls. NormaI checkIisls are used lo
verify lhal cerlain roceduraI sles have been carried oul. OnIy
lhose sles vhich, if omilled, vouId have some imacl on normaI
oeralions are incIuded in lhe NormaI CheckIisl seclion. Non-
NormaI CheckIisls, on lhe olher hand, incIude informalion lo be
used by lhe fIighl crev lo coe vilh emergencies. They conlain
inslruclions for correclive aclion, as veII as informalion for
Ianning lhe remainder of lhe fIighl. The 737 airIanes require lvo
fIighl crev members, i.e., lvo iIols: a calain and a firsl officer.
Iach iIol caIIs for checkIisls according lo lheir area of
resonsibiIily during lhe fIighl.
5 AnaIysis and discussion

The anaIysis viII consisl mainIy of comarisons in lhe
frequency of cenlraI modaIs, eilher laken as a grou or
individuaIIy, belveen lhe AC and IROWN, as veII as belveen lhe
lhree manuaIs comrising lhe AC. Since lhe corora and sub-
corora are of differenl sizes, lhe comarisons need lo be based on
normaIised frequencies in our case, frequencies er 1,000 vords.
AIso, in order lo eslabIish vhelher any observed frequency
differences are due lo lhe seciaIised Ianguage used in lhe manuaIs

226
ralher lhan chance, ve viII aIso make use of lhe Iog IikeIihood (LL)
slalislic (cf. Rayson & Garside, 2000). A LL score of 6.6 and above,
indicaling lhal lhe robabiIily of an observed difference being due
lo chance is Iess lhan 1% (i.e. indicaling a IeveI of confidence of
more lhan 99%), viII be considered as shoving slalislicaI
significance.

5.1 Comparison between AC and FROWN

We viII begin vilh a comarison of lhe frequency of cenlraI
modaIs, laken as a grou, in lhe AC and IROWN. The labIe beIov
shovs lhe acluaI frequencies as veII as lhe normaIised frequencies
(i.e. frequencies er 1,000 vords) in lhe lvo corora. The finaI
coIumn indicales lhe Iog IikeIihood vaIue.

TabIe 1. Comarison belveen AC and Irovn
(freq. er 1,000 vords)
AC FROWN
AC
(normalised)
FROWN
(normalised)
840 10,998 7.05 10.76

As a grou, lhe cenlraI modaIs are used 50% Iess frequenlIy
in lhe AC lhan IROWN, and lhis difference is slalislicaIIy
significanl. Taking inlo accounl lhe lyicaI conlenl of lhe manuaIs
comrising lhe AC, vhich is redominanlIy facluaI informalion
and inslruclions, ve can secuIale lhal lhe marked difference in
frequency is due lo lhe comaraliveIy infrequenl use of
hyolhelicaIily or hedging, lhal is, eislemic modaIily. Hovever,
ve aIso need lo examine vhelher, and lo vhal exlenl, lhis generaI
lrend is shared by lhe individuaI modaIs. To lhal end, ve comare
lhe normaIised frequencies of individuaI modaIs in lhe AC and
IROWN (TabIe 2).
11

11
See Aendix 1 for lhe acluaI frequencies.

227
TabIe 2. Comarison of normaIised frequencies
of modaIs in lhe lvo corora
AC FROWN
Difference(%)
AC-FROWN
LL
can 1.82 1.86 -2% 0.11
could 0.18 1.62 -800% 229.94
may 1.95 0.86 +56% 103.87
might 0.02 0.62 -3000% 121.44
must 1.33 0.65 +51% 55.15
shall 0.01 0.14 -1300% 25.38
should 0.70 0.77 -10% 0.78
will 0.99 1.72 -74% 40.21
would 0.05 2.50 -4900% 500.41
TotaI 7.05 10.76 -53% 158.02

The comarison of individuaI modaIs reveaIs significanl
varialions in lheir frequencies. Tvo modaIs, can and sncu|!, are
used as frequenlIy in lhe lvo corora (lhe sIighl observed
differences are nol slalislicaIIy significanl). Iive modaIs shov
Iover frequency in AC, lhe mosl marked being ucu|!, nigni, sna||
and ccu|!. Wi|| is aIso Iess frequenl in AC, bul lhe difference is
significanlIy Iess marked in comarison. The much Iover
frequency of ucu|!, nigni and ccu|! in AC seems lo suorl lhe
exIanalion given above, lhal is, lhal lhe funclion of manuaIs
requires IillIe use of eislemic modaIily, as manuaIs mainIy give
cIear-cul informalion and inslruclions. In facl, ve can nov exand
our exIanalion by suggesling lhal lhe eislemic modaIily
exressed in manuaIs is of a Iov degree, as ucu|!, nigni and ccu|!,
vhich are virluaIIy unused in lhe AC, exress a high degree of
modaIily, lhal is, a higher degree of lenlaliveness (e.g. IaImer,
1987: 44). Allilude lo IikeIihood (eislemic sense) seems lo be
exressed in AC mainIy lhrough naq (al Ieasl as far as lhe cenlraI
modaIs are concerned), as nusi is used onIy vilh deonlic
meaning.
12
This can exIain vhy naq is used more frequenlIy in
AC lhan in IROWN.

12
See Aendix 2 for lhe concordances vilh .

228
5.2 Comparison between manuals in AC

The AC consisls of manuaIs addressed lo differenl
audiences: mechanics and iIols. AIso, lhe manuaIs for mechanics
and iIols address differenl issues and rocedures, and are lo be
used in differenl sellings (hangar and cockil) and under differenl
condilions. Il is nol unreasonabIe, lherefore, lo execl lhal lhe
differences in lhe conlexls for vhich lhese manuaIs vere vrillen
may be refIecled in lhe Ianguage used in lhem, and in lhe use of
cenlraI modaIs in arlicuIar. Il seems vise, lhen, lo examine lhe
normaIised frequencies of lhe cenlraI modaIs searaleIy in lhe lvo
lyes of manuaIs for a more accurale iclure (TabIe 3 beIov).

TabIe 3. Comarison belveen manuaIs
for mechanics and iIols

Mechanics PiIots
can 3.49 0.90 95.33
could 0.26 0.14 1.92
may 0.61 2.68 72.00
might 0.05 ---- 4.14
must 1.75 1.09 8.46
shall ---- 0.01 0.88
should 0.28 0.91 18.05
will 1.01 0.98 0.04
would ---- 0.09 6.15
7.45 6.80 1.73

The comarison belveen manuaIs for mechanics and iIols
may shov no slalislicaIIy significanl difference in lhe frequency of
cenlraI modaIs as a grou, bul il reveaIs some marked differences
in lhe use of individuaI modaIs. The MM conlains can and nusi in
significanlIy higher frequency lhan lhe iIols' manuaIs (OM +
QRH),
13
vhereas lhe Ialler shov considerabIy higher frequency in
lhe use of naq and sncu|!. This comarison aIso sheds Iighl inlo lhe
source of lhe higher frequencies of naq and nusi in AC, comared
lo IROWN. The higher frequency of naq in AC is cIearIy due lo lhe
13
AIlhough is aIso used more frequenlIy in MM, il viII nol be laken inlo accounl
in lhe discussion as lhe difference is nol slalislicaIIy significance al lhe required IeveI
of confidence.

229
iIols' manuaIs (OM and QRH), vhereas lhe higher frequency of
is mainIy due lo lhe mechanics' manuaI (MM).
The differences observed above oinl lovards lhe uliIily of
comaring lhe lvo manuaIs for iIols (OM and QRH) as veII. The
lvo manuaIs may share lvo conlexluaI eIemenls (nameIy,
audience and selling), bul lhey are suosed lo be used in differenl
circumslances. The OM conlains direclions for lhe normaI
rocedures lo be carried oul before lake-off, during lhe fIighl, and
afler Ianding. The QRH, aarl from checkIisls for normaI
oeralions, aIso conlains inslruclions for handIing emergencies,
somelhing lhal may be refIecled in lhe use of cenlraI modaIs (see
TabIe 4 for lhe comarison resuIls).

TabIe 4. Comarison belveen OM and QRH

OM QRH LL
can 0.79 1.07 1.57
could 0.19 0.06 2.22
may 2.54 2.90 0.92
might -- -- 0.00
must 1.55 0.37 27.59
shall 0.02 -- 0.99
should 1.02 0.73 1.72
will 0.74 1.33 6.33
would 0.04 0.17 3.03
TotaI 6.90 6.65 0.18

The frequency of lhe grou of cenlraI modaIs is comarabIe
in lhe lvo manuaIs for iIols, as comarabIe is aIso lhe frequency
of aII individuaI modaIs bul one. The onIy modaI lhal regislers a
slalislicaIIy significanl difference is . Al firsl gIance, il seems
counler-inluilive lhal shouId be more frequenl in OM, as one
vouId execl lhe QRH, vhich rovides inslruclions lo handIe
emergencies, lo conlain as much, if nol more deonlic modaIily.
Hovever, informaI observalions during lhe anaIysis, as veII as lhe
examinalion of 3-gram
14
and 4-gram keyvords, indicale lhal lhis
difference may be due lo lhe higher frequency of imeralives in
QRH.
14
3-grams and 4-grams are slrings of 3 and 4 vords resecliveIy, lhey are nol nec-
essariIy grammalicaI or meaningfuI unils.

230
5.3 Relative frequency of central modals in AC
In lhis seclion ve examine more cIoseIy lhe reIalive

frequency of modaI verbs in AC, and comare il lo lhal eslabIished
in sludies on generaI reference corora (see TabIe 5 for a
summary). CoIumn 1 shovs lhe modaI forms anaIysed. CoIumn 2
shovs lhal 840 of lhe vord lokens in AC are modaIs. CoIumn 3
shovs lhe ercenlage of each of lhe modaIs. Wi||, can, naq and
nusi accounl for 86.31% of aII lhe modaI verb lokens, vilh naq
being lhe mosl frequenl (27.62%). The mosl frequenl verbs in lhis
corus differ from lhose found in revious sludies (iber el aI,
1999, Kennedy, 2002, Quirk el aI, 1985) in vhich ui||, ucu|!, can and
ccu|! vere lhe mosl frequenl. Wcu|! and ccu|! shov a very Iov
frequency in AC, vilh 0.83% and 2.62% resecliveIy, if comared
lo lhe olher ciled sludies. Hovever, lhe Iov frequency of nigni and
sna|| in AC (onIy one occurrence of sna|| and lvo of nigni) is
comarabIe vilh lhal found by sludies on reference corora. Ior
lhis reason, even lhough sna|| and nigni viII aIvays be incIuded in
lhe labIes, lhey viII nol be usuaIIy referred lo in lhe discussion.

TabIe 5 Dislribulion of ModaI Verbs
in lhe Avialion Corus (AC) %

1 2 3 4 5 6

Tokens
in AC
Tokens
in AC (%)
MM QRH OM
can 217 25.83 46.69 16.08 11.42
could 22 2.62 3.47 1.00 2.78
may 232 27.62 8.20 43.72 36.73
might 02 0.24 0.63 0.0 0.0
must 158 18.81 23.35 5.53 22.53
shall 01 0.12 0.0 0.0 0.31
should 83 9.88 4.10 11.06 14.81
will 118 14.05 13.56 20.10 10.80
would 07 0.83 0.0 2.51 0.62
TotaI 840 100 100 100 100
ModaIs per
1.000 words
7.05 7.47 6.64 6.91

CoIumns 3, 4 and 5 shov lhe dislribulion of modaIs in lhe
lhree differenl manuaIs. Wi|| is more frequenl in lhe QRH, vilh
20.10% comared lo 13.56% in lhe MM, and Ieasl frequenl in lhe
OM (10.8%). There is cIearIy a much higher roorlion of can in lhe
MM, nearIy haIf of aII lhe modaI verb lokens in lhe vhoIe manuaI

231
(46.69%), comared lo 16.08% in lhe QRH and 11.42% in lhe OM.
The QRH shovs aroximaleIy five limes more occurrences of naq
lhan lhe MM, vilh 43.72% and 8.20% resecliveIy. Musi is much
more frequenl in lhe MM (23.35%) and in lhe OM (22.53%),
shoving a frequency aboul four limes higher lhan in lhe QRH
(5.53%). There is aIso a subslanliaI varialion in lhe frequency of
sncu|!, vilh a reIalive frequency of onIy 4.10% in lhe MM, aboul
lhree limes higher in lhe QRH (11.06%) and more lhal lhree limes
higher in lhe OM (14.81%).
5.4 Modal verb phrase structure in the AC

AIlhough modaI verbs can occur in nine differenl verb
hrase slruclures (see TabIe 6, from Kennedy, 2002), onIy a fev of
lhem are resenl in AC.

TabIe 6 IossibIe modaI verb hrase slruclure
(Kennedy, 2002:82)

1 Modal alone (Who will go?) will.
2 Modal + infinitive Sam can swim./ She must be hungry./
You should have a rest.
3 Modal + be + past participle
(Modal with Passive)
t should be replaced.
4 Modal+be+present participle
(Modal with Progressive Aspect)
They will be arriving soon.
5 Modal+have+past participle (or adjective) He might have done it.
He must have been hungry.
6 Modal+be+being+past participle (or
adjective)
t might be being done tomorrow.
He could be being awkward.
7 Modal+have+been+past participle
(Modal with Passive and Perfect Aspect)
t should have been fixed.
8 Modal+have+been+present participle
(Modal with Perfect and Progressive Aspect)
He must have been lying.
9 Modal+have+been+being+past participle
(or adjective)
(Modal with Passive and Perfect and
Progressive Aspect)
He might have been being
blackmailed.
They must have been being
careless.

According lo Kennedy (2002: 82), lhere are huge
differences in lhe reIalive dislribulions of use of lhe nine
slruclures in lhe NC. Slruclure 2, modaI+infinilive, accounls for
76% of aII modaI occurrences. The roorlion is even higher in lhe
soken lexls (84,9%). iber el aI (1999) argue lhal some modaIs
have a higher occurrence vilh marked voice or asecl. In lheir

232
findings, naq, nigni, sncu|! and nusi have a higher frequency vilh
erfecl asecl.
TabIe 7 shovs lhe dislribulion of lhe modaI verb hrase
slruclures in lhe lhree differenl manuaIs in AC. As can be seen,
dislincl differences in lhe dislribulion of lhe nine slruclures are
aIso resenl here, suorling lhe varialion found in iber el aI.
(1999) and Kennedy (2002). Slruclures 1, 6, 8 and 9 have no
occurrences al aII in any of lhe lhree sub-corora. Slruclures 4, 5
and 7 have a very Iov frequency, accounling for onIy 1.08% of lhe
modaI lokens in lhe AC as a vhoIe. Slruclure 2 (modaI+infinilive)
logelher vilh slruclure 3 (modaI+be+asl arliciIe) accounl for
98.92% of lhe occurrences (56.90% and 42.02% resecliveIy). The
frequency of slruclure 2 (modaI+infinilive) in lhe MM malches lhal
of lhe NC. Hovever, bolh lhe QRH and lhe OM, have a higher
occurrence of slruclure 3 (modaI+be+asl arliciIe) lhan of
slruclure 2, vhich does nol corresond lo lhe findings of iber el aI
(1999) and Kennedy (2002).
TabIe 7 ModaI verb hrase slruclures

in lhe differenl manuaIs%
ModaI structure AC MM OM QRH

1
Modal alone 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 Modal + infinitive
(present infinitive, active voice)
56.9
0
74.45 45.06 48.24
3 Modal + be + past participle (present
infinitive, passive voice)
42.0
2
24.29 54.01 50.75
4
Modal + be + present participle 0.36 0.0 0.31 1.01
5
Modal + have + past participle 0.24 0.31 0.31 0.0
6
Modal + be + being + past participle 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
7
Modal + have + been + past participle 0.48 0.95 0.31 0.0
8 Modal + have + been + present
participle
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 Modal + have + been + being + past
participle (or adjective)
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total 100 100 100 100

Whereas TabIe 7 shovs lhe dislribulion of lhe modaI verb
hrase slruclure in lhe differenl manuaIs, TabIe 8 resenls lhe ex-

233
lenl lo vhich differenl modaIs make use of lhe verb hrase slruc-
lures.
TabIe 8 Dislribulion of modaI verbs

in verb hrase slruclures of lhe AC
ModaI structures
can
%
could
%
may
%
might
%
must
%
shall
%
should
%
will
%
would
%
1 Modal alone 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 Modal + infinitive 64.52 95.45 51.29 0.0 46.20 100 32.53 77.97 71.42
3 Modal + be + past
participle
35.48 0.0 46.99 0.0 53.16 0.0 67.47 21.18 28.58
4 Modal+be+present
participle
0.0 0.0 0.86 0.0 0.64 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 Modal+have+past
participle
0.0 0.0 0.43 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.85 0.0
6 Modal+be+being+
past participle
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
7 Modal+have+been+
past participle
0.0 4.55 0.43 100 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
8 Modal + have + been +
present participle
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 Modal + have + been +
being + past participle
(or adjective)
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Wi|| (77.97%), ucu|! (71.42%), can (64.52%), ccu|! (95.45%) and naq
(51.29%) are moslIy used in slruclure 2. On lhe olher hand, sncu|!
(67.47%) and nusi (53.16%) have a higher roorlion of lheir
lokens in slruclure 3 (modaI + be + asl arliciIe) lhan lhe olher
modaIs. olh sncu|! (95%) and nusi (100%) have a high roorlion
of deonlic uses vilh agenl deIelion. Ior examIe: Han!|c sncu|! |c
jc|!c! insi!c sia|i|izcr irin./ Ian!ing nusi |c acccnp|isnc! uiin cnc
cnginc.
Somelhing lo be noled is lhal in bolh lhe QRH and OM (lhe
lvo manuaIs addressed lo iIols) 60.71% of lhe occurrences of nusi
occur in slruclure 3 (musl + be + asl arliciIe) vilh agenl
deIelion, vhereas lhe roorlion of modaI lokens in slruclure 3 in
lhe MM is 44.60%. AIso, 81.82% of lhe occurrences in slruclure 2
have lhe ronoun qcu in lhe MM (i.e., 'qcu+nusi+infinilive). Ior
examIe: Ycu nusi !c an inspcciicn cj a|| iu|cs. Neilher lhe QRH nor
lhe OM have any inslances vilh lhe ronoun qcu. In lhese Ialler
manuaIs, vhen nusi is in slruclure 2, lhe sub|ecl is imersonaI, e.g.
AO||U a|ignncni nusi nci cxccc! 453 Kgs jcr iaxi cr iakccjj.
Throughoul lhe MM, lhere are 51 occurrences of you + modaI, or
16.09% of lhe cases, as comared lo none in lhe olher lvo manuaIs,
QRH or OM.

234
TabIe 9 shovs lhe exlenl lo vhich each individuaI modaI
conlribules lo lhe lolaI number of lokens of modaI use for each of
lhe modaI verb hrase slruclures. Ior slruclure 2 (modaI +
infinilive), 73.44% of lhe modaI lokens come from ui||, can, and
naq, vilh 19.25%, 29.29% and 24.90% resecliveIy. Iven lhough
naq is a more frequenl modaI verb lhan can, lhe Ialler is more used
in lhe non marked form, or slruclure 2. AIso, il is imorlanl lo
oinl oul lhal 68.2 % of lhe lolaI can lokens occur in lhe MM,
vhich, overaII, shovs a reference for slruclure 2. In slruclure 3
(modaI+ be+ asl arliciIe), il is naq (again) vhich conlribules lhe
highesl roorlion (30.88%) of lhe modaI lokens, foIIoved by nusi
(23.80%) and can (21.81%). Maq, on lhe olher hand, is much more
frequenl in lhe lvo manuaIs for iIols, lhe QRH and lhe OM, vilh
88.79% of lhe occurrences.

TabIe 9 Dislribulion of modaI verbs
in verb hrase slruclures of lhe AC

Hoda| structures
Tokens
|n A6
6an
7
6ou|d
7
Hay
7
H|ght
7
Hust
7
8ha||
7
8hou|d
7
w|||
7
wou|d
7
1 Voda| a|ore 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 Voda| |rl|r|l|ve 1Z8
29.2
9
1.39 21.90 0.0 15.2 0.21 5.5
19.2
5
1.05
3 Voda| oe pasl
parl|c|p|e
353
21.8
1
0.0 30.88 0.0 23.80 0.0 15.8 Z.08 0.5Z
1 Voda|oe
preserl parl|c|p|e
3 0.0 0.0 .Z 0.0 33.33 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 Voda|rave
pasl parl|c|p|e
2 0.0 0.0 50.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
50.0
0
0.0
Voda| oe oe|rg
pasl parl|c|p|e
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Z Voda| rave
oeer pasl parl|c|p|e
1 0.0 25 25 50 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
8 Voda| rave
oeer
preserl parl|c|p|e
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 Voda| rave
oeer oe|rg pasl
parl|c|p|e
(or adjecl|ve)
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Tola| 810

6 ConcIusion
The anaIysis of lhe AC confirms lhe findings of revious

sludies on Iarger corora, i.e. lhal lhere is a greal deaI of varialion
in lhe use of modaI verbs and lhe slruclures lhey occur in,
deending on lhe conlexl of use. Iirsl of aII, lhere are differences in
lhe use of individuaI modaI verbs, eseciaIIy vhen comared lo

235
lhe findings of olher sludies (iber el aI., 1999, Kennedy, 2004). The
mosl slriking difference concerns lhe use of ucu|!, vhich, aIlhough
very frequenl in olher corora (e.g. 39.8% in Kennedy, 2002), are
exlremeIy rare in AC, accounling for onIy 0.83% of modaI lokens.
There are aIso differences belveen lhe lhree manuaIs. Can is much
more frequenl in MM, naq in bolh QRM and OM, nusi in MM and
OM, and ui|| in QRH. As in lhe olher sludies, lhere is a cIear
reference for slruclures 2 (resenl infinilive, aclive voice) and 3
(resenl infinilive, assive voice). Hovever, in lhis corus,
slruclure 3 has a higher frequency lhan lhal eslabIished in sludies
on reresenlalive Iarge corora (Kennedy, 2002, iber el aI, 1999).
If ve anaIyze each manuaI searaleIy, lhe difference is even higher.
As menlioned before, MM has a higher use of slruclure 2, bul QRH
and OM have more occurrences of slruclure 3 lhan slruclure 2,
50.75% and 54.01% resecliveIy.
These findings shov lhal lhere are subslanliaI differences
even vilhin lhe AC, vilh each manuaI demonslraling dislincl
references. According lo lhe anaIysis, QRH and MM resenl more
differences belveen lhem, vhereas OM is silualed belveen lhe
olher lvo. As far as lhe lraining of manuaI aulhors is concerned,
lhis sludy suggesls lhal lhe idiosyncrasies of each lye of manuaI
shouId be laken inlo accounl vhen rearing edagogicaI
maleriaI. The lerm atiaiicn nanua| may be a convenienl, even
usefuI, umbreIIa lerm, as avialion manuaIs share common
characlerislics reIalive lo olher genres. Hovever, lhe differenl
allerns of use observed in lhe lhree manuaIs comrising AC
suggesl lhal il vouId be vise lo kee in mind lhal lhe lerm may
aIso obscure lhe facl lhal avialion manuaIs differ in lheir conlexl of
use. To be more recise, lheir varialion may be ascribed lo lhe
infIuence of lhree inlerreIaled conlexluaI asecls: lheir inlended
au!icncc (e.g. mechanics or iIols), lheir inlended purpcsc (e.g.
mainlenance or oeralion), as veII as lhe nalure and urgency of lhe
ccn!iiicns under vhich lhey are normaIIy used (rouline or
emergency). Differenl combinalions of lhese asecls viII resuIl in
manuaIs vilh differenl characlerislics. Ior examIe, lhe high
frequency of lhe slruclure 'qcu+modaI+aclive inf.' in lhe mechanics'
manuaI conlrasls sharIy vilh lhe lolaI absence of lhis slruclure in

236
lhe iIols' manuaIs. TabIe 10 beIov demonslrales hov lhese lhree
asecls of conlexl characlerise lhe lhree manuaIs in AC.

TabIe 10. Inleraclion belveen conlexl
of use and lye of avialion manuaI

Audience Purpose Conditions ManuaI
mechanics maintenance routine MM
mechanics repair routine MM
pilots operation routine OM
pilots operation emergency QRH

As far as SeciaIised IngIish is concerned, lhe examinalion
of cenlraI modaIs in lhe AV rovides evidence lhal lhe Ianguage of
avialion manuaIs is simIified in comarison lo olher vrillen
genres. More secificaIIy, lhere vere lhree indicalors lhal cIarily of
exression, vhich is execled lo faciIilale ease and seed of
comrehension, is of rimary imorlance in lhe Ianguage of
avialion manuaIs. The firsl indicalion vas lhe lendency lovards
monosemy in lhe use of cenlraI modaIs. Seven oul of nine are used
in onIy Iislemic or Rool meaning, lhe excelions being can and
sncu|!, vhich exress eilher modaIily lye in lhe corus. Tvo
more indicalions of simIicily vere observed in lerms of slruclure.
In aImosl aII cases (98.9%) lhe cenlraI modaIs in AC are foIIoved
by lhe resenl infinilive, aclive or assive (slruclures 2 and 3
resecliveIy), vhich are lhe simIesl forms lhal infinilives in each
voice can lake. IinaIIy, lhere vere no inslances of infinilive eIIisis
(slruclure 1), vhich can be laken as an indicalion lhal lhe aulhors
avoided laxing lhe memory of users.
The redominanlIy quanlilalive examinalion of lhe
varialion of lhe dislribulion of cenlraI modaIs in AC is onIy a
slarling oinl. To imrove lhe reIiabiIily of resuIls, lhe comiIalion
and examinalion of a Iarger corus is required. To lhal effecl,
ermission lo add more manuaIs has aIready been secured, and
ermission lo use furlher manuaIs viII be soughl. To imrove lhe
reresenlaliveness of lhe corus, lhe AC viII be exanded so lhal il
conlains muIliIe examIes of aII exisling lyes of avialion
manuaIs. The anaIysis ilseIf viII have lo exlend lo aII modaI
exressions used in lhe corus, and a more delaiIed examinalion of
lhe dislribulion of modaIily lyes. Iurlher sludies shouId aIso

237
focus on lhe use of cenlraI modaIs vilh aclive and assive
infinilives, as veII as lhe coIIocalion allerns of modaI exressions
in lhe corus, such as verb coIIocalions of cenlraI modaIs.

7 RcIcrcnccs

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8 Appendices

Aendix 1.
Irequencies of cenlraI modaIs in AC and IROWN

AC
(119,205)
||
(42,J82)
QFH
(29,928)
D|
(46,895)
QFH+D|
(76,82J)
FFDWN
(1,022,1J6)
ccn 217 144 18 J1 49 1905
could 22 11 2 9 11 1654
mcy 2J2 26 87 119 206 878
myht 02 2 6J2
must 158 74 11 7J 84 667
shcll 01 1 1 149
should 8J 12 22 48 70 787
wll 118 4J 40 J5 75 176J
would 07 5 2 7 256J
840 J17 199 J24 52J 10,998


240
Aendix 2. Abbrevialions
AC Aviation Corpus
BNC British National Corpus
CTT Communicative Theory of Terminology
GGT General Theory of Terminology
MM Maintenance Manual
OM Operations Manual
QRH Quick Reference Manual
FROWN Freiburg-Brown Corpus of American English
LL Log Likelihood
LSWE Longman Spoken and Written English Corpus
SE Simplified English

Aendix 3. Concordance Iines vilh
1 Prior to each flight, the flight crew must accomplish or verify th

2 e may be performed if the flight crew must accomplish preflight ac
3 trols OY-MRA -OY-MRC 2 LOWER LADDER MUST AIRSTAIR OPERATION
4 and RADIAL/DIST (REF IDENT identifier must already be stored in
5 w created waypoint (place identifiers must already be stored in
6 rplane course, vertical path, and speed must always be monitored.
7 to make the alkaline neutral. (e) You must always wear protective
8 tion to make the acid neutral. (e) You must always wear protective
9 he safest course of action. The captain must assess the situation a
10 d lower ladder safety circuits. Caution must be exercised when usi
11 r standby operation, the battery switch must be ON. Hold until exte
12 ng conditions are present, takeoff roll must be preceded by a static
13 res inflict performance penalties which must be taken into account on
14 tolerance for within balance Elevator must be assembly. ____ NOT
15 tolerance for within balance surfaces must be Balanced control (SRM
16 y between structural members, the parts must be disassembled and repla
17 tolerance for within balance Aileron must be re-balance aileron.
18 flap components and related structures must be examined for damage a
19 there is damage to the valve, the valve must be ____ replaced. (a) Lo
20 eel and tire assembly, and the bearings must be ____ sent to the sh
21 eel and tire assembly, and the bearings must be ____ sent to the sh
22 RNING: THE POWER CABLE OF THE BORESCOPE MUST BE _______ IN A GOOD C
23 RNING: THE POWER CABLE OF THE BORESCOPE MUST BE _______ IN GOOD CON
24 ane is stalled, recovery from the stall must be accomplished first by a
25 . Recall items are critical steps that must be accomplished from memor
26 e SID or Runway This entire procedure must be accomplished when a SI
27 INOPERATIVE LANDING Condition: Landing must be accomplished with one
28 ....................... ON Passengers must be advised to fasten seat
29 tches Note: AC and DC electrical power must be available on airplane.
30 ve, and the crossfeed valve. AC power must be available. To transfer
31 nt during approach or landing. Pilots must be aware that checklists
32 ight or landing. Fuel crossfeed valve must be closed for takeoff and
33 erational Information APU bleed valve must be closed when: - ground
34 .............. Set Note: IRS alignment must be complete. EFIS - Cor
35 ...............Set Note: IRS alignment must be complete. EFIS - Cor
36 by mode, the momentary standby switch must be depressed while the ret
37 ration associated with control surfaces must be diagnosed and repaired
38 off below 400 feet AGL. The autopilot must be disengaged before th
39 . (e) Inspection, clean-up, and repair must be done before the next
40 l _______ A. This inspection procedure must be done when the airplane

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Letras de Hoje. Porto Alegre. v. 41, n 2, p. 215-240, junho, 2006

This aer is arlIy based on Sarmenlo (2005).

Letras de Hoje Costas Gabrielatos, Simone Sarmento