Clothing and Textiles Research Journal

http://ctr.sagepub.com/ A Conceptual Framework for Apparel Design

Jane M. Lamb and M. Jo Kallal Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 1992 10: 42 DOI: 10.1177/0887302X9201000207 The online version of this article can be found at: http://ctr.sagepub.com/content/10/2/42

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A Conceptual Framework for Apparel

Jane M. Lamb M. Jo Kallal

Design

Abstract To encourage students to think of designing garments for special needs as part of a general designframework, a problem-solving approach that does not distinguish between functional apparel design and fashion design is presented. A model for assessing user needs and wants incorporates functional, expressive, and aesthetic (FEA) considerations. Examples of how the, framework has been used in design projects are presented Suggested uses for the FEA model are offered.

Since the 1950s, designers and scholars have directed attention to apparel needs of people with physical disabilities. Garments designed especially with their needs in mind have been called functional clothing or functional fashions. However, consumer response to such designs has been uneven (Freeman, Kaiser, & Wingate, 1985; Wingate, Kaiser, & Freeman, 1986). People with special needs do not want functional garments that are unappealing or that convey a stigmatized image. Therefore, the challenge for apparel designers is to create designs that will be attractive and socially acceptable on bodies that may not conform to typical contours, surfaces, or motions. As educators of apparel design students, we found ourselves examining ways to conceptualize what consumers with special needs desire in their apparel. We realized that we wanted a general framework that could be applied to design of any type of apparel, including garments intended for people whose needs are not routinely met in the marketplace and therefore have been considered special. Thinking of design for special needs as just another part of a general design framework is a natural parallel to the way people with special needs want to be considered. In a rapidly changing world people strive for order and

FEA Consumer Needs Model

The crux of our framework is a model of consumer needs that aids in developing design criteria for a variety of
customers

(see Figure 1).

simplicity (Gregory, 1989). Therefore,

we

sought a simple

framework that could be adapted as students face new design challenges throughout their careers. We wanted students to synthesize information from a variety of disciplines as they deal with the design process. We wanted students to see design for special needs as falling within an overall approach to design. The purpose of this paper is to present an integrated framework for apparel design education. Our framework incorporates a model that combines functional, expressive, and aesthetic (FEA) considerations. We propose that the framework can be applied to all types of apparel design because it does not distinguish between functional apparel design and fashion design. Our approach also emphasizes development of creative thinking as advocated by Watkins (1988).

Figure 1.

FEA consumer needs model.

Target Consumer
The target consumer (intended user) is at the core of the model. Before designers can analyze target consumers needs, they must develop a profile of the user. The profile might include demographic and psychographic information, physical characteristics, activities, and preferences. Defm-

Authors Address: Textiles, Design and Consumer Economics Department, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716.

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ing who the target consumer is may involve clarifying user needs and wants within the context of a use-situation. The target consumer could be an individual or a group of individuals (target market).
Culture Human behavior involving dress takes place within a cultural context (Kaiser, 1990). Hence, in our model, culture encircles the target consumer. Culture acts as a mediator or filter between the intended users of apparel and their requirements or desires in their apparel items. Culture influences what users consider as acceptable options for resolving various design problems. Designers must be alert to cultural ramifications in developing user profiles and in defining their needs.

Multiple Concerns
The three types of considerations for an apparel product mutually exclusive but are interrelated in different for different target consumers. At times it is helpful to ways pair each type of consideration-functional, expressive, and aesthetic-on a continuum with each of the others to assess relative importance.
are

not

Functional

<-->

Expressive

Design Criteria Identifying user needs and wants provides a means for establishing design criteria. In our model these are classified as functional, expressive, and aesthetic. The specific concerns within each category vary with different users/markets. Functional considerations for an apparel product relate to its utility. Protection, thermal comfort, fit, and ease of movement are examples of functional requirements that might be sought. Some items of apparel routinely are thought of in functional terms: rainwear, thermal underwear,
foundation garments, and exercise attire. Rosenblad-Wallin (1985) highlighted the importance of considering the demands of a use-situation in developing functional apparel products. Use-situations which create special functional demands for garments include hockey playing (Watkins, 1977), production work in clean rooms (Brandt & Cory, 1989), and military gear (Fourt &

The functional <--> expressive continuum acknowledges that apparel can be useful while it conveys a message about the wearer. Roach and Eicher (1965) proposed two broad categories, instrumental and expressive, for the specific purposes that dress fulfills simultaneously. Freeman et al. (1985) found that physically disabled students reactions to functional apparel dealt with both instrumental and expressive concerns. A rain poncho for a wheelchair user provides protection from the weather; to its wearer, the image conveyed by its styling may also be important. Calls for functional yet fashionable garments for people with special needs depict the duality of this continuum. Rosenblad-Wallin (1985) has contended that both functional and symbolic values constitute the use-value of an

apparel product.

Hollies, 1970).
Cultures influence
on

Expressive <--> Aesthetic The expressive <--> aesthetic pairing deals with messages conveyed by apparel and the sense of pleasure obtained from the beauty of the garment. While we might assume that most consumers want apparel that conveys particular messages and is attractive, there are instances when expressive needs outweigh aesthetics (e.g., punk attire). There may
intertwined with
also be instances when aesthetics
are

functional considerations, alwarrants

though

not

always apparent,

acknowledgement.

expression (e.g., wearable art).

Culture determines customary uses for apparel items and typical forms for those items. Not all peoples have sought apparel protection from the same environmental elements (Storm, 1987), nor do they share similar ideas of garment fit. Expressive considerations relate to the communicative, symbolic aspects of dress. Research has shown that dress communicates a variety of messages about the wearer (Damhorst, 1990). As part of the system of appearance cues processed by perceivers, a garment is a symbol which viewers can interpret according to a variety of meanings (Kaiser, 1990). The meanings ascribed to items of dress are culturally directed (Hamilton & Hamilton, 1989). Consumers of apparel often seek items that convey particular messages about themselves. In some cases a garment on a display rack seems to shout &dquo;Its ME.&dquo; In other instances people required to wear uniform dress desire some visual statement of their individuality. Aesthetic considerations deal with the human desire for beauty. Items of dress may also be art objects. Aesthetic requirements for apparel products relate to the use of elements such as line, form, color, texture, and pattern to create a pleasing design. Consumers react to apparel merchandise within the context of cultural standards of beauty, which may change over time (Kaiser, 1990).

<-> Functional On the aesthetic <--> functional continuum, the beauty found in garments is contrasted with how well the garments fulfill specific purposes. In some situations, functional needs will predominate over aesthetic concerns; in others, aesthetics will prevail over functional concerns. Quinn and Chase (1990) have asserted that the goal of specially designed garments for people with disabilities is to marry function and aesthetics.

Aesthetic

Apparel Design Framework

The

development of apparel design products

is

a cre-

ative problem-solving process (Davis,1987; DeJonge,1984;

We 1 are indebted to an anonymous reviewer who suggested the classic Why Is a Dress? (Hawes, 1942) as an example for the idea of cultural ideals of beauty changing over time.

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Rosenblad-Wallin, 1985). Catkins (1988) described design process strategies which can be used in education. Figure 2
our framework for applying the design process, which combines features from other design process models

presents

(Hanks, Belliston, & Edwards, 1977; Koberg & Bagnall, 1981) with our FEA model. The design process begins with problem identification. The problem identification phase incorporates Koberg and Bagnalls (1981) Accept Situation, Analyze, and Defme stages. Either apparel product users or designers may initiate this phase as they perceive, accept, and seek resolution to an

apparel problem. Design problems may also be assigned in classrooms or design rooms. For mass market apparel designers, the problem is typically to develop a seasonal collection for a predetermined target market. Once the designer accepts responsibility for the situation, the problem becomes the generator of the process. User needs and wants are analyzed while the nature of the problem to be solved is being defined. The designer defines the FEA criteria with the target consumer in the context of the problem situation. Although both competing and complementary criteria may result from the analysis, any conflicts will be resolved later. In some cases, multiple users needs and wants may require evaluation. The specificity of criteria statements will vary with the problem situation. In the second stage of the process, preliminary ideas are generated for achieving the goals. This most creative phase produces design solutions through such techniques as sketching, brainstorming, research, survey, and question-and-an-

swer sessions. Emphasis is on nonjudgmental, freewheeling thinking and formation of multiple solutions. The results are both visual and verbal. This step corresponds with Koberg and Bagnalls (1981) Ideation stage. Design refinement describes that part of the process in which preliminary ideas are subjected to scrutiny. To do that, priorities are established within the FEA considerations. Some preliminary ideas will be modified, some will be discarded, and others will be selected for further development. This is where designers begin to apply FEA criteria. Designers must deal with conflicts between competing FEA priorities as well as with production or price constraints. It is less expensive for both students and professional designers to resolve as many conflicts as possible in the design refmement stage rather than waiting until actual samples have been made. Design refinement is similar to Koberg and Bagnalls (1981) Select stage. This phase should result in a few ideas that can then be tested. In the prototype development stage, ideas that hold the most promise will be tried. Prototypes could be sample garments or samples of garment components. Sample constructions in selected materials could be used to determine appropriate stitch selections, material handling requirements, compatibility of shell and interior fabrics, and construction sequencing. Any necessary standards testing would take place during this stage. Our prototype development stage corresponds to Koberg and Bagnalls (1981) Implement stage and Hanks, Belliston, and Edwards (1977)

Analysis stage.

Figure 2. Apparel design framework.

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Evaluation of the prototypes is their assessment according to criteria established in the problem identification stage.

Therefore, each prototype will be judged on its success in meeting the functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs pre-

viously specified for the product. Both subjective and objective measurements are used to rate prototypes. Styles
may be weeded from a collection or modified as a result of evaluation. Any remaining conflicts among FEA needs may require modifications of a prototype before final production can be executed. The culmination of the design process is implementation. This stage may not be reached until previous stages have been repeated to refme a final design. The design process might be endless (Maser, 1987) if closure is not required to meet client, course, or industry deadlines. When mass production is planned, the marketing and merchandising functions might influence revisions of the product design. Information from clients influences custom design revisions; instructional reviews influence student design revisions. The revised product design is then executed to meet final deadlines. The design process is critically linked to product development for target markets. Regardless of how a target market is defined, the analysis of consumer needs is accomplished by determining their functional, expressive, and aesthetic requirements.

exceed skating skill level. Regulations of the skating association imposed restrictions on the designs. Individuality and originality of design were also important. Costumes needed to provide visual and nonverbal cues that sent a clear, consistent, and universal message to the audience-often an international audience with varying social and cultural perceptions. Assessment of judges and audiences cultural (subconscious) perceptions of beauty required consideration. Aesthetic. Manipulation of the art elements and application of the design principles to costuming needed to enhance the body structure, physical coloring, and body movement of the user. The visual components of the costume had to integrate artistically with the aural and kinesthetic themes of the program within the ice arena setting. The influence of arena lighting on color perception was another consideration. The FEA criteria specified for the skating costumes became the standards used to assess the designs in the evaluation phase. Throughout the development process, students faced a variety of dilemmas. For example, trims could not be positioned in the waistline area because partners hands might get caught in the decoration. In another case, a clients insistence on using non-stretch materials required creative fabric manipulation to ensure full range of motion. A designer wanted to apply fringe to the hip level of a Charleston costume, but because the skaters hips were heavy, she attached the trim elsewhere.

Design of Clean Room Garments

Applications to Design

Problems

The conceptual framework presented in this paper has been applied to several kinds of design projects. Our discussion in this section will focus on how garments were designed to meet the functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs of specific target consumers.

Figure Skating Costume Design Varying themes in figure skating competitions create a continual need for new costume designs. Apparel design students assigned this project were matched with figure skating clients competing in events with themes such as the &dquo;Charleston&dquo; or events with competitor-determined musical themes. Students used the FEA model to create profiles of their target users, to consider cultural interpretations, and to
focus on situational needs. Students became familiar with the use-situation through visits to the skating rink and discussions with skaters and their instructors as well as with theatrical and figure skating costumers. The following FEA criteria were identified: Functional. The costume had to fit the wearer without restricting the full range of motion. It needed to be comfortable and could not abrade the skin. The safety of the skater and a partner could not be hampered by placement of trimmings or loosely attached embellishments that might entangle fingers or obstruct skate blades. Structural and decorative constructions had to be durable. Ease of care was important if the costume would be worn for several events. Expressive. Traditional practices required consideration. For example, costume design complexity could not

Students enrolled in an advanced apparel course were presented with a design problem posed by a producer of sensitive computer parts. The company wanted uniforms for clean rooms to meet environmental specifications as well as to aid in humanizing the work setting. In this situation the target users were represented by both company engineers and workers. A problem statement, related readings, and a videotape showing the work situation and dressing/undressing requirements exposed student design teams to the problem. They then developed profiles of the target users needs and wants. Students assessed these needs and wants by critically examining the functional, aesthetic, and expressive components of the design problem. Functional. Clean room suits had to prevent human particles from entering the work environment, minimize conduction of static electricity, provide ease in donning and doffing, and be easy to wear correctly. Workers requested improved hood fit and design; engineers requested fewer sizes while maintaining fit for males and females representing a broad spectrum of body types. Additionally, the suits were required to fit over regular clothing and to provide freedom of movement and thermal comfort. They needed to be durable enough to withstand daily laundering for about three years. Expressive. Self-esteem, individuality, and group identity were important value considerations. The suits had to be appropriate for work roles and responsibilities. They needed to humanize or deinstitutionalize the work environment, thus enhancing the quality of the work period. Certain religious affiliations required that their female members wear skirts. Therefore, skirts had to be part of the clean room uniform. Aesthetic. Good visual design enhancing a wide range of male and female body proportions was a basic require45

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ment. Color choices and combinations were restricted by the

fabric options available. Many conflicting needs became apparent and required resolution during the design process. Examples of conflicting needs included the following: (a) Fabrics and styles that contained particles and reduced static held in body heat, (b) style features that enhanced individuality or met religious requirements created crevices for particles, and (c) some of the available color options in static-free fabric were considered too traditionally feminine for male users. Criteria developed during the initial stages of the design process were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the prototypes. Prototypes were also evaluated by the company. A final uniform will be produced by integrating the most successful components (as determined by the company) from the students prototypes.

Uses for FEA Consumer Needs Model

The framework we developed enhances previous views of the design process by expanding the considerations made in analysis and evaluation phases. Requiring consideration of functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs for each design problem forces student designers to think beyond commonly accepted definitions of wearer needs. Rather than assuming that a client or target market wants function or expression or beauty, designers using the present framework assume that intended wearers want function and expression and beauty. Regardless of target customer or use-situation, definition of user needs and wants must include all three aspects.

Customized Design for a Client with Spina Bifida While testing the capabilities of a new computer-aided design (CAD) system, the authors had an opportunity to develop an ensemble for a local teenager with spina bifida. A talented scholar, our client would soon begin her first year in college. She requested a fashionable two-piece pants outfit, similar to one advertized in a recent magazine. We used interviews, observations, and measurements to profile our client. We described her physical characteristics, posture, and use of Canadian arm crutches for ambulation. We noted our clients complaints about typical ready-to-wear garments and her preferences for particular features. We collected information about her interests and activities. In many ways she represented a typical American adolescent. We then identified our clients FEA needs. In the functional category she required comfort, fit, and ease of movement. Her expressive needs were for an outfit that would be individualistic but in keeping with fashion. Aesthetically, she needed an attractive, flattering combination of line, color, and texture. Developing a basic pattern set from the clients measurements on a CAD system allowed us to build in the necessary fit and allowance for movement. The individualized pattern set was modified to incorporate desired style features. Both the basic block and final pattern were test fitted in muslin. A specific challenge in this project was balancing choice of styling details with requirements for good fit. For example, waistline darts were eliminated from the pants front to accommodate a prominent abdomen. Back waistline darts were replaced with an elasticized casing to adapt the pants fit to a very short back waistline and prominent buttocks. A vertical dart-tuck extending from the yoke was integrated into the shirt design to accommodate bust fullness. The completed outfit met the design criteria established for our client. Functionally, the garments were comfortable, afforded acceptable fit, and provided ease of movement. Expressive needs were met because the garments were made to individual specifications but styled from fashion ads. Aesthetically, the garments were combinations of fabric colors and textures preferred by our client and also appropriate for the styles involved. The client found the results attractive and pleasing.
.

Design Projects The approach discussed here has been successful in alerting design students to multiple concerns of apparel users. A distinct advantage of this approach is that it puts design of apparel for people with special needs on a par with design of apparel for any market. Students no longer think in terms of functional versus fashion design. Any design project requires analysis of functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs for the target consumers; success is judged by how well these needs are met in the final product.
Evaluation of Products in the Marketplace The model of interrelated functional, expressive, and aesthetic considerations can be helpful in assessing the suitability of products already available for people in different target markets. For example, garments for people with physical disabilities would be judged not only in terms of functional concerns such as easy dressing but also on expressive criteria such as ability to add individualistic touches as well as on the inherent aesthetic appeal of the designs. Specific concerns within the broad areas of functional, expressive, and aesthetic needs vary with the target market. Once these are identified, product assessment determines which concerns have been addressed or neglected. The results of this analysis could form the basis for new problem-

solving projects.
The model could also be used to evaluate apparel products as part of the merchandising function, specifically planning, developing, and presenting a product line. The target markets FEA requirements would aid product developers in evaluating sample prototypes. Products that have not sold could be assessed using the FEA model; results would then feed into the subsequent seasons merchandising plan.

Conclusion
The impetus for the conceptual framework presented in this paper was design of garments for people with a variety of needs. We envision its application to diversified apparel design problems. Designers of protective apparel, ready-towear garments, and theatrical costume could employ the FEA model as they work through the design process.

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As Watkins (1988) suggested, developing a process orientation to design gives students a useful framework for the rest of their lives. They will need creative thinking and problem-solving abilities acquired as students to deal with the change and ambiguity characteristic of the business environment (Gregory, 1989). We see an integrative approach to apparel design as one way we can contribute to a broad educational base for our students.

tural perspective.
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Koberg, D., & Bagnall, J. (1981). The universal traveler: A soft-systems approach to creativity, problem-solving and the process of reaching goals. Los Altos, CA:
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