CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FOUNDATION

2.1

Theories of Speaking The term speaking can be defined as the people way to convey the message

to others. The purpose of speaking is to make the receiver understand the topic being uttered. Johnson (1980) cited in Johnson (2001:250) argues that conveying information is often important part of communication. Another definition of speaking proposed by Brown (1994); Burns & Joyce (1997) as cited in Florez (1999), refers to an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information. Speaking also defines as capable of or involving speech or speaking [available at wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn]. In other words, one interprets speaking as productive skill in the oral mode. Lado (1971: 7) states that speaking is produce language; language is the chief means by which the human personality expresses itself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction with other persons. However, we get involved in many conversations anytime and anywhere. Florez (1999) says that form and meaning of speaking are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. Thornbury (2005) suggests various dimensions of different speaking events in order to describe different speaking genres, transactional and interpersonal function. Transactional function has as its main

purpose conveying information and facilitating the exchange of goods and services, whereas the interpersonal function is all about maintaining and sustaining good relations between people. Whatever the purpose of the speaking event, according to Harmer (2004: 343) there are three kinds of speaking situations in which we find ourselves: (1) Interactive; (2) Partially interactive; and (3) Non-interactive. Interactive speaking situations include face-to-face conversations and telephone calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some speaking situations are partially interactive, such as when giving a speech to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the expressions on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being understood. Some few speaking situations may be totally noninteractive, such as when recording a speech for a radio broadcast. Based on those explanations it can be concluded that speaking is an activity to communicate or sharing our ideas, opinions, wants, desire through the language. Language is most completely expressed in speech; meanwhile writing doesnt represent intonation, rhythm, stress, and junctures (Lado 1971:132). He also adds that speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary

(linguistic competence), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence).

2.1.1 What makes speaking difficult Learning English as a second language is a major concern. We do not use English in our daily conversation. Harmer (2004) argues that student less confident when conveying or sharing their opinions in front of people. They prefer to be silence as a mean to save their face.
Students are often reluctant to speak because they are shy and are not predisposed to expressing themselves in front of people, especially when they are being asked to give personal information or opinions. Frequently, too, there is a worry about speaking badly and therefore losing face in front of their classmates (Harmer, 2004:345)

In line with thus explanation, Brown (2001, p.270-271) also presents several aspects which make speaking is difficult to be mastered. They are: a. Clustering Fluent speech is phrasal, not word by word. Learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically (in breath group) through such clustering. b. Redundancy The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language. Here, some people choose to become the reader, not the speaker because it is easier to read what extent without reduce and rebuild the opinion about the topic.

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c. Reduced forms Since there are many types of English forms, such as contraction, elisions, reduced vowels, etc, these cases become special problems in teaching spoken English. However, English teachers are expected to be brave in finding a lot of sources to solve this problem. d. Performance variables One of the advantages if spoken language is the process of thinking as the speaker speaks allow him/her to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and correlations. One of the most differences between native and nonnative speakers of language is in their hesitation phenomena. e. Colloquial language It is better when a teacher can provide a colloquial language in teaching and learning process. It allows students to follow and use it in as their daily conversation. f. Rate of delivery Another important characteristic of fluency is rate of delivery. One important task in teaching English is to help students achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of fluency. g. Stress, rhythm, and intonation This is the most important characteristic of English pronunciation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey important negotiation.

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h. interaction The conversation becomes one important component in speaking. However, some people are afraid of making mistakes in grammar or pronunciation. Some aspects of speaking ability also have to be considered by the students to make the message delivered clearly and there will be no misunderstanding between the speaker and the listener. Here are some aspects as cited in Rost (2002): 1. Pronunciation The speaker is required to pronounce the English words correctly. They need to identify intonation, rhythm, and stress. This can be done by requesting imitation; or seeing if students can distinguish between minimal pairs (such as ship/sheep,man/men, thick/tick) or by contrasting acceptable with unacceptable pronunciation through recordings or live demonstration (Ur, 1996:53) 2. Fluency The speaker should articulate words clearly, and grammatically and phonologically correct. The most important of learning speaking is oral fluency; in order to avoid misunderstand between interlocutor.
The main goal in teaching the productive skill of speaking will be oral fluency. This can be defined as the ability to express oneself intelligiblyreasonably accurately and without too much hesitation (otherwise communication may break down because the listener loses interest or gets impatient)(Byrne, 1986; 9-10)

3. Accuracy The speaker should utter the words naturally. Minimize the mispronounce sounds, use wrong stems or endings, or construct sentences faulty roles (Hammerly, 1991:9).

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In conclusion, there are various reasons why English is difficult to be mastered. Less confident, afraid of making mistakes, and languages obstacles such as reduced form, stress, rhythm, etc can be reduced by working together for both teacher and students.

2.1.2 What a good speaker does Learning a second language is more than learning a description of it. The process of speaking and listening is involved. The language teacher must know the target language well enough to be imitated by his students. As Lado states that:
Speech cannot be invented by the students; it has to be imitated. Poor models produce poor imitation. Good models do not guarantee good imitation, but they are necessary to permit good responses (Lado, 1971:50).

Moreover Van Duzer (1997) states that a speakers skill and speech habits have an impact on the success of any exchange. They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-taking, rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting (Burns & Joyce, 1997). For example, a learner involved in the exchange with the salesperson described previously must know the usual pattern that such an interaction follows and access that knowledge as the exchange progresses. The learner must also choose the correct vocabulary to describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize words to clarify the description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and knowledge that might address are:

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1) Producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of the language; 2) Using grammar structures accurately; 3) Assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest levels, or differences in perspectives; 4) Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience, the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs; 5) Applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension; 6) Using gestures or body language; and 7) Paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar structures to maximize listener comprehension and involvement (Brown, 1994). In conclusion, this study is aimed to figure out some difficulties in learning speaking. Students usually are not getting forced to practice their English orally. Another way to encourage students to speak in English is simply to speak English as much as possible. As Swain (1985) in Lawtie (2004) states that we learn to speak by speaking. The more we practice the more we will improve our own oral skill.

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2.2

Task-Based Language Teaching Task-based language teaching (TBLT) also known as task-based instruction

(TBI) is not a new method. It focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Many definitions and perspective exist about task that is why important to know what is task. Moreover, it had been held some conferences that concern with task-based language teaching and learning. The first conference, The first international TBLT conference, was held at the University of Leuven in Belgium in 2005, the second one, Second International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching, was held at September 20-22, 2007, at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, in Honolulu. Furthermore, the third conference on task-based language teaching, Task: context, purpose and use 3rd Biennial International Conference on TaskBased Language Teaching, was held on 13-16 September 2009, at Lancaster University in United Kingdom. For the next explanation, before the writer explains more about task-based language teaching, it is important to discuss about the definition of task.

2.2.1 Defining task According to Brown (1994), task usually refers to a specialized form of technique of series of technique closely allied with communicative curricula, and such must minimally have communicative goals. Prabhu (1987:7) also adds task is an activity that requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.

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Peter skehan (1998a:95) defines task as an activity in which Meaning is primary, There is some communication problem to solve, There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities, Task completion has some priority, The assessment of the task is in term of outcome. Furthermore, Ellis (2003, p.9-10) has identified as the critical features of a task. These feature are: (1) A task is a work plan; (2) A task involves primary focus on meaning; (3) A task involves real-world processes of language use; (4) A task can involve any of four language skills; (5) A task engage cognitive processes, and (6) A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome. In line with the definition task, there are many distinctions in task-based language teaching. Nunan (2004) draws a basic distinction between target tasks, refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom and pedagogical tasks are those that occur in the classroom. Long (1985:89) frames his approach to taskbased language teaching in terms of target task, arguing that a task is work or duty for individual to do their daily activities. It has a broader meaning beyond the classroom.
a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some rewardby task is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between (Long, 1958:89).

When they are transformed from the real world to the classroom, tasks become pedagogical in nature. The definition of pedagogical task is an action or activity as a product from the learning process. Task not only in spoken activity

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but it could be written activity, success is measured in terms of the ability that students completion the task and create language teaching communicative. (Richards, et al. 1982:869). From the explanation above, it can be concluded that task is a form of technique to help students mastered English. Finally, as Nunan (1989) said that task based teaching is teaching a language by using language to accomplish open ended task. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish but are left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective. There are some types of task that can be used in task-based language. Oxford (2006) classifies task as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Problem solving Decision-making Listing ordering and sorting Sharing personal experiences, attitudes, and feelings. Role plays and simulations

2.2.2 Components of a Task According to Nunan (1989), there are six components of a task. Task contain some forms of input, it could be verbal (a dialogue/role play) or, nonverbal (pictures/gesture) followed by an activity which is in some way derived from the input. This activity sets out what learners need to do in relation to the input. Tasks have also goals and roles for both teachers and learners.

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Input

Teachers role

Goals

TASK

Students role

Activities Figure 2.1 Components of a task (Nunan, 1989)

Setting

From the diagram above, a task can be viewed as a piece of meaning focused work, involving students in comprehending, producing, or interacting in the target language. In addition, Lochana and Deb (2006, p.151-152), identify some characteristics of a good task: (1) the objective of the task must be stated very clearly; (2) the task must be appropriate for the level of the learners; (3) tasks must be interesting and motivating to the students; (4) through the task, students must be encouraged to negotiate meaning; (5) there should be variety and flexibility in the tasks.

2.2.3 Framework for task-based language The design of task-based lesson involves consideration of the stages or components of a lesson that has a task as its principal component. Various designs have been proposed by some expert such as Prabhu (1987), Willis (1996), Skehan (1996), Lee (200), Nunan (2004), etc. Estaire and Zann (1994) also proposed a framework of task-based approach which consists of six stages:

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Determine theme or interest area

Plan Final task or series of tasks (to be done at the end of the unit) Determine unit objectives Specify contents which are necessary/desirable to carry out final task (s): Thematic aspects to be dealt with, which will determine Linguistic content Other content

Plan the process: determine communication and enabling tasks which will lead to final task (s); select/adapt/produce appropriate materials for them; structure the tasks and sequence them to fit in to class hours.

Plan instruments and procedure for evaluation of process and product (built in as part of the learning process)

Figure 2.2: Framework for planning a unit of work: thematic task-based approach which integrates objectives, content, methodology and evaluation (Estaire and Zenn, 1994). 1) Stage 1 When teacher determine theme for teaching process, take into consideration about students interest, their experience and level. Avoid grammatical terminology.

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2) Stage 2 Final task refers to communication task carried out at the end of a unit. Whereas, communication task based on Estaire and Zanon (1994) are: a. A communication task is a piece of classroom work which involves all the learners in: The comprehension of the foreign language (spoken or written) The production of the foreign language (spoken or written) and Oral interaction in the foreign language. b. A communication task is a piece of classroom work during which learners attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form; what is being expressed rather than on the linguistic forms used for expressing it. c. A communication task is a piece of classroom work that resembles activities which our students or other people carry out in everyday life, thus reproducing processes of everyday communication. d. A communication task is a piece of classroom which has structure consisting of: A specified working procedure Appropriate data or materials A communication purpose A concrete outcome e. A communication task is a piece of classwork which is usually part of a sequence that often creates a context for the task.

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f. A communication task is a piece of classwork which enable both teachers and learners can evaluate its process and outcome. g. A communication task has a purpose of developing students communicative competence in English. Therefore, it should contain a pedagogical purpose. 3) Stage 3 Before determining the unit of objectives, it is important to know what unit of work is. A unit of work is a series of class hours which are centered round a theme or interest area. 4) Stage 4 Linguistic content covered grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. Other content usually added later as the planning advances. 5) Stage 5 The purpose is to observe any details that may prove of help/ interest for students works in the following day. 6) Stage 6 Evaluation can be carried out by students and teachers.

2.2.4 Examples of units Stage 1 Theme: WHAT ARE YOU DOING Stage 2 Final tasks: EXPLAINING SOMEONES PROFESSION At the end of the unit students will carry out the following tasks.

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1. Groups of 4 or 5 a. The teacher and the students make a list of jobs on the blackboard. Each group chooses one job to discuss. b. Each group writes some questions to be asked (their personal details, etc) c. The questions are checked with the peers and the teacher. d. Each group decides one person outside the classroom to be their source person. 4. (Following day), back to the class In their groups, students: a. Fill in the questions sheet (in English) with the notes taking. b. Analyze the data obtained c. Each student in group writes a short paragraph about the personal details of source person without write down the job. d. Their paragraph is checked with the peers and the teacher. 6. Teacher and Group Teacher monitors, while students in group try to guess the right answer. There is a prize for the winner group. (The students will be scored by the observer when they make a presentation orally.)

2. Whole Group The students do a mingle. For about 5 minutes they check their questions sheet to avoid double job (only one kind of job in a class.)

3. Teacher The teacher explains what students have to do. (Outside school) each group interviews the selected source person and take notes the interviews as well. (this will be done in L1). 5. Group of 4 or 5 Each group does an oral presentation of the information they obtained. While one does the presentation, the other students take notes on a task sheet prepared by the teacher and the rest of the students try to guess what kind of job is that.

Figure 2.3: Examples of units

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STAGE 3 OBJECTIVES a. Global objective During the unit students will develop the ability and knowledge necessary to: Prepare a questions sheet for asking about their source person. Conduct an interview, and find out the information. Process the data obtain and produce it into paragraph. Present the data orally Take notes during presentation and pay attention to guessing.

b. Specific objectives During the unit students will develop their knowledge detailed in stage 5b. Besides, this sequence of tasks purpose is activating the language students have previously learnt.

STAGE 4 CONTENT a. Thematic content Telling about peoples job Personal information (name,age,job): this will involve the recycling of knowledge which the students already have. b. Linguistic content The linguistic content includes the following: Present simple to explain present activities and self-identity. Simple past to explain educational background Wh-questions to ask about additional information What is your hobby? What is your motto.? Numbers (age and year) Occupation What do you do? Jobs

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STAGE 5 SEQUENCE STEPS The relevant lessons in the textbook will be used, combining both enabling and communication task which will lead to final task and any addition considered necessary for the achievement of objectives.

STAGE 6 PLANNING EVALUATION Evaluation carried out by teacher: (final task) the paragraph produced by each group, will offer the teacher an excellent opportunity for assessment Continuous assessment throughout the unit including final task by using evaluation form.

2.2.5 The Advantages of Task-Based Language Teaching Frost (2004) identified some advantages on the use of task-based language teaching as follows: In all three stages, students must use all their language resources rather than just practising one pre-selected item. It can develop a natural context for the students from their experiences with the language that is personalized and relevant to them. It helps students to have much more varied exposure to language, such as range of lexical phrases, collocations, and patterns as well as language forms. It is a strong communicative approach where the students spend a lot of time in communicating of their target language. In other words, it gives students chances to practice their language learned.

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 It helps the students to explore the language from their needs It is enjoyable and motivating.

2.3

Related research findings on the use of Task-Based Language Teaching Some researchers have been conducted related on the use of task-based

language teaching. Lochana and Deb (2006) conducted their project at The Basaveshwara Boys High School Rajaji Nagar, Bangalore, India. They found that the students scared to speak in English as they never got opportunities to speak in English. Six units of prescribed text book were presented as series of tasks. Input was introduced and discussed during the pre-task stage. The students were told what they should do while working on tasks. During the post-task session, tasks were discussed and feedback was given by the teachers. Finally, some observations were made during the project period, such as students showed interest in learning English because classes were full of activity and play, teachers also noted that students started talking in English, students started using English for various purposes like; greeting their friends in English, seeking permission before entering the class, apologizing for coming late to the class, asking question in the class and so on. Beside, the mid-term exam results also showed improvement in students performance. In the same year, You-ha presented a paper about the application of taskbased approach in classroom English teaching and learning. The research was held in Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology. It was carried

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out to identify the effectiveness of task-based approach in the students English learning. The research result showed that task-based approach was effective in participants English teaching and learning. It has greatly improved their average level of communicative competence in English. Research also has been done by Ahmed (1996). He investigated and evaluated the implementation of the task-based approach in the summer Intensive English Program (IEP) at the International University of Japan in Niigata (IUJ). Part of this success can be attributed to the task-based approach which emphasizes functional uses of language, i.e., what people do with language. Finally, Pinters presentation in The First International TBLT Conference in Leuven, September 2005. Pinter presented the use of interactive tasks in pairs; one of it by the non-proficient children. They were 10-years-old children in a state school in Hungary; they had finished the post beginner level for two years before. However, it is lack of spontaneous speaking and interactive practice in their previous English class. After three weeks, it was found that task-based language teaching encouraged them to speak without afraid of making mistakes. After conducting the research, some general results were achieved. They were: children became more fluent to speak in English; used more forms in English; used less their first language; paid more attention to each other, and monitored their performance better. In conclusion, task-based language teaching is an alternative instruction that allows students to use the language learned as a vehicle for communication, and put the students as the users of the language, not as the learners (Lee:2001).

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Though it has some advantages, some weaknesses also found. However, there are some solutions offered by expert that can help teacher to solve the problems. Finally, the previous study showed that task-based language teaching good to be implemented in English learning.

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