TECTONICS, VOL. 1, NO.

1, PAGES 91-105,

FEBRUARY 1982

EVOLUTION

OF

PULL-APART

BASINS

AND

THEIR

SCALE

INDEPENDENCE

Atilla Aydinand 1 Amos Nur

Department
94305

of Geophysics,

Stanford

University,

Stanford,

California

Abstract. Pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens and horsts along major strike-slip fault systems in the world are generally associated with horizontal slip along faults. A simple model suggests that the width of the rhombs is controlled by the initial fault geometry, whereas the length increases with increasing fault displacement. We have tested this model by analyzing the shapes of 70 well-defined rhomb-like pullapart basins and pressure ridges, ranging from tens of meters to tens of kilometers in length, associated with several major strike-slip faults in the western United States, Israel, Turkey, Iran, Guatemala, Venezuela, and New Zealand. In conflict with the model, we find that the length to width ratio of these basins is a constant value of approximately 3; these basins become wider as they grow longer with increasing fault offset. Two possible mechanisms responsible for the increase in width are suggested: (1) coalescence of neighboring

rhomb grabens as each graben increases

its

length

and (2)

formation

of fault strands parallel to the existing ones wen large displacements need to be accommodated. The processes of formation and growth of new fault strands promote interaction among the new faults and between the new and preexisting faults on a larger scale. Increased displacement causes the width of the fault zone to increase resulting in wider pull-apart basins.
NTRODUCT ION

Many rhomb grabens and rhomb horsts have been recognized along major strike-slip faults throughout the world (see Table 1). Pull-apart
basins or rhomb grabens are depressional basins, while pressure ridges or rhomb horsts are uplifted terranes. Basins associated with active strike-slip faults can be readily identified because of their morphological expressions as elongated lakes and sag ponds, which often contain young sedimentary deposits and sometimes involve volcanic and geothermal activities [Clayton, 1966; Freund, 1971; Elders et al., 1972; Clark, 1973; Crowell, 1974; Hill, 1977]. The horst-like ridges usually form conspicuous rectilinear hills along strike-slip faults and are characterized by en echelon folds [Sharp and Clark, 1972]. The geometry of some pull-apart basins and pressure ridges has been inferred from associated seismicity and focal mechanism solutions [Johnson and Hedley, 1976; Johnson, 1979] and from surface faulting associated with major earthquakes on strike-slip faults [Clark, 1972; Sharp, 1976, 1977; Arpat et al., 1977; Tchalenko and Ambrasyes, 1970]. Mechanical aspects of pull-apart basins and pressure ridges have been

recently
Indiana

investigated
47907

by

Segall and Pollard

[1980] and Rodgers [1980].

1Now Departmentof Geosciences,PurdueUniversity, West Lafayette at

Copyright 1982 by the American Geophysical Union.
Paper number 1T1784. 0278-7407/82/001T-1784510.00

92
TABLE 1. Strike-Slip

Aydin and Nur:

Faults Associated

Evolution

of Pull-Apart
Dimensions

Basins

Grabens (G) or Horsts

(H)and Their

Fault Motagua,
Polochic

and/or

Location

Basin or MountainRange
Motagua Valley
Rio E1 Tambor

Graben(G) or Horst (H)

G
G

Dimension(M) Length Width

50,000
25

Reference
Schwartz et al. [1979]

Guatemala

20,000
8

Lago de Izabal
Israel

80,000

30,000

Dead Sea Rift,

Hula Lake Kineret

Ayun East of Timna North of Ayun

G G
G G G G
G G G

20,000 17,000
6,600 1,000 1,200 1,200
1,600 5,000 2,000

7,000 5,000
1,600 250 400 400
450 1,200 500

Bonis et al. [1970]; Plafker [1976]; this Freund et al. [1968]

study

Garfunkel

et al.

[1982]

South of Timna

West of the Dead Sea

G G G G G G G
G

8,800 20,000 3,500 3,000 3,000 6,000 7,500

3,000

3,000 6,000 750 750 800 1,500 1,800

750

Garfunkel

[1982]

Paran

East of the Dead Sea Karkom

Zrir,
of

G G
G G

Bir
Gulf

Sinai
Elat

4,500 18,000 6,000 5,000

1,500 6,000
1,500 2,000

Bartov

[1979]

Elat
Aragonese Tiran-Dakor

G
G G
G

45,000
40,000 65,000
1,200

i0,000
9,000 8,000
500

Eyal et al. [1980] Ben-Avraham et al.

[1979]

Dasht-e
Hope,

Bayaz,

Iran

Freund

[1974]

New Zealand

Hope, New Zealand

Medway-Karaka Glynnwye Glynnwye Lake Poplars Station Hanmer Plains Medway-Karaka Glynnwye Lake Poplars Station

G G G G G H H H

700 980 1,800 2,300 13,000 90 300 300

230 210 550 900 3,500 30 90 150

Freund

[1971]

Freund Freund

[1974] [1971]

Hanmer Plains
North Anatolian,Turkey

4,500

2,700

Niksar Erzincan Susehri

USA Cholame Valley San Bernardino

G G G
Mountains G H G

25,000 40,000 23,000

17,000 32,000 10,000

10,000 12,000 6,000

3,000 14,000 7,000

Seymen [1975];
Ketin [1969]

this

s[y

San Andreas, Imperial

Elsinore

Calif.,

Jennings [1959];

Brown [1970]

Brawley

Dibblee [1975] Johnson and Hadley [1976]; Sharp [1976, 1977]

Garlock

Elsinore Lake KoehnLake

G G
G

12,000 40,000
300

3,000 11,000
150

Rogers !1965] Jennings et al.

Smith [1964]; this study

[1969]; Clark [1973];

G
G

600
600

110
100

West of Quail Searleys San Jacinto, Hog Lake Valley

Mountain

G
G

240
900

90
220

Clark

[1973]

1,600

380

East of Christmas

Canyon

G
G

1,250
680

250
170

Buck Ridge
Coyote Creek

Hemet Santa Rosa Mountain Ocotillo Badlands Borrega Mountain Bailey's Well
Nevada Tracy-Clark Station

G G H H G
G

22,000 6,000 5,500 4,000 500

190

5,000 1,700 1,800 1,600 200

80

Sharp [1972] Sharp [1975] Sharp [1972]

Sharp and Clark Clark [1972] [1972]

Olinghouse,

G
G G

70
160 450

40
90 175 250

Sanders and Slemmons [1979]; this study

980

Bocono,

Venezuela

La Gonzales

23,000

6,200

Merida-Mucuchies

G
G G G

6,200
700 280 1,000

1,700
200 70 280

Schubert[1980a] Schubert[1980b]

Valencia E1 Pilar

Lake Valencia Casanay

G H

30,000 3,000

11,500 1,200

Schubert and Laredo

[1979]

Schubert [1979]

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

95

In this paper, we first review the kinematics of strike-slip faulting from the viewpoint of basin and ridge formation in strike-slip environments. We then examine the scale dependence of the geometry of many pull-apart basins and pressure ridges. Finally, we suggest
tectonic
ridges.
KINEMATICS OF STRIKE-SLIP FAULTING AND BASIN AND RIDGE FORMATION

models for

the growth and development of these basins and

It is generally thought that both pull-apart basins and pressure horsts near strike-slip faults are associated with geometrical and possibly mechanical irregularities of these faults. This concept implies that motion on discrete fault strands within a strike-slip fault system is responsible for the creation of pull-aparts and
horsts.

++ ++

---

Fig. 1.

(a) Extensional (minus) and compressional (plus) quadrants

around a right lateral strike-slip fault; (b) tail cracks (open) in the extensional quadrant and pressure solutions or folds (zig-zag

line) in the compressional quadrants; (c) rhomb graben on a right stepover; (d) rhomb horst on a left stepover for right lateral strikeslip faults; (e) normal faults (barbs on downthrown side) and major strike-slip fault segments with normal slip component bounding a rhomb graben at a left stepover; and (f) reverse faults (teeth on upthrown side) and major strike-slip fault segments with reverse slip
component bounding a rhomb horst at a right
strike-slip faults.

stepover

for

left

lateral

94
Horizontal slip

Aydin
on a single

and Nur:
strike-slip

Evolution
fault

of Pull-Apart
will induce

Basins
extension

in two quadrants and compression in the other two quadrants (Figure la). Structures reflecting the extension (cracks) and compression (pressure solution and folds) are sometimes observed in the proper quadrants (Figure lb) in the field [Rispoli, 1981; P. Segall and D. D. Pollard, manuscript in preparation, 1982]. When strike-slip faults are arranged in en echelon pattern, the extensional or compressional quadrants of the neighboring faults partially overlap,
thereby enhancing either extensional For example, right and left lateral or compressional strike-slip faults deformation. with right

(Figure lc) and left (Figure le) stepovers, respectively, produce depressions at the stepover regions. While two sides of such depressions are bounded by the segments of the strike-slip faults that have significant normal slip components, the other two sides are defined predominantly by normal faults trending diagonally to the

strike-slip

faults

[Clayton,

1966; Freund, 1971; Sharp, 1976, 1977].

Pressure ridges or rhomb horsts are associated with right and left lateral strike-slip faults with left stepover (Figure ld) and right stepover (Figure If), respectively. Like pull-apart basins, pressure ridges are bounded on two sides by segments of strike-slip faults and by reverse or thrust faults on the remaining two sides (Figure if).
DIMENSIONS
AND PRESSURE

OF

PULL-APART
RIDGES

BASINS

Pull-apart basins and pressure ridges of various sizes have been reported by several authors (reference list, see Table 1). Figure 2 illustrates some examples of basin and ridge structures ranging from 0.6 m to 80,000 m in length and from 0.17 m to 30,000 m in width. Figure 2a shows a small pull-apart structure in Sierra Nevada granite, which is similar to those studied by P. Segall and D. D. Pollard

t
0 5 M

I
I000 M

I
5000 M

Fig.

2.

Some examples of pull-apart

basins

or rhomb grabens in various

scales and one rhomb horst. (a) Courtesy of Paul Sega!l, (b) from Fruend et al. [1968], (c) from Sharp and Clark [1972], (d) from Ketin [1969]; AF (inset): North Anatolian Fault; F: faults (arrows indicating sense of displacement on strike-slip faults and plus and minus indicating upthrown and downthrown blocks, respectively, on
normal fault; HS: hot springs; VC: volcanic cones; Q: Quaternary; T: Tertiary; pM&M: pre-Mesozoic and Mesozoic, (e) slightly modified from Bonis et al. [1970] and Plafker [1976]; Q & T; Quaternary and Tertiary; and pT: pre-Tertiary.

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

9S

15o0 '

,,- ....... _

_:::-:.

..... .... .......... -......: , ::.:: --

15o00 '

Fig.

2.

(continued)

(manuscript in preparation, 1982). The pull-apart, which is well defined by quartz filling, is comparable in length to the horizontal offset of a preexisting vein. Figure 2b shows a graben in recent alluvium along the Dead Sea Fault near Timna, Isreal [Freund et al., ]_968]. Here the normal faults and normal component of the left lateral strike-slip faults bounding the graben are illustrated. Figure 2c is one of few examples of horst structure; the thrust nature of the bounding fault is supported by the observed displacement on the active breaks associated with the Borrego Valley earthquake of 1968 in southern California [Sharp and Clark, 1972]. Figure 2d is a large basin along the North Anatolian Fault at the Erzincan region, Turkey [Ketin, 1969]. The Erzincan Basin is filled with young detrital

96
deposits and volcanic conspicuously aligned

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

rocks. Several volcanic cones and hot springs along the major faults indicate high heat flow

and thinning

of the crust at the pull-apart

region.

The last

example

shown in Figure 2e includes two huge pull-apart basins, the Polochic Valley, mostly occupied by Lake Izabal, and the Motague Valley in Guatemala [Bonis et al., 1970; Plafker, 1976]. Both appear to be composite pull-apart basins, the former being about 80,000 m long and 30,000 m wide. Still larger features interpreted as structures somewhat analogous to pull-apart basins and pressure ridges were reported by Carey [1958]. One implication of the concept that pull-aparts and pressure ridges are formed by predominantly strike-slip motion along en echelon faults is that their length should increase proportionally to the amount of offset (Figure 5). In contrast, the widths of pull-aparts and ridges should remain roughly fixed at the initial value of fault strand spacing, which must be due to an earlier tectonic process, the
nature of which is not well understood.

I00

000
_

! i i i iiI

I0 000

Z
_

i
I000

&omo
I-.
z

I00

IOHOPE

FAULT (NEW ZEALAND)

OLINGHOUSEFAULT (NEV., USA) $ DASHT-E BAYAZ FAULT ( I RAN)

--

NORTH ANATOLIAN FAULT ( TURKEY)

ISAN ANDREAS FAULT SYSTEM (CALIF.,USA) + DEAD SEA AND OTHER FAULTS (ISRAEL) X DEAD SEA FAULT AT GULF OF ELAT (ISRAEL)

_-

MOTAGUA AND POLOCHIC FAULTS(GUATEMALA)

&BOCONO,VALENClA EL PILARFAULTS AND (VENEZUELA) '

i I i I I i ill
io

, I I till[

I00

I I I [ Ill[ I000

I , I tllll I0 000

I i I 'll I00 000

WIDTH , METERS

Fig. 3. Log length versus log width for 70 pull-apart basins or rhomb grabens and horsts associated with major strike-slip faults of the world. Full symbols grabens and empty symbols horsts.

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution of Pull-Apart Basins

97

The most cursory survey of known pull-apart basins indicates that their widths vary extensively from tens of meters in small sag ponds to tens of kilometers for large basins. The range suggests that the process responsible for the initial spacing between fault strands is spatially variable. Furthermore, because pull-apart basins of significantly different widths and lengths are often found along the same fault system (e.g., the San Andreas system), we conclude that new strands must be forming while slip occurs and that all of the basins were not formed during the onset of strike-slip motion.
These conclusions lead to a contradiction. On the one hand, we

must invoke an independent process for the spacing between strands prior to the process responsible for slip on these strands. On the other hand, this independent process must be creating new strands
while slip occurs on existing ones.

To resolve this apparent contradiction concerning the nature and origin of pull-aparts, horsts, and strike-slip fault systems in general, we examine the widths and lengths of 70 pull-apart basins and pressure ridges associated with the San Andreas Fault system and the Olinghouse Fault in the western United States, the Dead Sea Fault and
other faults in Israel, the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey, the

Dasht-e Bayaz Fault in Iran, the Polochic and Motagua faults in Guatemala, the Bocono, E1 Pilar, and Victoria faults in Venezuela,
and the Hope Fault in New Zealand.

We have studied well-documented pull-apart basins or ridges along these fault systems, using data from written reports or detailed published geological maps (see Table 1) to determine the position of the bounding faults. Some of the data have been obtained from aerial photos and from direct field observations. For the 70 best documented
3O
-

>-

2o

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: i i
o 2 4 $ LENGTH / IDTH 8 IO

Fig. 4. Frequency histogram for length/width ratio showing that most of the length-width ratios calculated directly from Table 1 fall
between 2 and 5 and that
between the ratios

the maximum frequency

value

is somewhere

3 and 4.

98

Aydin and Nur'

cases, we have measured the length,

Evolution of Pull-Apart

Basins

g, and width,

w, of the basins or

ridges and plotted them against each other, as shownin Figure 3. These data are analyzed by using a least square fit of the function

logg = c1 logw+ logc2

The best-fitting
and a lower limit

(1)

constants in equations (1) were found to be c1 = 1.0

andc2 = 3.2. Thevariance c1 at 95% of confidence is .04, and level

95% confidence interval
of

for c2 is defined by an upper limit of 4.3

2.4.

By taking antilogs, equation (1) can be rewritten as

= 3.2 w
Equation (2) shows that a well-defined between length and width, with a ratio
confidence interval for the ratio

(2)
linear correlation exists of approximately 3. A 95%
obtained from the linear

(2.4-4.3)

regression is in agreement with the most commonrange of ratios (3-4) illustrated graphically in Figure 4, a relative frequency

histogram constructed by using ratios

calculated

directly

from Table 1.

The persistence of this correlation ranging over scales from meters to 100 kilometers, not only between length and width within a given fault system, but also among systems, is particularly remarkable. The strong correlation leaves little doubt as to the reality and generality of this observation: basins and ridges associated with strike-

slip
offsets

faults
with

become wider as they grow longer due to increasing

time.

fault
the

This

observation

is

inconsistent

with

the

simplest

model for

formation

of basins

and ridges,

which dictates

that

their

widths

are

initially fixed, whereas their lengths increase with offset (Figure 5). If this were the case, we would expect no correlation between width and length. We would expect to observe many very long and narrow basins and ridges. Furthermore, the results do not easily favor a model involving the development of strands independent of the slip along
them. In that case, we would anticipate uncorrelated with the lengths of basins a random width distribution and ridges. The strong

correlation

implies

that as slip

along the strike-slip

of the basin

fault
or ridge;

increases,
there-

so does the width

as well

as the length
of it.

fore,
slip
MODELS

the process which controls

but is an integral part

the width is not independent of the

We propose two models for the evolution of pull-apart basins and ridges. A simple process with a constant ratio of length to width, a ratio that is independent of the magnitude of slip, is illustrated in Figure 6. We imagine, for example, a right lateral fault system

w o

Fig. 5.
with

A simple model illustrating

fault offset.

increasing length (from 0

w0, is constant.

to )

increasing

The width,

Aydin and Nur:

a

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

99

t t t

t t

Fig.

6.

Model 1 showing coalescence of rhomb grabens associated

faults. The end product is a composite

with

en echelon strike-slip pull-apart basin.

consisting of numerous right-stepping echelon strands (Figure 6a). Many small grabens appear initially (Figure 6b). As slip increases, the grabens begin to coalesce into composite ones (Figure 6c), finally leading to a large basin (Figure 6d) having a length comparable to the offset and the width that is the sum of the spacing between the fault strands involved in the process. Examples of basins that show the elements of this process are common and can be recognized easily based on the elbow-shaped geometry of the diagonal faults. The Koehn Lake Basin along the Garlock Fault in southern California (Figure 7)

Fig. 7. Koehn Lake basin envisioned as a composite en echelon rhombs (insert). Fault; pT&T: pre-Tertiary

on the Garlock Fault in southern California, pull-apart basin formed by coalescence of GF: Garlock Fault; SAF: San Andreas and Tertiary; and Q: Quaternary.

100

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

can be thought of as a composite of at least three major strands, as is shown in the inset. Additional examples can be seen along the Elsinore Fault around Elsinore Lake in southern California [Rogers,

1965] and in the Gulf of Elat

Avraham et al.,
The second

(Aqaba) in the Northern

based on more random

Red Sea [Benand

1979].
model-which is coalescense

interaction processes is illustrated in Figure 8. The initial fault configuration (Figure 8a) develops gradually, or perhaps the sites of strike-slip faults are controlled by preexisting tensile fractures [Segall, 1981]. At the initial stage grabens and horsts are produced by interaction among closer and longer fault strands (Figure 8b). Faults that are further away grow longer as more slip is accommodated, and new strands form to promote further interaction and coalescense resulting in the formation of longer and wider complex basins and ridges (Figure 8c). Figure 9 shows a spectacular example of the development of a composite basin, as envisioned in this model, along the Olinghouse Fault in western Nevada (see Sanders and Slemmons [1979] for more information about the fault). Here exceptionally exposed smaller basins occur within larger basins and each basin has similar length/width ratio (Figure 3). The two processes described above may operate separately, or they may operate more or less simultaneously at the same site complementing each other. Large structures, such as the Imperial Valley, California

[Crowell

and Sylvester,

1980; Fuis et al.,

1981],

exhibit

not only

coalescense of neighboring basins, but also a more intricate composite of basins within basins, horsts within basins, and perhaps basins within horsts. Figure 10 is a cartoon illustrating the main features of these tectonics, which, we believe, characterize a typical strikeslip environment. Strike-slip faults together with connecting normal and reverse or thrust faults divide the region into blocks or domains or terranes, which, while moving in the general direction of horizontal shear, also rise or subside depending on the nature of the interaction between the discrete fault segments that make up the system.

Fig. 8. Model 2 illustrates which includes rhomb grabens

formation of composite pull-apart and horsts of various size.

basin,

Aydin

and Nur-

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

101

500

I, I ,I METERS

,I

Small basins along the Olinghouse Fault, which is a left strike-slip fault in the western Nevada (lower insert). Small basins wzthin basins (upper insert) on the top right of the figure appear to be formed by the second mechanism shown in Figure 8. OF: Olinghouse Fault; WLF Walker Lane Fault.

Fig. 9. lateral

CONCLUSIONS

AND

IMPLICATIONS

The clear, global correlation between the width and length of pullapart basins and ridges associated with strike-slip systems suggests that smaller basins coalesce into bigger ones as slip continues to take place. This conclusion has important implications for our

understanding of (1) fault systems and (2) formation of basins. The two mechanisms suggested for the growth of basins and ridges provide
an understanding of the nature of strike-slip faulting as an evolutionary process. Basins and ridges of various sizes in the same strike-slip fault system should be expected if the interaction and coalescense processes leading to the formation of the basins and ridges occur in a long time span. Faults that are traditionally classified into different groups such as strike-slip, dip-slip normal, and reverse or thrust, and which are believed to have distinct environments, can occur next to each other
in the same tectonic environment under the same remote stress con-

dition. faults

Normal and thrust faults associated with active should be recognized as potential active faults.

strike-slip

102

Aydin and Nur:

Evolution of Pull-Apart

Basins

Aydin and Nur-

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

10S

The processes of coalescense and interaction imply that the width of the fault system itself must also tend to grow with time, incorporating old and new fault strands as well as a complex arrangement of basins and ridges. These broad zones, which are broken by faults, are likely to be mechanically weaker than normal crust. The presence of a weak, brittle upper crust around major faults limits the shear stress level that can be supported by such faults. This limitation may account for the low stresses inferred, for example, from in situ stress measurement around the San Andreas Fault system [Zoback and
Roller, 1979]. The dimensional and geometric features of the basins and ridges described in this study, together with the nature of deformation in these

tectonic domains, can be used to interpret ancient basins and ridges in terms of strike-slip tectonics. The fact that pull-apart basins become wider as they grow longer may provide a mechanism for the initiation and the enlargement of sedimentary basins. Sedimentary basins and back arc basins probably develop as a result of crustal

stretching
rise

[Sclater

and Christie,
mantle

1980; Dewey, 1980] followed by the

As this material cools, the

of hot and light

material.

surface above it subsides, creating a basin that is usually filled with sediments. The most viable process for crustal stretching is a pull-apart basin, which must be large enough (tens of kilometers in width) to interact with the upper mantle. Our observations suggest that a large pull-apart basin can develop from small ones if the associated fault displacements are large enough and the fault strands
are numerous enough.

Acknowledgments.

We thank D. D. Pollard,

P. Segall,

R. V. Sharp,

M. M. Clark, R. E. Wallace, G. Mavko, G. Plafker, Z. Ben-Avraham, and G. Aral for many fruitful discussions and for their encouragement, C. Sanders, who loaned us the aerial photographs of the Olinghouse Fault, and Z. Garfunkel and G. Fuis, who have made available the

preprints of their recent papers. The manuscript was reviewed by D. D. Pollard, R. V. Sharp, and C. Sanders. This study was supported by research grants from U.S. Geological Survey and NASA's geodynamics
program.
REFERENCES

Arpat E., F. arolu,

ve Insan, ubat
Tel Z., 1979.

and H. B. Iz,
29-41, 1977.

1976 aldlran

depremi Yeryuvarl
Surv.

1977,

Bartov,

Y. (Compiler),

Israel-geological

map, scale 1'500,000,

Sediments

of Israel, Ben-Avraham,

Aviv, 1979. G. Almagor,

and Z. Garfunkel,

and structure

of the Gulf
239-267,

of Elat

(Aqaba) - Northern

Red Sea, Sediment.

Geol.,

23,

Bonis, S., O. H. Bohnenberger, and G. Dengo (Compilers), de la Republica de Guatemala, escale 1:500,000, Inst.

Mapa geologico Geograf. Nac.

Guatemala, Guatemala, 1970. Brown, R. D., Jr., Map showing recently active breaks along the San Andreas and related faults between the northern Gabilan Range and Cholame Valley, California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest.

Map, 1-579, 1970. Carey, S. W., The Tectonic

approach to continental

drift,

in

Continental Drift:
University
355, Univ.

A_Ssnnposium Held in the Geology Department,

Hobart, 1958.

of Tasmania, March 1956, edited by S. W. Carey, pp. 177of Tasmania,

Clark, Clark,

M. M. Surface rupture

along the Coyote Creek Fault,

9, 1968, U.S.

The
Surv.

Borrego Mountain Earthquake of April Prof. Pap., 787, 55-86, 1972.

Geol.

M. M., Map showing recently

active

breaks along the Garlock

104

Aydin and Nur-

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

and associated faults, California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest. Map, 1-741, 1973. Clayton, L., Tectonic depressions along the Hope Fault, a transcurrent

fault
95-104,

in North Canterbury, New Zealand, N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 9,

1966.

Crowell,
1974.

J.

C.,

Origin

of Late Cenozoic basins

in southern

California,

Spec. Publ.
Crowell,

Soc. of Econ. Paleontol.

and A. G. Sylvester,

and Mineral.,
Introduction

22, 190-204,
to the San Andreas

J. C.,

-Salton Trough juncture, Tectonics of the Juncture Between the San Andreas Fault System and the Salton Trough, Southern California

-A Guidebook, edited by J. C. Crowell and A. G. Sylvester, Publ. 1-13, Univ. of Calif. Dept. of Geol. Sci., Santa Barbara, 1980. Dewey, J. F., Episodicity, sequence, and style at convergent plate

boundaries, Geol. Assoc. Can. Spec. Pap., 20, 553-573, 1980.

Dibblee, T. W., Jr., Late Quaternary Uplift of the San Bernardino

Mountains on the San Andreas and related

faults,

Spec. Rep. Calif.

and S. Biehler, 178, 15-24,

Div. Mines. Geol., 118, 127-135, 1975. Elders, W. A., R. W. Rex, T. Meidav, P. T. Robinson, Crustal spreading in southern California, Science,
1972.

Eyal,

M., Y. Eyal,

Y. Bartov,

and G. Steinitz,

Sinistral

faulting

in eastern Sinai,
Geol. Freund,

in Prosrams, Abstracts,

Annual Reports, Explanatory

Notes on the Excursions, Israel Geological Society, Jerusalem, 1980. Freund, R., The Hope Fault, a strike-slip fault in New Zealand, N. Z.
Surv. Bull., 86, 1-48, 1971. R., Kinematics of transform and transcurrent

faults,

Tectonophysics,

21,

93-134,

1974.

Freund, R., I. Zak, and Z. Garfunkel, Age and rate of the sinistral movement along the Dead Sea Rift, Nature, 220 (5164), 253-255, 1968. Fuis, G. S., W. D. Mooney, J. H. Healy, G. A. McMechan, and W. J. Lutter, Crustal structures of the Imperial Valley region, in the Imperial Valley earthquake of October 15, 1979, U.S. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Pap., in press, 1982. Garfunkel, Z., Internal structure of the Dead Sea leaky transform (rift) in relation to plate kinematics, Tectonophysics, in press,
1982.

Garfunkel,

Z.,

I.

Zak,

and R. Freund,

Active

faulting

in the Dead Sea

rift, Tectonophysics, in press, 1982. Hill, D. P., A model for earthquake swarms, .J.. Ge. ophys. Res., 82,
1347-1352, 1977.

Jennings, C. W. (Compiler),
Obispo sheet,
San Francisco,

Geologic Map of California,

Calif. Div.

San Luis

scale
1959.

1:250,000,

of Mines and Geol.,

Jennings,

C. W., J. L. Burnett,

and B. W. Troxel

(Compilers),

Geologic Map of California, Trona sheet, scale 1:250,000, Calif. Div. of Mines and Geol., San Francisco, 1969. Johnson, C. E., Seismotectonics of the Imperial Valley of southern California, part 2, Ph.D. thesis, 208 pp., Calif. Inst. of Technol., Pasadena, 1979. Johnson, C. E., and D. M. Hadley, Tectonic implication of the Brawley

earthquake

swarm, Imperial
66,

Valley,

California,

January 1975, Seismol.

Soc. Am. Bull.,

1133-1144,

1976.

Ketin, I., Kuzey Anadolu fay hakknda (in Turkish and German), Maden Tetkik Arama Enst. Derg., n 72, 1-27, 1969. Plafker, G., Tectonic aspects of the Guatemala earthquake of February
4, Science, 193, 1201-1208, 1976. Rispoli, R., Stress fields about strike-slip

faults

inferred

from

stylolites

and tension gashes, Tectonophysics, 75, T29-36, 1981.

of pull-apart basin development produced by

Rodgers, D. A., Analysis

en echelon strike-slip 4, 27-41, 1980.

faults,

Spec. Publ. Int.

Assoc. Sedimentol.,

Aydin and NurRogers, scale

1965.

Evolution

of Pull-Apart

Basins

10S

T. H. (Compiler), 1:250,000, Calif.

Geologic map of California, Santa Ana sheet, Div. of Mines and Geol., San Francisco,

Sanders, C. O. and D. B. Slemmons, Recent crustal movements in the central Sierra Nevada - Walker Lane region of California-Nevada,

3, The Olinghouse Fault zone, Tectonophysics, 5__2, 585-597, 1979.

Schubert, C., E1 Pilar Fault zone, northeastern Venezuela' Brief

review, Tectonophysics, 5__2, 447-455, 1979.

Schubert, C., Late-Cenozoic pull-apart basins, Bocono fault zone Venezuelan Andes, J. Struct. Geol., 2, 463-468, 1980a. Schubert, C., Morfologia neotectonica de una fallon rumbodeslizante e informe preliminar sobre Ra fallon de Bocono (with English

abstract), Acta Cient. Venez., 3__1, 98-111, 1980b. Schubert, C., and M. Laredo, Late Pleistocene and Holocene faulting

in Lake Valencia basin, north-central

292, 1979.

Venezuela, Geology, ,

289-

Schwartz, D. P., L. S. Cluff, and T. W. Donnelly, Quaternary faulting along the Caribbean-North American Plate boundary in Central

America, Tectonophysics, 5__2, 431-445, 1979.

Sclater, J. G. and P. A. F. Christie, Continental stretching: An

explanation of the post-mid-Cretaceous subsidence of the central North Sea Basin, J. Geophy. s..Res., 8__5, 3711-3739, 1980. Segall, P., The development of joints and faults in granitic rocks, Ph.D. thesis, 233 pp., Stanford University, Stanford, Calif., 1981. Segall, P., and D. D. Pollard, Mechanics of discontinuous faults,

J. Gophys. Res., 8__5, 4337-4350, 1980. Seymen, I., Kelkit vadisi kesiminde Kuzey Anadolu fay zonunun tektonik
8zellii (with English abstract), Ph.D. thesis, Teknik Universitesi, Istanbul, Turkey, 1975. 192 pp., Istanbul

Sharp, R. V., Map showing recent active

Fault zone between the San Bernardino

breaks along the San Jacinto

area and Borrego Valley,

California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest. Map, 1-675, 1972. Sharp, R. V., En echelon fault patterns of the San Jacinto fault zone, San Andreas Fault in southern California, Spec. Rep. Calif. Div.
Mines Geol., 118, 147-152, 1975.

Sharp, R. V.,
1145-1154,

Surface faulting
1976.

in Imperial

Valley

during the earth-

quake swarm of January-February,

1975, Seismol. Soc. Am. Bull.,

6__6

Sharp, R. V., Map showing the Holocene surface expression of the Brawley Fault, Imperial County, California, U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Field Stud. Map, MF-838, 1977. Sharp, R. V., and M. M. Clark, Geological evidence of previous faulting near the 1968 rupture of the Coyote Creek Fault, in the Borrego Mountain earthquake of April 9, 1968, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap.., 787, 131-140, 1972. Smith, A. R. (Compiler), Geological map of California, Bakersfield sheet, scale 1:250,000, Calif. Div. of Mines and Geol., San
Francisco, 1964.

Tchalenko, J. S.,
81, 41-60, 1970.

and N. N. Ambraseys, Structural

analysis

of the

Dasht-e Bayaz (Iran)

earthquake fractures,

Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.,

Zoback, M.D., and J. C. Roller, Magnitude of shear stress on the San Andreas Fault, implications from a stress measurement profile at shallow depth, Science, 206, 445-447, 1979.
(Received August 25, revised November 16, 1981; 1981;

accepted November 16, 1981.)