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These tutorial books cost a lot of sweat and tears, and are an important part of my livelihood so please do not redistribute them. They should not be available online anywhere other than my shop lulu.com/cedarseed. Kindly report copyright violators.

Drawing People
A tutorial collection by

Joumana Medlej

This books contents are Joumana Medlej, cedarseed.com. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED OR REDISTRIBUTED. For inquiries: mana@cedarseed.com

Contents
Cultivating your Drawing Skills Drawing the body Proportions of the body Proportions of the face Proportion reminders Muscle guide More on the body The hand The foot Flexibility Emotions and facial expressions Aging the face and body Catalogue of human features Human types Asian types Caucasian types African types Pacific types Notes on mixed types Bibliography 5 7 8 9 11 12 15 16 22 27 38 53 62 72 73 82 93 96 100 101

Cultivating your Drawing Skills

I believe drawing skills are never innate: when someone is a natural, what they really have are remarkable observational skills and the ability to apply them in their case, through drawing. Drawing skills can be cultivated by anyone able to use their minds and hands. There are two approaches to this: Theory (+practice) and Observation (+studies). Theory is a structured, systematic approach where we learn from someone more experienced whos laid it all out for us in a course or tutorial. Observation is an organic, unpredictable approach, where we learn directly from the real world around us and gradually derive principles from it. Each taken alone is incomplete; trying to work with only one of them would be like trying to walk with one foot. Studying Theory lays down a solid foundation, but that remains abstract and limited until Observation brings it to life with details and real-life application but Observation needs the founding structure of Theory to make sense of itself. For instance, it is only if you know how muscles work that youll understand why a contracted arm bulges the way it does and you cant draw (correctly) what you dont understand. It is the combination of learned theory and observed reality that favors integration, or indepth learning. An essential ingredient of this integration is practice. We all know that we remember best what involves us personally. Reading a tutorial and observing our surroundings are the passive component of the learning experience: To anchor what our mind absorbs, we must involve ourselves actively, that is, put pencil to paper. We must practice what we learned in a book until the knowledge becomes second nature and is no longer something we need to recall. As for observation, we must put it down in a study. Every great master did such studies. They didnt pull their skills from thin air, but relied on studies, or models (or studies of models) as references. A study is simply a collection of sketches from real life. There is no rule as to how complete or de5

tailed they should be, but it is important to know what youre after to derive real benefits from it. If you need to draw a dragon, your study may be of reptiles, the shapes of their limbs, the texture of their skin, the way they move, and may also extend, for instance, to bat wings. Studies will help you not only in learning to draw something you have a hard time with (such as folds), but also in introducing realistic variety into your work. Aspiring fantasy or graphic novel artists pay heed! Imagination is fed by observation. The conscious mind is little more than a supercomputer, powerful but incapable of creating anything from scratch. It creates by combining things that you have stored in your memory. The more elements you feed your mind, the more creative it (and you) can be. So if you want to draw people who dont all have the same haircut, design clothing and weapons for your characters, or not be at a loss for backgrounds all the time, you have to look, look and look, and allow the randomness of the world to surprise you (as opposed to confining yourself to a limited and completely predictable environment such as your house contrary to appearances, illustration is a not an armchair occupation!) As you must have gathered by now, this book is about Theory. The tutorials and guides serve to help you understand the subject you wish to draw. The Observation part is in your own hands, but Id like to help you getting started by suggesting a method to learn through studies. Its really an elaboration on the often-given advice sketch from real life! but it may be more helpful. Its very simple, actually. Just go to a public space (a coffeeshop is an ideal place to start) and sketch, with the following in mind: Pick a focus, something specific you want to learn or need references for. Ill list some suggestions below. Dont sketch anything thats not related to your focus thats why Im calling it a focus. Do not confuse with doodling: Sketching from life should never be random. Know what youre after or youll get nothing out of it. Are you worried people will catch you staring? Good. That will force you to steal glimps-

es of your subjects. You will need to absorb more information in each glimpse and you wont be able to afford getting lost in details other than your focus. This is great training. Dont worry if at first it makes it difficult or the sketches dont come out right. Thats what studies are for. Youre learning to store the important details deep in your hard drive and discard the unnecessary bits. Persevere and it will get easier and what is stored will remained stored. But for heavens sake dont look self-conscious and guilty or try to hide. If you act like youre doing something wrong, people will think you are doing something wrong. Be casual. Often you can sketch someone while looking slightly to the side of them, so that if the person looks up theyll think youre staring into space (as long as you dont shift your gaze hurriedly). And if someone notices you and asks to look, dont be childish about it, just let them look. Im practicing is all you need to say. For each focus chosen, do this regularly for a while. For instance every day, or every other day for a week or until you feel youve milked the topic. Think of what you draw as assortments of volumes, not as lines put together. If you can think in forms (3d) as opposed to shapes (flat), you can rotate and foreshorten subjects in your mind. The dimensionality also translates into your drawings. Its not a conscious process, but the final result speaks volumes. So, think in forms! In that line of thought, resist the temptation to sketch from photos. They are flat, deceiving representations of a three-dimensional world. Always learn from the original. You can use photos as references once you are proficient enough to see the volumes through the flat picture. Keep your studies! They are references you are compiling for yourself. Label and file them in an organizer for easy retrieval. Theres no limit to what you can come up with in terms of focus subjects. Pick a general weakness of yours that needs strengthening, or something you need for a specific project. For instance, in my work I frequently need to draw random contemporary characters, but I never know

what to do for hair and fashion, so I end up relying on a limited vocabulary for both. I remedied this by sitting in coffeeshops and sketching, with hairdos and clothing (including color schemes) as my focus. Im a quick sketcher so I can easily handle both (I take color notes and add that with markers later), but they can be done separately. Here are things you can easily observe and sketch in a coffeeshop: Hairdos good opportunity to also study hairlines, hair quality, the behavior of strands of hair, etc. Fashion, including accessories and colors. Footwear make sure to sit somewhere with a clear view on the queue, or on the street. Facial features the shapes of lips, noses, eyes, the facial contour. Theres no better way to realize just how varied they are. Profiles Shading how the light falls on facial features, folds etc. Signs of age or youth lines, facial proportions, clothing style and more... Once you start looking for them, youll find more than expected. Folds dont forget to note the nature of the material, as they behave quite differently! Posture how people sit or stand, how they hold their hands while talking, etc. Different settings provide different sets of postures - for instance the beach is a good place for reclining poses. Other suggestions for other settings: In a park: tree shapes, leaf and flower shapes, how they are grouped, color schemes... At a gym: the perfect place to study muscles at work. At the beach: body types, reclining postures, diversity in body proportions (made easier by the absence of clothing). In the city: building types, windows, street details, stone/concrete hues, textures... At your little cousins birthday party: childrens faces and proportions, children fashion... If youre lucky enough to have access to a botanical garden, zoo or history museum, do yourself a favour and make an occasional trip there with a sketchbook. Botanical gardens in particular often have a diversity of miniature ecosystems, and can give you a feel of the natural environment in different parts of the globe.
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And so on. These are basic suggestions, but I hope they can give a clearer direction to beginners and new ideas to the others. I find studies addictive: theyre much like collecting something, except these items are free and abundant. I also find they make me increasingly interested in whats around me, and when Im not sketching, Im still looking and storing. Ill end on a final piece of advice: Never expect to be spoon-fed. Dont, for instance, look for some-

one to show you how to draw a big guy throwing a punch in manga style. Instead, learn about the muscles and joints involved, observe yourself in the mirror in the desired pose, and learn what defines the manga style. Make the synthesis (combining what you know with what you see, adapting the body type and the style) yourself. You may not reach the perfect result the first time around, but what youll have learned in the trying is something earned, that you can consequently build on.

The idealized body proportions used to learn anatomy are essential to the learning process (it simplifies a very complex subject for the student), but that you are not expected to abide by them at all times as they do vary slightly in reality. Once you have integrated these rules, you too will veer from them to develop your own style but I honestly dont recommend skipping ahead. Understanding them first is key to knowing how to change the proportions of a body without making it look distorted. I. GENERAL The first thing you should do when you want to draw a human body (or anything else, for that matter), is a quick, gesture-style sketch of the underlying volumes. Never start from the head and draw your way down. You have to work in layers, from the rough shapes to the fine details. This way you insure that your body proportions are correct and everything is in place before you put too much time into details you cant change anymore. To illustrate this, here are three steps in my sketching process:

DRAWING THE BODY

II. PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY The unit of measurement of the human body is the head. In Western art, men are conventionally 8 heads high, and women slightly smaller at 7.5 heads. In reality, even the Northern European models for this convention are usually closer to 7 heads, not to mention other human types whose proportions may be very different. Nevertheless, the 8-head model (shown on the right) is very useful for the beginners because it allows for easy-to-remember alignments: I recommend accepting these guidelines in the beginning; once you are thoroughly familiar with them you will naturally veer away from them to draw a variety of body types. What is really essential to a well-proportioned body is the way articulations are placed in respect to each other. (By well-proportioned I dont mean a models body but one that doesnt look misshaped.) The next step is to understand the differences between the male and female bodies. They are shown below along with some important points in common: 1. Chin 2. Nipples 3. Belly button and elbow 4. Crotch and wrists 5. Fingertips and mid-thigh 6. Bottom of knee caps 7. Bottom of calf muscles 8. Soles of feet

Woman

Both

Man Men are generally taller than women. Body made up of trapezoid, angular shapes

Body made up of oval, soft shapes. Elbows at waist level (but male waist tends to look lower) Fingertips at mid-thigh Shoulders narrower than hips (hip joints being outside the pelvis area). Legs taper inward from hips (more pronounced in women), then stagger out at knees, to taper in again.

Shoulders broader than hips (hip joints being inside the pelvis area).

III. PROPORTIONS OF THE FACE The skull is a more or less flattened sphere to which the jaw is appended: together they give the head and overall egg shape from any angle. An adult face is proportioned as follows:
The depth of the skull varies between these two lines (see Human Types)

Seen head-on, the face can be divided in quarters. The eyes are centered on top of these two middle points The lower half is divided in 5. Counting from the middle line, the nose is at 2/5th and the mouth at 3/5th

2/5th: Nose 3/5th: Mouth The neck makes the head jut forward, especially for women.

The distance between the eyes is equal to 1 eye. Wide-set eyes may make a face look infantile, and close-set eyes may inspire distrust, so be aware of what you do with this part of the face.

From the side the eye has an arrowhead shape.

The hairline varies between 2/4 and 3/4 The brow is at 1/4 of the upper half. The hollow of the root of the nose occurs at or slightly above the midline.

Indicating the lower lip is always a nice touch.

The face above is female. The adult male face follows the same construction, but it is broader, more angular, with a heavier neck:

Differences in the female and male face:

(In relative terms this applies throughout the world, but the basic face varies with type see Human Types p70.) Overall smaller than a mans head Curved brow

Eyebrows lower and thicker Brow juts out

Softer jaw line and chin More slender neck

Harder jawline Thicker neck 9

Mouth is wider with thinner lips Pronounced chin

Foreshortening the face As hinted by the diagrams above, the lines on which the features were placed run around the head, as does the line that divides the face in 2 vertically. As a matter of fact, the quickest way to give volume to your egg-shape, as well as to locate the face on it, is to draw the 2 centerlines, now following the heads contour, that cross in the center of the face (right). To draw the head in perspective, then, simply add the reference lines on the contour, bearing in mind that distances shorten with perspective. Then add the features in their respective places.

Looking down
The ear moves up Features curve up. The curve of the eyebrows is flattened

The nose oversteps the line, looking much closer to the mouth. If the perspective is strong enough it will overlap the lips.

In real life the mouth curves up, which looks like a smile on paper, so adjustment may be needed.

Looking up
Features curve down. The ear moves down Eyebrows gain more curve The upper lip shows more surface Throat line comes to the fore Jawline shows increasingly with the tilt of the head

Foreshortening from the side

At the extreme, only the jutting points of brow and cheekbone can be seen. Part of the eyebrow shows Lower eyelid juts out, but no eyeball yet Almost profile: the eyebrow seems to curve on itself eyeball appears, pupil may be hinted at A small part of the cheek still hides the nostril Lips appear, mouth slit very small Chin line joins throat 10

The ear seen from the back detaches itself from the head like a funnel.

The eyelash then comes into view

Nose becomes visible behind the curve of the cheek.

IV. EASY PROPORTION REMINDERS Here are a few diagrams that should help you remember proportions. I visualize them when drawing to place the joints and scale the limbs accurately. These 3 distances are the same: Shoulder to buttock Shoulder to birth of fingers Knee to buttock

Elbow to fingertips = Knee to heel

Heels never protrude beyond buttocks Proportion of hands and feet to the face: Sole and palm are half the faces width Notice how much smaller they are in women

Heres where the hand reaches when you try to touch your shoulder

Man Wrist to (inner) elbow measure when the arm is bent

Woman

In the diagram below, the measures are all equal to the length of the index

Wrist to elbow measure when the arm is stretched

ear height

hairline to eyebrows to nose tip to chin

pupil to pupil inner corner to outer corner 11

V. MUSCLE GUIDE
Understanding muscle structure is a great asset in building bodies. This section offers a guide to this structure thats very simplified, but sufficient for most drawing needs. The muscles or protruding bones are shown as areas of colors while the black outline shows you how that muscle would show on the surface of the body. For reference purposes I emphasize all the important muscles. But it is only in athletic bodies that they would show this much: the less muscular the character the less muscle strokes you should show, and the softer the outline of the skin should be as opposed to closely adhering to the muscles (which is what creates a toned look). Also remember females muscles are more graceful and less bulky than males. Shoulder line is not a straight horizontal line Neck is not a straight cylinder trapezius

A. Torso

sterno-mastoid clavicle bone deltoids pectorals

Neck tapers in

abdominals

latissimus dorsi gluteus

Trapezius creates a transition from neck to shoulders

Breasts To draw breasts, simply place the nipples a little outwards, just inside the body contour, then add the volume.

The breast shape starts at the armpit. It either bulges out from it or dips in a little first.

From the side, draw a circle that is centered on the line where the nipple falls. Half of it is outside the body.

You can see here the relationship between breast and biceps. The hollow of the armpit flows into the breast, though part of that line may be omitted. The bottom half of the circle corresponds to the bottom side of the breast. For the upper side, connect the nipple to the birth of the neck in a slight curve.
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Volume may show here.

B. Arms
With the arms we need to be aware of the way muscle behavior determines the position of the arm, so I offer different views. Note how the same muscles manifest differently in each.

Arm with hand flexed (inside)

Relaxed arm (outside)

deltoids biceps triceps

Note junction to torso flexor elbow peak pronator teres

It is this extensor that pulls the hand into a flexed position, therefore it bulges in this case while its antagonist, the flexor, is relaxed. If the wrist was bending the other way, the reverse would occur. Similarly, the biceps bulge when the arm bends (assuming there is resistance, for instance if the hand is holding something heavy), and the triceps bulge if the arm is making an effort to unbend. The arm doesnt hang straight down in resting position. Note the relationship to the line dropping from the back of the neck.

extensors

Bent arm (outside)

The forearm starts thick and tapers till halfway between elbow and hand, then its width is nearly even.

Note the alternation in the arms contour The hollow and Proportions of nipples form an equiperfect breasts, by lateral triangle where Western standards: the sides are around 20cm

Arm bends OUT when thumb is IN. Arm bends IN when thumb is OUT.

Only fake breasts show a break or bulging here! Nipples point forward and slightly out Breast projects 1 to 3 cm out of the thorax line 1/3 of the volume of the breast should be above the areola, 2/3 under it NATURAL The distance between breasts is 1 to 3 cm.

Ideal bust proportions are attained when the circumference at the nipples is 15 cm more than the circumference of the thorax under the breasts (for instance, 90 and 75 cm)

Areola diameter is 3.5 to 5cm

FAKE For cleavage to look this way, one needs either a special bra, or breasts shaped like balloons, in other words a badly done boob job.

This line is more likely to appear from 3/4 view

See Catalog of Human Features for breast shapes. 13

C. Legs

vastus rectus femoris sartorius

adductor semitendinosis

biceps rectus femori sartorius

patella The calf muscle is lower inside extensors tibialis anterior tibia extensors The ankle bone is higher inside Achilles tendon calves

patella

tibia

Front

Out

Back

In

Bent (in)

Bent (out)

No weight on this leg, so these muscles are relaxed

The biceps bulge to bend the leg If there is weight on the leg, these muscles bulge as well to prevent it from bending completely.. To flex the foot, the tibialis anterior bulges while the calf relaxes. To point the foot, the reverse happens When the leg is straight, the lower part is staggered backwards and outwards. Side
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Front

VI. THE BODY IN PROFILE Drawing a silhouette in profile starts with the usual skeletal structure, with additional details from this angle:
The shoulder joints are forward from the spine, not level with it, because the line of the shoulders is in reality an arc. Top view: shoulder joint The spine has a curved shape like a flat S. How strong this curve is varies with the individual. It peaks backward between the shoulder blades, from where it juts forward to form the neck. The ribcage and hip bone are set, but the way you choose to attach them together (basically by adding flesh) individualizes the character.

top of spine The bodys centre of gravity is right below the belly button, inside the body. The body is most balanced and rooted when this point is on the line of balance (see Balance box below.) The hip joint-knee-ankle line is angled slightly backwards, so that the knees are aligned with the centre of gravity, the hip is forward, and the ankle is back. Overall the effect is of a head-hip-feet arc (that is, when the posture is erect. Nowadays many people slouch.)

There is an opposite peak, inward, a little above the hip bone, before the coccyx heads out again, creating the arch in the lower back and flowing into the curve of the buttocks. Womens spines tend to be more arched, and more flexible, than mens. In reasonably slim bodies, womens stomachs tend to a gentle curve while mens tend to flatness. Similarly, womens bottoms are rounded while mens are not.

Balance To make sure a body is balanced, picture a vertical line shooting up from the centre of its support. On two legs that will be the midpoint between the feet; on one foot, the centre of the foot. If a hand is on the ground its the center of the feet-hand triangle, and so on. The body must be positioned in a balanced way around this line: Note: this isnt an exact science because muscles play a role in opposing gravityinduced imbalance. Also, this doesnt apply to motion, because imbalance is the motor of the motion (running is nothing more than falling forward while pumping your legs to use that vector). Its important to learn to evaluate what looks right, more than what is right.

NO

yes

NO

yes

briefly

These will work for a moment. The centre of gravity pulls the body, so it either has to be brought back in line or the body must step back or forward to move the line itself. 15

VI. THE HAND Of all things, the hand is by many considered to be the hardest to draw and yet its also the thing for which we carry a visual reference at all times, right at the end of our arms. By all means use this reference; a small mirror propped on your desk will allow you to see it from awkward angles.
I use the following abbreviations for the fingers: Th = thumb FF = forefinger MF = middle finger RF = ring finger LF = little finger

Heres a quick look at the bone structure of the hand. In blue, the 8 carpal bones, in purple, the 5 metacarpal bones, and in pink, the 14 phalanges.

As many of these bones cannot move at all, we can simplify the basic structure of the hand:

Note that the actual base of the fingers is much lower than the apparent base formed by flaps of skin. This will be important to draw bending fingers as we will see later.

Based on this, a simple way of drawing the hand is to start with the basic form of the palm, then attach the fingers :

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If you have a hard time drawing fingers, its very helpful to think of them, and draw them, as stacks of 3 cylinders: Cylinders are easy to draw under any angle, taking away much of the headache of drawing fingers in perspective.

PROPORTIONS (Taking the length of FF as base unit)

Maximum Th-FF opening = 1.5 to 1.8

Maximum opening between FF and RF = 1. MF can move closer to either without affecting the total distance.

Maximum RFLF opening= 1

Maximum angle between Th and LF is 90, taken from the very base of the Ths articulation: the fully extended LF is aligned with it.

The bases of the cylinders become the joint folds.

The fingernail starts halfway up the top joint.

Fingernails are not flat, but shaped much like roof tiles, with a curvature ranging from extreme to very slight.

The point where fingernail detaches from flesh varies: some people have it all the way at the edge of the finger, others very low, so their fingernails are wider than they are long.

Joints fall onto concentric arches. Joints are NOT aligned on straight lines.

Fingers are NOT straight. (although they look straight in some of the following diagrams for the sake of simplicity.)
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Fingers bend slighty towards the space between MF and RF. Showing this even subtly gives life to a drawing.

Details of the hand

Fingers are NOT straight (although they look straight in some of the following diagrams for the sake of simplicity.) The line of the wrist separates the thumb from the fingers.

The FF or RF as sometimes almost as long as the MF.

The joint folds are arranged elliptically on the back, and like parallel lines on the inside. They are more pronounced at the lower joint. From the back, the lines of the fingers extend down to the limit of the palm the fingers look longer. From the inside, the lines are shorter because the top of the palm is padded the fingers look shorter.

Drag lines on both sides all fall away from the MF.

Also elliptical, but when the hand is flat they are not pronounced.

tendon line

Back

Palm
These lines wrap halfway around the fingers. They are accentuated as the finger bends.

The most visible lines are where the skin folds when the palm is cupped.

There is a small bump here on the extended finger due to skin bunching up.

NOT to be confused with the contour of the thumb, which becomes visible under certain angles:

From the side, the padding at the base of each finger appears as a series of curved, parallel bulges.

When seen from the outer side, the palms shows another new contour line. It starts at the wrist and, as the hand turns more, joins up with the LF line, until it covers up the Th base.

Wrist line curves into palm base

The RFs last joint is fully exposed

A little or none of the MF can be visible depending on the FFs length

Out
The bottom of the hand looks flatter from the outside, although the thumb base may still be visible

In
Wrist line is covered by thumb base

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Range of motion Thumb

The natural relaxed position leaves a space between the Th and the rest of the hand. Th can fold in as far as touching the root of LF, but this requires much tension and quickly becomes painful.

Range of movement on the back-forth axis

Th can extend as far as the width of the palm, but this also gets painful.
Centre of movement

Fingers When the hand closes into a fist so that the fingers bend together, the whole of the hand maintains a cupped shape, as if it was placed against a large ball. Its just that the ball gets smaller and the curvature stronger:
The 2nd joint is the first to bend Biggest fold

Unless its pressed against a flat surface, the hand is never flat, always slightly convex or concave. When the fist is closed, the 1st and 3rd fold meet The 2nd fold becomes an extension of the finger Part of the finger is covered by the flap of skin and the thumb Same cross phenomenon The thumb bends so that the last section is foreshortened.

Th can remain independent of this movement and is just shown for reference. When the hand is fully extended the fingers are either straight or bend slightly backwards, depending on flexibility.

Inner side of the fist Knuckles fall away from the MFs knuckle, so that from this angle the parallel fingers are visible from the outer side, not from the inner side.

Outer side of the fist

When the hand makes a fist, the knuckles protrude The skin fold here sticks out. Some peoples fingers can bend back 90 (if pressure is applied against the fingers).

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Additional details
When the hand is relaxed, the fingers curl slightly more so when the hand is pointing up and gravity helps. In both cases, the FF remains straightest and the rest fall away gradually, with the LF being the most bent. The ever-present arcs LF frequently runs away from the other fingers another way of making hands look more natural.

The gradation in the fingers makes the outer 2 or 3 peek out between FF and Th.

Since the fingers are not the same length, they always present a gradation. When grasping something, the MF wraps the most visibly around the object while the LF barely shows.
When holding a pen or the like, MF, RF and LF curl back towards the palm if the object is held only between Th and FF. If more pressure is applied, MF participates and straightens up as it presses against the object. Full pressure results in all the fingers pointing away as shown here.

Often the FF and MF or MF and RF will pair up, sticking together while the other 2 remain loose. This makes the hand look more lively. RF-LF pairings also occur, when the fingers are loosely bent.

Forced

The hand and wrist are remarkably articulated, each finger almost having a life of its own, which is why hands tend to stump the beginning illustrator. Yet when the hand starts to make sense, we tend to fall into the opposite trap, which is to draw hands too rationally fingers carefully taking their places, parallel lines, careful alignments. The result is stiff and simply too tame for a part of the body that can speak as expressively as the eyes. It can work for certain types of characters (such as those whose personality shows stiffness or insensitivity) but more often than not, youll want to draw lively, expressive hands. For this you can go one of two ways: add attitude (i.e. add drama to the gesture, resulting in a dynamic hand position that would probably never be used in real life) or add natural-ness (observe the hands of people who arent thinking about them to see the casualness Im referring to). I cant possibly show every hand position there is, but I give below two examples of constrained vs. natural/dynamic hand:

Forced

Natural

Stiff

Natural

But note in this case trained fighters will always hold their fingers parallel while punching to protect their knuckles. 20

Dramatic

Hand shapes (= Proportions of fingers to hand)

Square palm, short fingers

Square palm, long fingers

Long palm, short fingers

Long palm, long fingers

Finger shapes

Regular

Thin

Thick

Tapering Squared styling

Square Rounded styling

Spatulate Almondshaped styling

Bony Short styling

Fingernail shapes

The half-moon shape is not necessarily present. Square nail base Round nail base
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Spatulate

VII. THE FOOT As with the hand, dont hesitate to take off your shoes and use your own feet as references, when possible! Lets look briefly at the structure of the foot: The tarsals or ankle bones in blue, the metatarse or instep bones in purple, and the phalanges or toes in pink. Very little of the foot can move, so we can simplify it:
Although the first joint of the toes is here, flesh covers the foot up to this line, which is why they appear so short, especially added to the fact they do not rest straight, as we will see.

The bones of the foot are arranged to form 3 arches that give it the strength to support our bodies. The first two shape the bottom of the foot and the third the upper part. Squeeze the sides of your foot and note how rigid they are: the bottom of the foot is not soft and does not deform under pressure. This means that no matter the position of the foot, the indentations of the arches will always show in an adult foot.
The blue part is what touches the ground and leaves a print.

The lateral longitudinal arch is the small one outside the foot. It shows as a slight indentation from the heel, both below and outside the foot.

The outer contour is not a flat line except in flat feet. The line from heel to ball is not a smooth curve.

ankle heel arch

The medial longitudinal arch is the large one inside the foot. Its a very noticeable indentation. The part of the sole thats behind it is lost in shadow in any case when the foot is on the ground, but since we usually see feet from above and not from the ground level, the result is this:

The transverse arch shapes the top of the foot.

Transverse high arch cut:

low arch (flat foot)

Big toe: Parallel to the ground.

Note the direction of the toes:

Other toes: Bend towards the ground. 22

Toes are NOT all flat on the ground.

Big toe does NOT bend down.

A simple way to draw feet is to begin by drawing the sole of the foot. No toes, no arches, just the basic shape. Its shaped like a long egg, flattened on one side.

The advantage of this is that this flat shape is simple enough to be drawn in perspective and under different angles. Anatomical accuracy is not a requirement at this point, were giving ourselves a guideline to build on.
Still have trouble? Draw it on a sheet of paper and place that as needed for a quick live reference.

The next step is to make a small adjustment to the shape, making it asymmetrical to get closer to the foots natural shape. If youre comfortable doing so, you can start directly with this step. Now to give it dimension. As you can see, its a rounded and pretty flattened pyramid, whose apex is near the heel: the circle, representing the ankle, where the leg joins with the foot. The contour lines (dashed) are to help you see the contour. Only the black outline is needed for the drawing. Finally, add the toes. If needed, sketch a guideline to define their general shape (see shapes further down) before drawing them individually. They are pressed together so from almost all angles, they overlap. Finalize by carving out the arches and adding the ankle bone and Achilles tendon.
The little toe is positioned between 1/4 and 1/3 of the total foot length.

The height reserved here is for the toes.

As an alternative to the above, you can also draw the foot as a wedge, and then add the toes and carve out the final form.

Adding the toes separately means you can make them bent or curled independently from the base sketch. Here curled.

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Additional details Several details from the hand apply to the foot as well:
The toes look longer on top of the foot than they do underneath it. The toenails start halfway up the top joint. As toe joints are so short, toenails are wider than they are long.

Note also how much larger the big toe is, twice the size of the second toe, so that its first joint is within the foot and can barely move.

Theres always a bump here thats more or less pronounced.

At least 2 toes show behind big toe, depending on p.o.v.

Out
This line travels up as the foot turns out.

higher ankle

In
bigger arch Again, line traveling as foot turns in.

These tendon lines may or may not show, depending. Tension makes them pop out, and they can be permanently visible in male or elderly feet. You have to judge for yourself whether they serve your purpose or not.

Only a ground-level view hides the small toes completely. A babys foot is so padded it looks bloated, without padding lines.

round toes

Big toe joint starts protruding

Padding line Here is the foot seen frontally when its perfectly level, such as from ground level. From this angle the toes look like peas in a pod simply draw them as balls before connecting them to the forefoot. What looks like a 6th toe is the padding outside the foot. Toes lifted: the padding of the forefoot appears.

Usually however, our frontal view of feet (that are on the ground) is from a higher point of view.

From front and below, the ball of each toe shows clearly. Padding line is horizontal from this angle Big toe and second toe usually separated by a space. Using our method above to build the shape before adding toes makes even this complex angle easy to work with.

The big toe looks oval rather than round. Lift a bit more, and the inner line of the padding appears, cutting the foot in two by running towards the ankle.

24

This foot is relaxed. Even though the toes bend a little, there is no real weight on them. Here, most of the weight is on the toes. The pressure makes this joint stick out. See whats happening below:
ground Such a position is only possible when pressing against a surface.

Bend marks appear in these hollows. As for the big toe, it goes even flatter.

When not pressed against a surface, the range of mobility of the toes is limited to the following 2 extremes (with, literally, wiggling room in-between.)

Curled

Splayed
Space appears. Note the small toes remain curved down, they cant curve up.

Tendons appear The first joint can completely hide under the foot. Except for the big toe, which is stuck at around 90.

Attaching the foot to the leg:

Roughly speaking, the front side of the leg falls vertically into the foot. The back side slopes in, but the heel protrudes out again.

Splaying the toes makes them point in different directions. Seen frontally, the inner side is vertical while the outer side slopes in. On both sides the line juts out with the 2 ankle bones. The inside bone is higher than the outside one. Outside ankle tucked behind this line.

Transition plane between leg and foot. Look for it in all the diagrams above. Note that the inward slope of the back/outer sides is connected to the calf muscle. The less muscular the calf, the straighter this line. Inversely, excess fat will cause the lines to bulge in a sausage effect.

The thinnest part of the leg, both from the side and from the front, is a little above the ankle bone.

The Achilles tendon runs up from the heel into the leg.

The relaxed foot forms an angle with the leg.

A continuous line runs down the leg to the toes when the foot is fully extended.

Some people can point the foot until it bends further than the line, but this isnt common.

skin folds!

25

Mens vs. Womens feet Womens feet are not a smaller version of mens, but have a slightly different structure.

Man

Big toe is shallower (more discreet) This inside line is more curved. Higher arch

Woman

Shoes vs. barefoot

Foot is smaller for a given body height.

This outside length is shorter.

In cultures where closed shoes are worn most of the time (all Western cultures, for one thing), the feet are narrower and the toes squeezed together. The big toe tends to point inward and the little toe can be permanently curled up under its neighbor.

Arch types (Show most in the foots imprint)

Normal Flat/low arch/pronator High arch/supinator Both arches No arches, all of Only a narrow band visible the sole touches the connects the heel and ground. the ball of the foot

Foot shapes (Created by toe arrangement)

Wide: Less contrast between the widest part of the foor and its tip.

Egyptian Greek Square Big toe is longest Second toe is longest Toes have even lengths

In parts of the world where people go barefoot or wear thongs (Africa, a great deal of Asia and South America), the foot is broader and flatter and the toes splay for a better hold on the ground. The big toe points straight, even slightly out, and there is space between the toes. As they are not squeezed, they are rounder and broader. (Shown a bit extreme here.)

Narrow or tapering: More contrast between the widest part of the foot and its tip (due to the last 2 toes receding too much).
26

FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility is not just about leg splits. It is the ability to stretch a joint to the limit of its range of movement, and a key element in drawing the human body in motion. This guide describes the normal range of flexibility for the different joints in the body. This means the average human being can, through flexibility training, reach the full potential shown here. People who dont train specifically will not, as a rule, be able to reach it. Either way, this is the limit. (In art, especially action comics, nobody is going to mind a little exaggeration, so this may not matter so much. Its still good to be aware of how the body actually works, to know where and how you can exaggerate and where it would look really wrong.) Important notes: - Double-jointed people, contortionists and anyone whos undergone intensive flexibility training from a young age are considered exceptions and this guide wont attempt to take them into account. - All things being equal, women are more flexible than men (and men have more muscle power than women). - Flexibility in one joint does not by any means imply flexibility in others. - More muscles means less flexibility. Bodybuilders have the most limited range of movement for all the joints, first because they dont stretch, second because the bulging muscles get in the way (remember Zangief in Street Fighter II?) Only athletes and performers who follow power workouts as well as stretching routines (Wushu athletes, gymnasts) can have both muscle strength and flexibility, and their muscles are fine and sinewy, not bulging at all (think Bruce Lee.) - The reverse is also true: More flexibility means less muscle, and those muscles are often very fragile because they are stretched so thin. Yoga practitioners for instance tend to pay for their contortionist abilities by being extra vulnerable to muscle tear. Muscle power is actually essential for certain types of flexibility, as I will explain below. Flexibility is a complex business, and I dont want to go into more details than necessary. I will simply differentiate it into 3 kinds: passive, active and dynamic. (Athletes will immediately notice I am simplifying the material. I readily admit I am adapting the material to artistic purposes and this should NOT be used as a reference for physical activity. I am not responsible for any injury that may derive from using this for purposes other than an illustration reference.) Active flexibility is how much you can stretch unaided, by stretching the joint and freezing in the position. Raising your leg as high as you can (without kicking it) is one example. This is much more difficult and this range is always inferior to the passive range, because the resistance of the elongating muscles must be overcome by the strength of the set of muscles opposite them (the antagonists). Doing this doesnt mean you can do this !

Passive flexibility is how much you can stretch when aided (either by the weight of your body, for instance when splitting on the ground, or by a partner or machine pulling the body part in question). There is no muscle work in this case, and the extent of the stretch is determined by how much the mucles involved can elongate.

Dynamic flexibility is how much you can stretch by forcing the stretch using momentum, for instance swinging the leg. Doing so pushes it beyond what you could do either passively or actively, but only for a split second. This is what happens during fights or actions sequences because of the speed of the movements, so its quite appropriate to show extreme stretching in characters captured at the peak of the swing. In real life however, this can be used to gain more range at high risks of tearing a muscle (definitely do not try this at home.)
27

These are the joints we will discuss here: Neck Shoulders Elbows Lumbar spine Hips Wrists

I. THE NECK
The neck corresponds to the last 7 vertebrae in the spine (the cervicals). They are like stacked cylinders separated by a cushion, so their range of movement is limited.

70-90

Flexion The chin can touch the sternum. This creates a double chin and unsightly skin folds.

Knees

55

Extension The neck- and jaw lines merge into a single curve.

Ankles

35

The neck doesnt show a bend.

Lateral bending The ear cannot touch the shoulder unless the shoulder is raised.

WRONG!
Neck bent

Head too bent

The top vertebra joins the head at the level of the nose, so if you bend the head from there, the nose appears to be the centre of rotation and remains on the vertical (the line of the spine). The diagram above shows bending at the lower neck, and how much this can move the head sideways.

Head too far from vertical

70

Rotation To look further back, the upper body has to rotate as well.
28

Head only

Head + upper body

II. THE LUMBAR SPINE (lower back)

This articulation is made up of the 5 vertebrae that emerge from the pelvic bone. Its range of movement is quite limited but because we never, in natural movements, use it on its own, it often looks as if it allowed considerable motion. The diagram below clarifies this: in all 4, the lumbar bending is exactly the same. Extension
75 30 35

Flexion Note that the pelvic or hip bone doesnt tilt

Contortionists can hyperextend this

Lateral bending

Lumbar

Lumbar + spine

Lumbar +hips

Lumbar +hips + spine

In daily life we have no reason to bend solely from the lumbars. For the composite stretches that are more likely to occur, see section X.

III. THE SHOULDER JOINT

Of all the joints, this one has the biggest range thanks to its socket articulation but that also means it can pop out of place if pushed to the limits.

130

180

Horizontal flexion (The arm is swung horizontally) Adduction

45 45

Abduction The arm is brought up sideways)

Horizontal extension

The shoulder joint allows the arm to rotate 360 continuously

It takes some flexibility to connect the fingers behind ones back.

180 60 It is because the shoulder joint is stretched to its limit and would dislocate if it tried to counter the pressure that this lock is so efficient. 29

Vertical flexion

Vertical extension

IV. THE ELBOW

Extension Some peoples elbows overextend: Although not that uncommon, it looks awkward on paper, so avoid it.

180

150

Flexion This movement is impeded by muscle mass. This should be emphasized when drawing muscular characters, to give the muscles bulk; if not taken into account it will on the contrary make them look insubstantial and wrong.

From this position: 180 90 Supination Turning out Pronation Turning in

V. THE WRIST
20 30-50

70

80-90

Extension

Flexion

Radial deviation

Ulnar deviation

Fingers can be quite flexible as well and be bended back up to 90 but not without help.

Unaided they can bend back just a bit all together, but it requires much tension. Occasionally using this in illustration gives the hand life and fluidity. 30

They can also bend back individually, but if the rest of the hand is relaxed the neighbouring fingers will always be pulled up slightly by the lifted one.

VI. THE HIP JOINT

The hip is the key to leg splits, and, of course, to all kicks so essential to martial arts.

(only possible dynamically)

athletes active reach

110-130 Flexion

When the knee is straight, it is much more difficult to raise and hold the leg above waist level. Achieving the full angle this way (through the sole power of the leg muscles) is near impossible even for specially trained athletes, though I know of a single jaw-dropping case. A flexed foot makes it even more difficult. Special training, such as seen in Chinese martial arts, is necessary to achieve it even dynamically, though this training can lead to touching the forehead with the toes while kicking. A ballerina, for instance, would not be able to achieve the flexed foot stretch without injuring herself.

Extension Turning the toes outward (as opposed to keeping them forward as shown here) allows a few more degrees and makes it easier to keep the knee straight during the movement.

At this point the leg has to go behind the shoulder. 170

30

45-50

Toes forward

Abduction Turning the toes outward permits a considerably bigger range than pointing them forward. This is due to the positioning of the joint in each case: 31

Toes outward

WRONG! This (middle split with toes pointing forward) is anatomically impossible! See hip joints at right...

blocked!

Hip joint

Abduction, toes forward

Abduction, toes outward Lumbar extension: the pelvic bone is tilted forward and the feet are parallel to it. Basically its the correct split + lumbar stretching.

RIGHT! A middle split should have the toes pointing up.

If you ever see a picture of someone who seems to be doing this, what is really happening is this:

40

45

LEG

Adduction

20-30

Internal rotation

External rotation

VII. THE KNEE

Extension Exaggerated silhouettes are due to the thigh and calf muscles making it look like the knee is hyperextended.

130

Flexion Just like in the case of the elbow, muscles can impede the flexion. Someone with muscular legs wont be able to sit on the heels this way. More muscles means sitting on the calves, the buttocks away from the heels.

15 Internal rotation This reaches a greater degree when the hip joint also rotates in. 10 32

VIII. THE ANKLE

45
From the outside the top of the foot can look aligned with the tibia, as seen on p23

Flexion Extension 20 The flexion can be given more range by turning the foot out, which also provides a stronger footing than attempting to keep it aligned with the tibia. 30 Pronation Sole faces in 20 Supination Sole faces out

IX. THE UPPER BODY (thoracic spine)

Not listed among the joints and not included in most flexibility trainings, this part of the spine has very limited movement. Usage of it will make a character look particularly fluid (think Spiderman), but make sure not to go too far because here its very easy to end up with someone that looks like his back is broken.

Extension Flexion Vertebra at base of neck juts out Individual vertebrae can be seen under the skin as spine presses against it Sternum juts out, giving a strutting look Space between shoulder blades sinks Back shows a furrow as spine recedes.

Sternum sinks

The spine in normal state has an S shape.

33

Rotation Rotating the upper body means keeping the hips fixed and rotating only the rib cage left and right. Only a small movement is possible this way, much smaller than if you allowed your hips to help. This ability is cultivated, for instance, in Taijiquan and belly dancing.

WRONG!

30-40

Note how the central line twists

The head can of course still turn further, but within the necks limits, so it can just reach 90 now.

OUCH!! The spine cant bend this way!

RIGHT! A number of joints extend:

Neck Upper body Lumbars Hip joint

X. COMPOSITE STRETCHES
Now that we understand how the individual joints stretch, lets examine some actions that require several stretches together. The red arrows indicate the joints where stretching occurs. Note: The more joints are stretched on the same body part (torso, leg or arm) the harder it is for each joint to stretch to its full potential. Side kick A side kick is not truly given sideways: the position of the legs are not a middle split, or even a hip abduction, but almost a frontal split (martial arts version:)
WRONG!
Broken body-leg line Continuous body-leg line

RIGHT! Back arches

RIGHT! All the joints involved have laterally limited range, and the body has to compensate by leaning sideways, risking a loss of balance. The pure side kick is used for low kicks, no stretching involved.

The correct side kick position is closest to the frontal split, meaning the kick is actually directed backwards but as the upper body twists to monitor it, it looks lateral.

34

Side kick There are two ways of splitting the legs frontally:

Flexing the toes would add a stretch on the calf, which would be a superfluous extra effort.

Knee down

Sole up

(upper thigh)

This is the classic way, and the more difficult one, because the position of the knee demans more flexibility from the thigh-hip junction in the rear leg in order to sit completely on the ground. Martial artists, however, split this way:

Flexing the toes is done precisely to stretch the calf in some martial arts (e.g. Wushu)

Knee out

Toes point out

(inner thigh)

Not because its easier, but because from this position its possible to jump into a standing position:

The rear leg is slightly bent to press the knee on the floor.

Using the rear knee and front heel to push the floor, the athlete springs up high enough to pull the legs together and stand.

Attempting this from the first splitting position would injure the knee and/or upper thigh tendons as would attempting it without the necessary muscular power (i.e. people like ballerinas and yogists would not be able to perform this move.)

35

Bridge A good bridge, where the feet and hands are distant by one forearm, requires almost all the joints to be extended:

Heels push the ground so that weight is mostly on the hand its the only way to stretch the hip/ lumbar areas enough by pushing the waist up.

Elbows remain fully extended, or locked.

Gymnasts who can take a bridge from a standing position extend each joint in turn:

Shoulders and elbows

Upper body and neck

Lumbars (knees start bending as weight shifts forward to keep the balance)

Hip joint

A good bridge is the key to skipping up, as the body relies on that position (and strong abs) to regain its footing:

Preparing jump by pulling the (straight) legs towards the body.

Throwing the legs, waist pushed as high as possible (creating a bridge in mid-air) 36

Abs take over to straighten the upper body the moment the feet land (otherwise one falls on ones butt.)

Hanging limp This is assuming the entire length of the back is supported, otherwise the weight of the body would make it slide to the ground.
This angle depends on the hip flexibility.

The arm rolls down into the easiest position, where there is no tension on the shoulder: straight down, palm facing back.

From the knee down, the leg swings freely and the ankle will look for the lowest point it can hang (pure gravity) Loose fingers curl slightly The loose foot does not have pointed toes, it merely tilts slightly at the ankle.

If the upper body leans more towards the ground, the arms may be stuck in one of two positions:

Palms up, elbows locked because of the angle. At the slightest shift the arms will roll into a less precarious position.

Palms in, from the elbow up the forearm swings freely and the wrist looks for the lowest point.

These few postures are far from constituting a complete survey, but hopefully by now you understand enough about flexibility to figure out any move on your own!
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EMOTIONS AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

I. GENERAL
To anyone whose illustration work includes characters, facial expressions are like this computer monitor: if it doesnt work right, then all the brilliant engineering that went into building the hard drive is wasted. The human face ranks at the very top of the hierarchy of things the eye is immediately drawn to, so that if a face is visible in a composition, its expression is what well see first. That and the fact theres no point in drawing a face if we cant make it show anything are two good reasons why we should really work on this particular skill. A facial expression that looks alive can make up for (slight) mistakes in proportions (partially because it will keep the eye from wandering away from the face!), but not the reverse. In drawing facial expressions one has to deal with the dichotomy of reality versus representation. Just like theatre actors have to support their acting with more gesticulation and theatrical speech than usual because the stage makes regular facial expressions hard to see, so do we have to bypass what a sad face would look like and aim for how one would recognise a face as being sad. This is because an illustration has to make up for the loss of other clues we have, in real life, to decipher someones mood, many of which we perceive unconsciously. In real life, we just know, but in a drawing, we depend entirely on what the illustrator put or did not put there to figure out what the character is feeling. In this tutorial I discuss the parts of the face and body that change to express emotion, then go on to show how a wide range of facial expressions is achieved. I tried to include many emotions that are complex yet often used, but by no means does this represent the full range of what a face can express. The diagram works much like a color wheel: any two colors can be mixed, but when there are too many of them or they are too contrasting, the result is an indefinable greyish hue. Similarly, we can feel many emotions at the same time, but the more numerous and/or contradictory they are, the more the face takes on an ambiguous mask as if they cancelled each other out. There is no recipe to successfully achieve this, just one big rule of thumb: how well you express an emotion in drawing is proportional to how well you are able to stimulate that emotion in yourself, in other words to feel it as you draw and be aware of how you react to it exactly as a convincing actor does. Ill also add that the classification of the emotions found here, as well as their labeling, are not rules that are cast in stone. To use the color wheel simile again, you can classify the primary colors (magenta, cyan, yellow), but the moment you start mixing them, there are no more lines, only gradations between them. I arranged them for the sake of convenience, in a way that made sense to me, but I can think of other ways of doing it. As for the labels, they are best understood in context, as relative values, because different people will not only express emotions differently, theyll also interpret them differently depending on experience and culture. The emotion I label as angry may look furious to you, or maybe your character is so stoic that his anger would only look upset on my diagram. Thats fine. The important thing is that angry is stronger than upset and weaker than furious. Use your own sensitivity to make the necessary adjustments in your mind. Heres a useful fact though: Studies indicate that the facial expressions of happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, and interest are universal across cultures. One last note: My aim in writing this is expressing emotion with the fewest lines possible. I strip a face from all details until all that remains is the facial expression and nothing else. But the more realistic a portrait, the less details would be stripped from the face. Inversely, you can simplify these even more. The important thing is: the amount of detail put into an expression must be proportional to the complexity of the style used.
38

Lets have a look at the individual features of the face and how they can show what we feel:

II. EYES
Much can be done with the eyes alone. The interplay of eyelid, iris position and pupil size creates subtle but immediately perceptible differences in expression, as the eyes are the main point of focus in a face. They dominate the whole expression, so make sure you have the eyes right before focusing on the rest. In the emotions tree I use my own terms to describe the state of the eye [opening], pupil and sometimes the iris. They are defined in the figure below: Sleepy eye: partially covered by eyelid. Relaxed eye: regular opening, eyelid marked. Alert eye: regular opening, eyelid omitted Wide eye: big rounded opening

Half-covered pupil and iris: only a semicircle can be seen

Tangent pupil: just touches the top edge.

Free pupil: touches neither edge.

By alert I mean the eyes in their natural state when we are active. They dont have to be more open than relaxed eyes, but the eyelids should not be drawn because they give a non-alert clue to the viewer (unless working in a style so detailed the eyelids would not particularly stand out). The iris also has 3 sizes: regular,
This does not happen with an alert or wide eye.

dilated,

contracted.

This does not happen with a relaxed or sleepy eye.

Note: Light eyes always look wider than dark eyes, and inversely, dark eyes always look more relaxed than light eyes. Adjustment of the 3 factors one way or the other is always necessary to make them look right. Because I need to show the pupil, my diagrams all have light eyes.

III. EYEBROWS
Eyebrows are very subtle. I find that the least change brought to the eyebrows can change the expression Im drawing. For our purposes we can divide the eyebrow into two parts that can move semi-independently: the head and the curve. I say semi- because the one always ends up pulling the other a bit. They can both be at rest, raised or At rest Raised Lowered lowered, and the combination of Head (frown) these two contractions achieve Curve expression as shown in this table:
Note that there are besides various degrees of intensity for each contraction, which also affect the overall shape (and create furrows above the nose and on the forehead), so we end up with many very subtle variations that cant really be rationalized. Use instinct and observation skills. The Emotion Graph shows a good range of examples.

At rest Raised Lowered

39

IV. LIPS & MOUTH

The mouth area is second only to the eye area for expression. While Ill leave the details of lip positions to the Emotion Graph, a note on mouth shapes. The curve of each lip makes a meaningful difference:
Both lips curve up: grin, generic happy (open) mouth shape Upper lip curves down, lower curves up, but this time the upper part is larger: jaw drop. All is slack. Lips look like they want to join in the middle: caused by the corners, which are lifted into a snarl: this is the angry open mouth.

Upper lip curves down, lower curves up: extra happy the mouth is more open than usual, perhaps to shout.

Both lips curve down: dismay, fear (the corners are relaxed but the lower lip pushes up in anguish).

Again, see details in the Graph, because there are additional expressive features, such a dimples, teeth showing, etc.

V. NOSE
The nose isnt the most expressive feature, but it does flare under certain emotions (anger, crying, disgust, arousal) and even wrinkles at the base during extreme anger and disgust.

VI. HANDS
Our hands also speak. Well-known but worth reminding (and using): - Anger: hands ball into fists, ready to attack. - Fear: hands clutching something hard, making tendons stand out. - Start: Fingers splayed wide for a split second. Note also:

Palm-up gesture: A non aggressive, congenial speaking gesture appealing to the listener as an ally. Also extends to humility, uncertainty, begging and general vulnerability.

Palm-down gesture: An aggressive or at least dominant speaking gesture asserting authority over the listener. Often accompanies angry speech. At its least aggressive it expresses confidence in ones words.

40

VI. BODY POSTURE

We rarely express our feelings through our face alone: the whole body is the seat of unconscious gestures. Using them will make your characters look less stiff and much more natural. Here are some common and conspicuous ones illustrators are sure to use: Hand on hips (akimbo):

Palms on the hips, elbows bowed outward: - Classic sign of confidence - Shows the body is ready to step into action, get to work - Enlarges the upper body, making one look more powerful and threatening in a confrontation (or when grounding kids) - When the thumbs are forward, the posture is more feminine and signals uncertainty rather than aggressiveness (it is sometimes adopted by gay men, leading other men to avoid it) - Also means Keep away from me, Im feeling anti-social.

In Malaysia and the Philippines, standing akimbo is a sign of anger and seething rage. African-American females use it to show anger, disgust, and disagreement.

Arm-cross: - Classic defensive stance - Disagreement, closing oneself to input, arrogance, dislike. Women dont use it around men they like. - Self-comforting posture used to alleviate anxiety and social stress. - Arms and elbows pulled tightly into the body: acute nervousness. Touching oneself:
In Japan an embarrassed or apologetic person will sometimes scratch the back of his or her head, raising the elbow high in the process.

We unconsciously touch our bodies to comfort or release stress. Perplexity, disagreement, frustration, uncertainty manifest in the fingers touching the lips, hand scratching the head, holding the neck, grabbing an earlobe, rubbing the cheek, massaging the other hand, etc. Self manipulations increase with stress and disapproval It is particularly effective to show repressed anger through these cues, as they are often a way of displacing the aggressiveness. In young children the hand behind the head can express jealousy.

VIII. CLOTHING
This is largely off topic, but I wanted to say a few words about it. Its true that in real life clothing does not always reflect your mood (you cant predict, when you get dressed in the morning, that youre going to get surprised/angry/amused today) but it can and does show long-term emotions: when youre depressed, you wear whatevers convenient and dont bother to look nice or groomed; when youre worried, your clothes can show untidiness due to distraction or rush; exhaustion shows in your hair, stubble (for men) and disarrayed dress; happiness/seduction in flattering clothes and for girls, accessories, make-up and carefully done hair... Shyness is expressed in nondescript clothing while confidence shows in bold prints or funky outfits. In illustration, clothing is once again the subject of exaggeration, especially for single-frame scenes (as opposed to comics where the clothes first and foremost need to make sense in the sequence). If youre representing a gloomy scene, dont dress the weeping character in pink. Whenever it makes sense, let dress support the desired mood.
41

IX. THE EMOTION GRAPH

BLANK The face has no expression but is not slack. In reality a blank face is not necessarily neutral or expressionless, due to the shape of the individual facial features.

Eyebrows neutral Eyes alert but can be relaxed for a blank and unfocused look Pupil tangent Lips closed and neutral, but some people have a naturally downturned mouth so their blank face looks angry.

The lower eyelids dont contract, creating no crows-feet at the corners of the eyes. In some cultures such as in SouthEast Asia, such a smile can signal embarrassment or even polite refusal. Japanese learn to mask negative facial expressions with smiles, and to display less facial expressions overall.

HOPEFUL Todays hardship and tomorrows better days reflected together.

Sad eyebrows: poor me

Eyes look up as if to imagine the future or plead for it

LE E IL MI SSM

SMILE The smile known as polite, intentional, weak or false, is betrayed by two signs: Not to be confused with a slight but genuine smile, such as the one in peaceful!

The lip corners stretch to the side instead of curling up.

REAL SMILE A heartfelt (also known as zygomatic) smile is a reflex that cannot be faked. The lower eyelids contract, crinkling the eyes, often creating crows-feet lines

Slight smile

The corners of the mouth curve upward

42

EXCITED This emotion wants to come out, so the features, though still contracted, open up. Eyes wide but you can still see the contraction of the lower lid

ECSTATIC The dam has burst and the face freely pours forth joy and excitement.

Eyebrows round and high Eyebrows lifted

Rounded eyes; iris can be free

Huge grin

The grinning mouth opens its hard to keep quiet in this state

GRIN A Real smile that has picked up so much intensity the lips are forced to part and reveal teeth. Eyes are the same or more crinkled SEDUCTIVE This varies with the personality, but this is an example combining some constants. Corners more evident, pointing to nose wings This triangular flash of teeth is a powerful happy signal. Head tilted forward as if bowing, a submissive cue showing approachability Sexual attraction dilates the pupils and tints the cheeks red.

Bedroom eyes

TENDER Looking at ones child, at a loved one, or in response to cuteness. Head tilted sideways and a bit forward

Lips everted in a pout to signal harmlessness and availability (both sexes) cf. Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie!

Renaissance women used belladonna extract to dilate their pupils. Men unconsciously picked up on the message and found them more attractive. As for the rosy cheeks, they are simulated by applying blush. More tips about courting/seductive behavior: - Courting couples look down a lot when speaking. - Both men and women tilt their heads as a flirting cue.

Soft eyes: relaxed, with the lower lid pushing up slightly, pupils covered.

Gentle smile

43

INNOCENT Another comics-born expression: I have no idea what youre talking about. Someone who seriously wanted to look innocent would keep a neutral face and a level gaze. Eyebrows rounded and high, as if in surprise: who, me? Eyes stare up or away with exaggeration.

PROUD Here taken as a neutral emotion; for negative associations see Haughty and Arrogant. Eyes closed and relaxed, contemplating ones own achievement

The mouth can be any of a whole range of expressions, from a purse to a grin.

Smug smile Chin high

PLEASED Satisfaction or gloating kept private out of politeness. Eyes closed an crinkled, as if not to show too much selfsatisfaction. Broad real smile but the mouth is pinched at the same time, again to hush the gloating; this creates more lines.

AMUSED Oops! Thats funny. Eyebrows lifted, can also pull inwards in (mock) commiseration with the object of amusement.

Eyes particularly alert, pupil a bit contracted

Lower lid pushes up

Smile curls up much but is pinched in repression

LAUGHING (1) Bursting into laughter: the head suddenly tilts back. All the contraction is in the lower face, the eye region is released for now. Eyes shut but can be relaxed Eyebrows high and rounded

LAUGHING (1) Laughter is a violent reaction: after a while, the stress starts to show as more parts of the face contract. Head and body nod Eyebrows beback and come knotted forth or frown Nose wrinkles Tears!

Mouth wide open, upper lip near flat and lower lip describing a generous parabolic curve.

Nostrils flared Teeth and tongue show

Eyes contract Mouth still wide open but theres an effort to force it shut.

Nostrils flared

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Raising the eyebrows while speaking also indicates conviction in ones words.

SURPRISED Usually the head is simultaneously jerked back. Wide, rounded eyes and eyebrows Mouth puckers; this is more a stylistic effect than a real reaction, reducing the mouth to bring all the focus on the wide eyes.

SE RI RP SU

CURIOUS Interest is expressed in the eye region. The rest of the face keeps its prior expression.

Eyebrows lift; one may lift more than the other for emphasis.

Eyes become alert and focused

Mouth might open slightly as if to take in more

PUZZLED I cant make sense of this...

Frowning in focus

(Optionally) raised in worry (Am I going to figure it out?

Iris nearly free Mouth can be slightly open as an alternative.

Lips pursed in reflection When perplexed, men rub their chins with their hand, tug at the lobes of their ears, or rub their forehead/ cheeks/back of the neck. Women on the other hand put a finger on their lower front teeth with the mouth slightly open or pose a finger under the chin.

Eyes squinting a bit as if staring at the problem, looking downwards

IMPRESSED Tends to come with a forward tilt of the head which means the eyes have to actually look up to whatever is impressive (or the idea of it).

SHOCKED Surprised on a much more intense scale, utter disbelief. Eyebrows lift a lot Eyes at their widest, iris free This optional line illustrates the idea of eyes popping out of their orbits Jaw drops (goes slack); this actually means it remains narrow and doesnt open wide, as that would require muscular effort (as in fear).

Eyes are wide, but eyebrows neither rounded nor lifted (the reverse of curious)

Jaw drops a bit

Lips dont curl, so teeth dont show.

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Turn the mouth slightly up. The smile is almost imperceptible (Buddha smile) but makes it clear this is a pleasant feeling.

Eyes unfocused and bleary

ON TI XA LA RE

RELAXED In reality this would be the same as the blank face, but on paper we need to emphasize the feeling of relaxation. Eyebrows neutral Relaxed eyes, pupil covered and comfortably dilated.

PEACEFUL Inner peace and serenity reflected in the absence of any tension in facial features. Eyebrows droop a little when the eyelid shuts. Eyes that are shut and relaxed are smooth and the lower eyelid curves up.

Only difference with relaxed: closed eyes as if to listen to the inner harmony and/or in trust of the outside world.

DRAINED No energy left, everything slumps.

More plaintive, painful eyebrows

Head droops noticeably Eyes can barely stay open

Emphasized pockets

Jaw relaxed enough to drop slightly

GROGGY Huh? What?... Wheres my coffee?

SLEEPY Nodding off: A different kind of tiredness, not due to overexertion, so that strain doesnt show (unless one is both tired and sleepy).

Bewildered eyebrows

Trying to force an eye to stay open, straining the eyebrow on that side

The head nods forward and very likely also tilts to one side

The other eye and eyebrow are totally relaxed as if asleep

Confused mouth

Neutral mouth

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REFRESHED Aahhhh... The face that sells cleansing products and pleasant smells. Note that the stimulus is subtle, otherwise you get the Pleased face.

PLEASURED Mmmm... Sensuous pleasure in the sense of savoring something that please our senses of hearing, taste, smell and/or touch. The head tilts back as the chin is raised moving away from worldly things to better focus on the feeling. Eyes still closed for the same reason

Only difference with Peaceful: the smile widens and lips part in an instinctive reaction to something that pleases the senses.

Smile widens, corners are compressed, dimples may appear.

TIRED The loss of tonus is now despite oneself, due to spent energy. Head droops forward a bit Sleepy eyes

LAZY The heavy eyelids and smile betray the fact this person is not only relaxed, but fully intends to do nothing. Sleepy eyes, pupils at least half-covered: the tonus in the eyelids is less than the normal waking state.

Plaintive eyebrows

Even the eyebrows are flatter than usual

Pockets start to show under the eyes

Slight smile less effort!

BORED All the features are horizontal, seeking to be more blank than a blank face.

Eyebrows at their flattest and low on the eyes.

Sleepy eyes

Mouth slightly turned down, not enough to look like there is an effort involved.

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When thinking, the eyes look diagonally up and away from the person one is facing, as if to emphasise, Excuse me for a moment while I ponder this.

Blank look (sleepy eyes with straight horizontal lids, pupil half covered) confirm boredom and disbelief (see Curious for alert eyes).

R GE AN

FROWN A light frown can mean someone is starting to get ticked off, but it also shows focus, doubt, trying to remember something. A very slight frown makes a smile look determined and less vacant.

UPSET No ambiguity here: its milder than anger, but its clearly ticked off. Eyebrows start knotting, creating a vertical furrow Eyes alert Eyebrow heads move down with little to no curving back up as that would add a tinge of pain. This line is a furrow where the eyebrow ends.

Eyes alert, receiving information.

Aside from the frown the face is still blank. It is a receptive (listening/ watching/ thinking) face: Im gathering data before I decide how I feel.

Jaw tensed to biting posture, pushing lower lip forward and making mouth curve down.

SKEPTICAL You expect me to believe that? Turn the mouth up into a corner smile and the expression becomes cynical. The single raised eyebrow is a universal sign of skepticism

VINDICTIVE Just you wait... Eyes narrow as if to aim Frown is upset and low but no more, saving the anger for the opportune moment. Mouth puckered and pinched looks hardly wider than nose.

Lower eyelids close more than upper, creating visible pouch and making the eyes turn down.

Mouth turns down just enough to not be amused.

POUT I am not happy with this, but I cant/wont get confrontational about it. Most often seen in children, but a mild pout is an involuntary reflex when disagreeing. Accusing eyes: staring from underneath a frown. The pout: Lower lip pushes up, looking thicker and turning the mouth down; chin is knotted. Head tilts forward with involuntary submission

GRUMPY This expression isnt innate but was born and bred in the comic world. It has a comic relief effect that makes it unsuitable for some purposes. Frown attenuated by sleepy eyes and halfcovered pupils: I am not really angry or hurt.

When the pout becomes a pucker, it means outright disagreement.

Mouth curved down, but twisted, also signals that its not to be taken too seriously.

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One of the first signs of anger is an uncontrollable reddening of the ears.

ANGRY Anger causes one to stare fixedly, a very basic behavior aiming to make the other stand down without a fight. Nostrils flare, making these lines show proportionately to the loathing felt towards the object of anger In Italy, anger is expressed with the forefinger bite (the knuckle of the bent forefinger is symbolically bitten).

FURIOUS Emotions cant be contained any more and the mouth opens to yell. The head tilts forward, like a bull ready to charge Eyebrows at their lowest, overshadowing the eyes Tension around the eyes Snarl makes upper corners stretch up more while lower lip is still pushed up, resulting in this mouth shape. Snarl lines on the nose, adding horizontal furrows to the vertical Nostrils flare even more, lines clear from wing of nose to corner of mouth Canines may show in corner

Eyebrows low on the eyes and clearly knotted. More furrows Mouth is compressed into a line with hard descending lines at the corners

SNEERING In response to something despised, be it physical (bad smell...) or moral (cheating...) Head is tilted back, looking down the nose. Eyes alert but narrowed Mouth corners pulled sideways, making it wider Lower lip pushes up, curving mouth down Nostrils rise, making this line prominent and pulling lip into a curl on one or both sides.

Other ENRAGED signs of anger Complete reversion to blind aniare an erect body, mal fury. What happens to the face can be dominant display observed point by point in a furious lion or wolf. (hands on hips, hands balled into fists, palmVeins beEyebrows down beating come visible both knotted gestures. on temple as and arched, arterial tencreating lines sion rises in the forehead. Wide open eyes with pinprick pupil look mad and blinded by rage Upper nose wrinkled by snarl Drool or spittle likely! Mouth and nose area push Fury to an extreme, exposing more teeth and the tongue

The eyes may roll up scornfully.

HAUGHTY Its a sneer, but void of intensity: cold disdain. The object of contempt is just too insignificant to cause an emotional reaction. Head is tilted back, looking down the nose. Eyebrows slightly lifted in disdain, barely frowning

ARROGANT Not only believes hes superior, but is also quite smug about it.

Eyes relaxed, pupils covered

Eyebrows lower in a more pronounced frown

Head is tilted back, looking down the nose.

Mouth just curved down

Sneer

Smug smile: a fake smile with the center pushed up by the lower lip

Corner pushed up, joining with sneer adds deviousness and superiority

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SA S ES DN

DISGUSTED All features reject the subject of disgust by constricting (eyes, nose) or pushing out (mouth). Eyebrows quite knotted Eyes narrowed or half-shut Nose wrinkled Face is longer Upper lip slack, lower lip turned out and pushing up, resulting in this mouth shape. Head is tilted forward, looking from under eyebrows These lines deeply etched and at their longest Nostrils rise so high the nose tip is distorted Tongue mimicking retching action fills much of the mouth

All this branch shows a slump of the shoulders.

UPSET No ambiguity here: its milder than anger, but its clearly ticked off.

Eyebrows neutral Eyes relaxed, pupil tangent.

One corner of the mouth pressed, as if a smile had been attempted and failed.

Chin wrinkled

BLUE See Sad: The main difference is in the eyes, which are still sad but now relaxed in resignation. This is what sadness turns into after a while, as the pain is dulled but not relieved.

Consequently, the iris is wider and at least tangent.

Eyebrows can droop a little or a lot.

PAIN This is the adult response to pain; for children see Crying. Eyebrows press down on the eyes, the heads curling up in pain Nose wrinkled

Eyes closed or narrowed DEPRESSED One step beyond Blue, there is no energy left to even be sad. The resignation has turned to hopeless indifference. Eyebrows can be almost neutral, as if it took too much energy to keep them in the sad position.

Upper lip raised Exclusive lines

Lower lip pushes up while corners are strongly pulled down, revealing the clenched teeth and even the lower gum

Eyes downcast and sleepy, iris barely visible, pupil dilated. Eyes can be closed, shutting the world out.

Head bowed to hanging.

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SAD Or pained : the cause of the sadness is still fresh in the mind. All features droop down on the outside. Eyebrow heads rise and come closer together, but no visible tension here yet: this is pure sadness without fear or anger. Silent tears may roll down the cheeks. The eyes are alert (to the fresh hurt) but the upper eyelids slant downwards and can show a fold emphasizing this. Pupils free. Mouth curves down.

DISAPPOINTED In children disappointment would be pure sadness, but in adults that is tinted by a touch of anger, so it is also reproachful. Eyebrows are a varying mix of sad and frowning

Eyes alert, pupils tangent.

Lips pinched (to hold back reproaches), mouth may move sideways, as if to hide the pinching.

DISTRESSED Both hurt and in turmoil: no resignation here but a desperate desire to reverse the cause of hurt. Eyebrows heads rise so much they create tension. Tears very likely Lips part as if the pain was too strong to be contained. Pupil free as eyes widen in fear (of not reversing the hurt) Corners curl down and lower lip pushes up in an involuntary but irresistible pre-cry muscle reaction.

FRUSTRATED Anger and a desire to cry combined.

Eyebrow heads try to frown and rise at the same time, knotting and forcing the eyebrows into nearly straight lines. In Spain, holding a single hair between the thumb and forefinger, and lifting it vertically above the head is a female sign of intense frustration, symbolically tearing ones hair out

The mouth is pouty but the tension is concentrated in the eyebrows as the brain is in overdrive seeking a solution

pucker pushes down and the lower eyelid pushes up.

CRYING Crushed to the point of heavy, sobbing tears; maximum facial distortion of this branch. Tension creEyes forced ates horizonshut or very tal creases in nearly as the forehead. the eyebrow Tears so abundant they flow from both corners of the eyes Same muscle spasm as in distressed, but worse.

STRESSED When too many things assail the mind, the whole face contracts as if to keep them all inside, or maybe block out the world while figuring out how to deal with them. Eyebrows press down on the eyes, full frown but the heads curl slightly up to retain a trace of pain. Eye slant now follows frown, inside corners dropping. Lips pinched pushing mouth up Nose wrinkled as the face crunches upon itself, even the tip turns slightly up. The wavy mouth shows uncertainty (Where to start? how to deal with this?

Face flushes Nostrils flare Chin quivers

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WORRIED Close to Frustrated, but with less anger and more fear. Eyebrow heads as in Frustrated, but the curves rise as well, creating furrows in the forehead

SHY Also mild embarrassment, as opposed to the extreme under Ashamed

Forced grin of embarrassment: the corners are stretched sideways instead of up

Head tilted forward and pulled into shoulders as if to hide like a turtle

Blush (face, ears and neck)

Young children show shyness by tilting the head towards a shoulder while raising the shoulders.

SCARED Deer in the headlights.

GUILTY Expressed by trying not to express it.

Widened eyes with contracted pupils are the centre of the action, staring at the threat

Eyebrow heads rise

Gazing down and often away; the head is likely to turn away Expressionless face, trying to attract as little attention as possible.

Mouth nervously contracted

Features seem to shrink.

TERRIFIED All features open, skin goes pale, hair stands on end. Past the first moment, pupils dilate to see better. This creates the eerie look of deepest panic. Eyebrows high and knotted

EMBARRASSED Oh God, please hide me. The emotional high is expressed in the eyes, while the rest of the face is still trying to go unnoticed. Round bulging eyes stare down and away; the head is certain to turn, likely to the point of turning the face completely away. Lower lip pushes up in dismay

Eyes very round, pinprick pupil

Lines from nose wings to mouth corners

Scream of horror that curls the lower lip down, revealing the lower teeth

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AGING THE FACE AND BODY

First a disclaimer: Since everyone ages differently (more on this below), there is no question of applying the following info to the letter. If the characters you draw look their intended age, then you dont need this guide, even if you deviate a lot from its guidelines. This will be most beneficial to people who occasionally or often find themselves sweating over a drawing, wondering, Why cant I make this person look 40? What am I missing? If youre one of these people, then youll find in this section the telltale signs of age, from birth to very old age. You will not need to use all these signs in your character as a matter of fact, unless your style is very realistic, you might want to use the fewest possible, just what is enough to make their age clear. The stages used here (Newborn, Baby, Child...) are a compromise between the official division (which for instance groups 13- and 20-year-olds together under adolescent) and the way I feel they can be classified visually. Up to adolescence, children change very quickly, but I cant do a diagram for each passing year so I condensed them into as few stages as possible. Evidently, though, a 5-year-old doesnt look the same as a 10-year-old, so these portraits are snapshots of a continuous transformation. As I said above, we all age differently. The childhood stages are somewhat uniform, but once we reach adulthood, the changes to our appearance, whether in the face or the figure, are subject to a bewildering array of factors. Genetics, race, living conditions, work/life habits, health, exposure to sunlight and wind, exercize or lack thereof, usage of cosmetics or surgery... People in poor countries have a shorter life expectancy and no access to health care, let alone beauty products, all of which may make them look very old by the time theyre middle-aged, while in developed countries we are getting increasingly accustomed to women keeping their smooth skin and fitness well into their 50s (but this remains linked with being able to afford skin care products, the healthiest diets and plenty of exercise time, not to mention not doing work that wears the body). In those same countries, in centuries past, middle age was old age and brought with it blackened or fallen teeth, a failing body and stained skin. Exposure to the elements will line even a young face: in Vit Nam I met a woman who worked outdoors in a very windy place, and thought she was in her forties due to the many fine lines on her face, but she turned out to be just 20. Inversely, the Japanese famously keep their smooth skin for years and years, and I was shocked to meet a teenager who turned out to be a married woman in her thirties. Traumatizing events can also accelerate aging, visible particularly in worry lines and hair that goes prematurely white (this is debated by scientists, but empirically we can stil observe it.) With all this in mind, it is best to look at the stages below not as fixed values but as steps that are relative to each other. The exact age is less important than the differences between a stage and another. Youll notice I only provide separate male and female diagrams for some age categories. This is simply because up until puberty, boys and girls are not very differentiated. They are recognizable mostly through socially created factors such as haircut and clothing. Isolate a young childs face and it may be very hard for you to figure out its gender. Adolescence marks the beginning of serious differences in face and body, and thats when the separate diagrams begin. Then, after menopause, women start losing their differentiating factors again. As they get older, men and women become once more increasingly similar in the face, save for the fact womens hair never recedes quite as much, and women very rarely go bald.

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The first week, the head is elongated. This is called molding and it is due to the passage through the birth canal, which makes the bones of the skull overlap. C-sections dont result in molding. Many newborns have a full head of fine, dark hair, but they can also be quite bald. Ear flat against head

NEWBORN (0-1 month)

Merest hint of eyebrows, very high Upper eyelid fold may not exist yet. At this stage eyes are only opened for brief spells and tend to squint. Eye slits look very wide. Same with the mouth. This line is noticeable Nostrils very evident in tiny button nose. No neck No chin

Body length = 2.5 heads (legs not counted)

Mongolian spots are blue or purple-colored splotches on the babys lower back and buttocks (they can cover them entirely or be just a small spot). Over 80 percent of dark-skinned or Asian babies are born with Mongolian spots, blue or purple splotches on the lower back and buttocks due to a concentration of pigmented cells. They disappear in the first 4 years.

Newborns can only lie on their belly, retaining the foetal position with limbs folded against their body.

Note how short the legs are remember that in adults the knee reaches the shoulder in this position. Newborn hands remain curled into loose fists for a while.

The eyes of newborns only take their final hue between 6 months and 1 year. The skin also has an original coloration that soon changes. Roughly, for different types these birth colors are:

Caucasian types: Dark blue-grey eyes, pink to reddish skin (strong vascularity)

African types: Dark grey-brown eyes, reddish-black skin

Asian types: Dark grey-brown eyes, tea rose skin

Chubbiness leading to deep folds

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Fingers dont lack daintiness, but the palm is wider than it is long and is very padded, hence the characteristic baby hands look.

Little hair, very fine, can be lighter and then get darker as baby grows.

Eyes wider apart than an adults Eyebrow ridge is hardly present, very gentle curve No cheekbone either, but a round cheek

Ear starts sticking out

Features less crumpled than a newborns, appear very open to drink in the world. A babys eyeballs are near their adult size, but the eye slits are not, so the iris appears much larger than an adults.

Lips become more visible, drawing a tiny mouth.

Around 3 months old: Body length closer to 3 heads (legs not counted)

10 months Height= 4-5 heads

Although the proportions have barely changed, the body and limbs are noticeably chubbier.

Chubbier than a newborn, each fold very marked.

- At 2 months, a baby can lift its head halfway; - At 3 it can hold an object; - At 4 it can lift its head and chest when lying down; - At 6 it can hold its head steady and sit with help; - At 7 it can sit and stand unsupported, and tries to put its foot in its mouth; - At 11 it can stand up alone; - Around 1 year it starts walking unsupported.

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Height= 5 heads

TODDLER (1-4 years)

Hair is thicker, darker and now hides the head. Eyebrows reach maybe 50% of their final value (so theyll still be very light in fair children). Cheeks full and often pink Mouth small and puckered, looking pouty Double chin Short legs

Beginning of a neck The body begins to slim down a bit, losing the rounded tummy, but retains an endearing clumsiness. - The adult height can be roughly predicted by doubling the height of the child at age 2. - At 4, a childs height is at least double his or her birth length.

Toddlers still have their baby fat, especially in the face.

CHILD (5-11 years)

The face occupies a smaller area of the head than an adults.

7-9 years Height=6 heads

The neck grows out of an almost horizontal shoulder line (instead of the trapezius of adults) because the sternomastoids are not developed.

Eyebrows still high

The face contours start to appear but are still soft. Nose bridge gains dimension

Ear grows before other features so it looks large for a while.

Nose looks short because its still upturned Thin neck Chin becomes defined, but not yet strong.

All baby fat is gone, but muscles are infantile, so the body is skinny.
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ADOLESCENT (12-17 years)

Eyebrows full and lower on eyes The most noticeable difference with adult faces at this point is the size of the eyes, which are still large. The bone structure is in place but still softerned by a full face. Neck thicker, Adams apple appears As the nose take its adult shape, it looks longer. Neck remains slender, NO Adams apple in women. Eyelashes immediately make a female face look adult, so leave them out to convey adolescence.

Height= 6.5-7 heads (Males taller)

Shoulders broaden Females actually begin puberty between 8 and 13 years of age, then males between 9.5 and 14 years. Feet, arms, legs and hands may grow faster than the rest of the body, leading to the gangly look and feeling of clumsiness. The breasts development is the first sign of puberty, but they dont reach their full size until adulthood. First the breasts form small mounds, then the areola gets larger. The breast keeps growing from there. The waist gets smaller and the hips get wider.

Hair appears on the body, legs, arms and face

Fat may increase in the buttocks, legs and stomach.

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YOUNG ADULT (18 years to thirties)

Ear size stabilizes at the measure between the top of the eyes and the tip of the nose It is entirely possible for the hair of young adults to already start being flecked with grey, even though most (especially women) will remove or dye them.

Many women style their eyebrows into shapes that color the expression with anything from innocence to confidence.

Eyelids become more visible, toning down the gaze and conveying maturity. Eyes look slightly smaller. Line of the nose is chiselled. Face contours now show more bone and muscle structure than soft flesh.

Eyelashes now emphasized

Strong squared jaw Dark-haired men often have a shadow around the jaw even when theyre shaved. At this age, facial hair would be at its strongest if grown.

Lips at their most fleshy (and frequently look much redder or contrasted, due to the use of cosmetics)

Height= 7-8 heads

Narrow shoulders, broad hips, hourglass waist

Broad shoulders, narrow hips, straight waist

Growth stops, this is the tallest one gets in ones life.

The body achieves maturity, with fully developed muscles, and in womens case breasts.

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Hair shows more sign of aging, the salt and pepper look. Mans hairline is likely to start receding.

MIDDLE AGE (forties and fifties)

Lines may also appear at the root of the nose Eyelids become heavier Crows feet begin to appear

A downward fold shows up at the corners of the mouth, giving a bit of a wry expression Show more expression lines

The body doesnt change all that much but muscle density decreases. Breasts start losing firmness Underarms Belly

The back of the elbow, the knee caps show wrinkles Buttocks and thighs The tendency to accumulate fat increases. Men and women store it in different places, shown in blue.

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EARLY OLD AGE (sixties)

Hairline recedes to a varying, but noticeable degree.

Hair turns decidedly grey. It thins and its growth is now limited, so women wear it shorter. Worry and frown lines become permanent
Eyebrows may stay dark longer than hair (if they were dark in the first place) but grow sparser.

Menopause happens in a womans fifties. The drop in oestrogen levels has visible effects on the body and face. The face in general starts losing feminity.

Bones lose density so the body starts getting shorter.

Eyelashes no longer prominent Breasts dry up

Pockets under the eyes Smile lines become permanent Skin loses elasticity and starts hanging at the jaws, resulting in a less firm jawline.

Lips get thinner

Weight gain is redistributed to the abdominal area, so waist starts disappearing.

MIDDLE OLD AGE (seventies)

The upper eyelid may droop to permanently cover the outer corner of the eye, giving it a triangular shape. This happens to populations of Western and Northern Europe and to people heavily exposed to the elements.

Thin wispy hair, almost transparent as all pigment is gone

Skin becomes thinner, showing veins, blemishes and age spots.

In men, hairline recedes considerably or all hair is lost. Womens hairline recedes little: this is the main difference between male and female faces at this stage.

Sparse or scraggy eyebrows Eyes become watery and their iris less intense in color.

Earlobe droops Skin adheres to bone, hollowing the cheeks Jowl effect as skin on the cheeks sags. Corners of the mouth run down
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Loss of cartilage makes nose tip droop The lips lose color, with vertical lines running up and down from them. If there is any facial hair, its getting sparser and weaker. Folds join chin to neck pit

People who keep exercizing into old age keep a younger body longer, and may not slump or lose much muscle mass.

Slumping makes neck look shorter, arms fall lower

Pectorals droops

VERY OLD AGE (eighties and up)

More age spots Lines deepen Eyes sink back, letting the orbits show through the skin. Crows feet can become really long and abundant. People who spent their lives exposed to the elements can have abundant lines on the cheeks as well. The appearance of carrying the burdens of the world that old people usually have is mostly due to the physical changs of their face the sad eyes (shaped this way by the drooping eyelid in Caucasian types), permanent worry and frown lines, corners of the mouth drooping... We read these as expression lines even though at that time of life, they are just always there. When drawing an elderly face, we need to be aware of the expressive power of these lines and balance or attenuate them according to the facial expression we wish to convey.

Loss of jaw line Double chin

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Mouth puckers in if lost teeth are not replaced by dental work (only affordable or available to a portion of the industrialized world)

CATALOG OF HUMAN FEATURES

1. BODY TYPES There are 8 basic body types, or somatotypes, 3 of which are primary (and rare in real life) while the rest are combinations of them. These body types apply mostly to men; women tend to be in the centre as their physiques are much less extreme, and they are more endomorphic than mesomorphic. See the second diagram for female body types. Please note: body types here refers to the bodys structure (bones) and not to muscles and/or fat that may be gained in addition.
Mesomorph: Large bones and defined muscles for a square, hard effect. Chest area dominates and tapers to narrow low waist (strong shoulder-hips contrast). Well-developed arms and legs. Ectomorph: Delicate physique with light bones and weak muscles. Shoulders small and drooping, flat chest, long limbs (linear type), visible ribs, long neck. Endomorph: Round soft body with a dominant abdominal area, high waist and no projecting bones. Short, tapering arms and legs, small hands and feet, thighs and upper arms more developed than lower legs and arms. Large head.

Endomorphic mesomorph: Abdomen less massive and shoulders bulkier than in Mesomorph, creating a rectangular silhouette: bull-like. Ectomorphic mesomorph: Muscular but less heavily built. Mesomorphic ectomorph: Thin and muscular, small joints. Ectomorphic endomorph: Balance between round and elongated, but not muscular.

The diagram below, based on the shoulder-waist-hips ratio, is more helpful for female body shapes. Here were talking about total appearance and not just bone structure. These shapes are found in both slim and heavy women.
Pear/Bell/Spoon/Triangle: Weight in the bottom, slimmer waist and shoulders. Apple/Diamond: Like Oval but bust is slimmer, so weight just around waist. Hourglass: Hips and shoulders almost equal, waist narrower. The Western ideal for a female body. Inverted Triangle: Shoulders and bust are proportionately larger than waist and hips, so upper body looks heavier.

Apple/Oval: Rounded with weight in the middle due to broad waist and bust, slimming down in legs and arms.

Banana/Stick figure/Rectangle: Almost equal measures so very little curve, the most masculine of the female body shapes. 62

Figure Eight: An hourglass figure where hips are broader than shoulders.

2. BREAST SHAPES he following are considered aesthetic by modern Western standards. The dotted line shows the form contour. Some natural shapes (not considered aesthetic, but not difform)

Swooping Round Teardrop

Saggy or hanging

Triangular

Pear-shaped Flat

3. EYE SHAPES

(Upswept lift at the corners)

Almond

(Natural crease in the eyelid is not very visible)

Hooded

(Eyelid crease is set back so that upper eyelid is hidden in shadow)

Deep-set

Round

(Droopy eyelids) 63

Sleepy

(Eyelids curve down at outside corners)

Downturned

4. FACE SHAPES Sometimes the shape of the hairline affects the perceived face shape, and I indicate it when its the case.

(Narrowest at bottom, widest in middle)

Oval

(Long, width almost even)

Ellipse

(Like Ellipsis but broader)

Broad ellipse

(Narrowest at bottom, pointed chin widest at top, straight hairline)

Triangular

(Like Triangular but with widows peak)

Heart-shaped

(Equal length and width, rounded jaw line and hairline)

Round

(Equal height and width, squared jaw line, straight hairline)

Square

(Also Long or Oblong, like Square but longer than it is wide)

Rectangular

(Like Rectangular but narrower chin makes face look more angular)

Pentagonal

(Narrow chin and forehead, face widest in the middle)

Diamond

(Or Trapezoid, widest at the chin and narrowest at the forehead, very full jaw line)

Pear-shaped

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5. NOSE SHAPES

(Broken profile)

Hooked

(Tip very low, an effect of aging)

Droopy

(Eagle-like, convex)

Aquiline

(slightly aquiline)

Roman

(Drops straight down from the forehead)

Grecian nose

(Rounded and small, tip turns up so slightly nostrils arent visible yet)

Button

(Child version, found in babies and children before nose takes it adult shape)

Button

Upturned
(Concave)

(aka Blunt or Pug: short and upturned, often found in Asians)

Snub

(African nose, where nostrils pass over to the bridge)

Funnel

6. LIP SHAPES Natural shapes and shapes popular in make-up. Childrens lips are thinner, less textured, and closer to the skin tone than adults.

Natural

Pointy natural

(Its common for the upper lip alone to be thin, but the reverse is very rare)

Thin

(Exaggerated feminine shape)

Cupids bow

(Peakless)

Uni-lip

(Narrow and very full, early 20s ) 65

Beestung

(Wide, spaced peaks, 40s)

Smear

(Upper lip fuller)

Glamour

7. HAIR TYPES
Can be fine or thick, soft or coarse.

Straight

Sticks close to the head, can be fine, medium or thick.

Wavy

Low wave Curly

High wave

Loopy S pattern, soft and fine, less shiny than straight or wavy hair because its surface is not as smooth.

Loose Frizzy

Tight

Very tight wiry curls, fine but densely packed. Shown below in its natural state (it is not normally worn loose this way): tends to grow out or up. Sheen rather than shine.

Like very small curls

S-type

Not curling so much as zigzagging 66

Z-type

Tightly curled spiral tufts that form into cones with naked skin visible between them. If this hair is allowed to grow, it mats.

Peppercorn

8. HAIR PIGMENT To put things simply, all hair color is the result of two factors: - Lightness or darkness (lighter=blonds, darker=browns) - Presence or absence of red pigment (its presence creates the golden, reddish and warm brown hues, while its absence results in desaturated or ashen hues). To distinguish red hair from hair that has red pigment, I use the word rufous for the latter. - To this we can add blue-black, meaning black hair with bluish highlights, as a separate hue. The table on the right summarizes this. When in the Guide I give one hue as characteristic of an ethnotype, that usually means you can also find the neighboring hues in that ethnotype, as long as theyre in the same column. For instance if the hair color of type A is given as Ash Brown, then Medium Brown is sure to exist as well in lesser proportions, but it doesnt mean Golden Brown exists in that type. The terminology for hair color is very disparate so dont take the names used here as a universal convention. Theres a bigger hair color chart here: http://www.dosfordonts.com/haircolor.html

NO RED PIGMENT (ASHEN)

RED PIGMENT (RUFOUS or GOLDEN)

BLONDS

Platinum blonde

Ash blonde

Golden blonde

Dark Ash blonde

Dark Golden blonde (Strawberry)

REDS

Red

BROWNS

Ash brown

Golden brown

Medium brown

Rufous brown

Auburn

Dark brown (Chestnut)

Dark auburn

Black

Brown-black

BLUE-BLACK 67

9. EYEBROW SHAPES Female eyebrow

Thin Tapered tail Arched shape

Basic shape Arch

Curved Angled Soft angled Rounded Flat

Low

High

Full

Male eyebrow
Full shape

Blunt tail

Angled

Rounded

Flat

10. HAIRLINE SHAPES Men

Straight

Rounded

Regular

Widows peak

Receding

Receding

Women

68

LIGHT LIGHT-MIXED GREEN/YELLOW DARK-MIXED DARK

69

11. EYE COLOR Eyes are basically either brown or blue, with green as a third, rarer type. Gray is a variant of the blue pigment; most colors are produced by combinations of the above with sometimes the addition of a yellow or russet pigment. This table shows basic hues and some incidental ones, arranged similarly to the hair table above. Special effects such as rings around the pupil or iris, speckles etc are not included as theyre not relevant to this study. Some of the terms used in the Guide to Human types: Light eyes: any of the blue and gray hues Light-mixed: any combination of the above, such as gray-blue, gray-green. Dark: a shade of brown. Dark-mixed: combination with brown, i.e. gray-brown or green-brown.

(Looks nearly white)

Light Gray

Gray

(Usually tinted: greenish gray, bluish gray...)

Blue

(Can be pale)

Violet

(Very rare, blue eye where red blood vessels show through)

Blue-green

(Very rare, blue eyes with a green ring around the pupil)

Green

(Rare, not to be confused with hazel or gray-tinted-green)

Amber

(Strong yellow and russet with pale green produces this effect)

Hazel

(Elements of green and brown)

Brown

(Can be light or dark)

Black

(Really a dark brown; eyes are never completely black, in direct light the iris coloration shows)

12. SKIN TONES

Pinpointing exact skin tones is an exercise in futility, since it varies not only within a group but on individuals as well. Skin tans or burns, and because it is translucent, its hue is affected by the blood that flows through it, and that tends towards red or blue depending on health and temperature. There are parts of the body that are always pale and others that are constantly exposed to sunlight and are therefore much darker, making it even more complicated to decide on what that actual color of the skin is. For our purposes, I present skin tones corresponding to exposed, but not particularly tanned, skin. To achieve pallor, use a lighter shade of the tone you need; for a tan, darken it (see below). Generally, feel free to tweak the colors a bit, to warm them up, cool them down, darken/lighten them, etc, because there is always a range of variation in reality anyway. I do not divide the skin tones into Caucasian, Asian, African and Pacifid because the groups often overlap. The brown range for instance is found both in Caucasians and Asians. Broadly speaking, White through Reddish Brown are found in Caucasians, Chocolate through Blue-Black in Africans and Pacifids, and Greyish Yellow through Copper in Asians (which include Amerindians). By the way, the names I use for the skin tones are not scientific. I worked out this terminology for simplicity and easy evocation. Youll notice there are families of tones (such as the browns, the ochers...) and singled-out tones (white, amrani...). This implies that if a type is said to have a skin tone thats part of a family, it is very likely that other members of the family are also present in that type, in small amounts. For a pale or tanned skin, go lighter or darker within the same family. If the skin is naturally very dark, it is likely not to tan any further. Note that the ocher and sienna families are for Asian skins: I use the word ocher for brown with a yellow undertone and sienna for brown with a red undertone (coppery skins). The CMYK values of the colors I used for the skin tones are indicated. Additional notes: - Women are always, on average, lighter-skinned than the men of their own type. Theres a biological reason for this: they need to allow extra sunlight in to produce more vitamins for childbearing. - I sometimes mention vascularity: it is the skins tendency to turn red when exposed to the air or the sun. This is what gives pale-skinned people red cheeks, which wouldnt occur with darker-skinned people.

(The skin is so unpigmented and thin the blood shows through, so it actually looks pinkish. Vascular. Doesnt tan but turns brick-red.) C3M13Y11

White

(Lighter version of fair, almost as light as white but less pink) C4M14Y15

Ivory

(Brown pigment starts to appear but skin still more likely to burn than to tan) C6M20Y21K1

Fair

(Brunette-white or honey, starts being suitable for tanning) C12M30Y43K3

Light brown

Medium brown Dark brown Very dark brown

C10M37Y44K2 C21M59Y65K7 C35M64Y69K31

(A yellow tint to the brown gives it a greenish cast in comparison to the more pink browns) C22M37Y60K9 70

Olive

C34M50Y55K26

Dark olive

C33M37Y48K15

Grey olive

C35M77Y82K32

Chocolate

(Medium brown with reddish undertone) C17M43Y40K5

Reddish brown

(peculiar to Somali and (Yellow undertone (Yellow undertone mixed Tuaregs) makes it look like a red- makes it look like a very C30M52Y68K20 dish olive) dark olive) C30M60Y78K21 C38M59Y66K37

Amrani

San brown

Khoi brown

C40M65Y67K47 C45M69Y56K58 C76M58Y49K60 (In these very dark hues including Khoi, the shadow tone dominates the skin, the main hue functioning like a highlight. This makes the skin look glossy)

Coffee

Brown-black

Blue-black

Greyish yellow Reddish Gold

C7M20Y29K1 C5M36Y54K1

C9M35Y62K1

Gold

C10M21Y34K2

Pale ocher

Light ocher
C13M30Y48K3

Medium ocher
C23M47Y64K9

C30M51Y61K19

Dark ocher

Brown ocher
C18M40Y43K6

Light sienna Medium sienna

C6M35Y44K1 C14M42Y38K3

Dark sienna
C29M48Y60K7

(Medium brown with olive undertone) C21M41Y49K7

Olive sienna

C20M57Y73K6

Copper

71

HUMAN TYPES
A good knowledge of anatomy is indispensable to draw the human figure, but it is only the beginning. Left to our own devices, we instinctively draw people like ourselves, or to use a word thats almost taboo, people of our own race. The serious artist or illustrator, though, sooner or later finds him/herself confronted to the anatomy and physiognomy of other races and the need to know how to portray them. The word race has acquired a detestable aura, and for this reason I use human type or ethnotype instead. What it denotes, however, is something we illustrators cannot hide from. To avoid perpetrating grotesque cultural errors such as ran amuck in the days of colonialism, we need to know what physically defines the populations of different parts of the world. As my work often deals with ethnic themes, I searched high and low for some kind of guide but found none. So I put this one together for anyone who aspires to create characters true to nature and not draw Africans that look like Europeans with dark skin. This, however, is not an essay in anthropology. This is not only an incredibly complex subject, it is also a much debated one. So I havent picked and stuck to one model, but instead simplified those I researched, sometimes substituting more laymanfriendly names, with one guideline in mind: If I needed to draw someone from this specific part of the world, what would I need to know about his or her physical characteristics? What I show here is either the average model for each type, or a representative example. Not all Chinese will have exactly the same build, facial traits, skin color etc as my diagram, but they will all tend to it to various degrees. Looking at photos will greatly expand your capacity to create individual, unique faces based on the average one and giving characters different body types. This isnt an exact science and the closer groups are, the blurrier the lines between them, sometimes with overlaps, although they themselves can usually tell each other apart at a glance. So there are always telltale signs that make a characters type identifiable with a few pencil strokes You may ask: Whats the point of being anthropologically correct when the world is such a mixed place and so many people have a mixed heritage? Three points: 1. Being familiar with the original Brachycephal models can only help and not hurt. 2. Period art and ethnic art demand such information. 3. Even if youre not trying to draw someone from a The head is specific group, this catalogue as it as long as it is were provides ideas to draw differwide, round ent people. Very useful if you often head find yourself drawing the same body types or noses or whatnot. The point of this guide is to establish a sort of primary palette of humankind, which an artist can admix as freely as people marry across types. For this reason, and because their characteristics are not sharply defined, mixed types (Philipinos, African Americans, Latin Americans, etc.) are not treated here. Instead I gather some general info about some of them on a page at the end of the guide. I also dont give diagrams for both male and female faces because thats often redundant. Ill assume you know how to make a face look more masculine or feminine at will, but if in doubt refer to earlier chapters for characteristics of face and body. In some cases I simply couldnt find the relevant info for average size or other details. Please make do by filling in with the equivalent details from the types closest neighbors. Finally, the occasional snippets in maroon provide information about a populations beauty standards (in the past or nowadays). I believe awareness of these is really important to really faithful depictions of other cultures. Average height: Please note that this changes all the time. Several centimeters can be acquired in a mere decade. The heights I include are as current as I could find them, but they wouldnt apply for earlier periods of history. You will probably not often need to be that accurate, but heres the general guideline for modifying a populations height: the more prosperous, the taller, and the more impoverished, the shorter. For instance the Dutch today are the tallest Europeans but 2 centuries ago they were the shortest, while the Vietnamese on the contrary are shorter now than they were at the peak of their culture. Skull shapes: The shape of the head is one of the basic racial identifiers. Its most obvious seen from the top, which is not a perspective we often use, but it is still prominent in profiles. Rather than redraw the skull shape for each type, Ill simply mention it, and you should refer to this diagram to look it up:

Mesocephal

Dolichocephal
The head is longer than it is wide, long narrow head.

Intermediate length.

Important note: In the following pages, I list some places or ethnicities under each ethnotype. These should be read as: The origins and/or most important concentrations of this type can be found in... They should NOT be read as The following countries fall under this type. It should go without saying that no country falls entirely under a single type! The best way to know what other types exist in a country is to look up their history for migrations and invasions. 72

I. GENERAL ASIAN
Here are some characteristics found in all the Asia-inhabiting groups presented on the right. Amerindians are placed alongside them because they are related, but they almost all lack the epicantic fold and have much more prominent noses.

Body type
Medium tall, compact stature Beard and body hair are meager Because legs are short, torso appears longer

Nose
The nose is typically small, nasal bridges are low, and nasal projection is minimal.

Hands
Hands are relatively short and stubby with nails that cover most of the end of their finger. Finger tips are thin (seen from the side, they taper as opposed to being padded)

Forearm shorter than upper arm

Hair
Women are petite with small breasts and hips

Lower leg shorter than thigh

Small narrow feet

Coarse and straight

Eyes
The best-known identifier of Asian types is the epicanthal fold (aka epicanthic fold or epicanthus). This is a skin fold of the upper eyelid, from the nose to the inner side of the eyebrow, that covers the inner corner of the eye. As a result the inner corner looks lower, making the eye look slanted (aka almond-shaped). There are two variations on the Asian eye. One is known as double-eyelid: the eyelid is creased like in Western eyes, but closer to the eyelashes. In the other, known as single-eyelid, there is no crease at all, only smooth padded skin over the eye.

Shape of the face

Double-eyelid

Double-eyelid (no eyelid line)

Fold can be more or less pronounced

Corner covered to various degrees Closed eyes

Eyelashes downwards

Curves down noticeably 73

The cheekbones are prominent and project sideways, which results in a round flat face. Compare with a Caucasian skull, where cheekbones recede and so the face looks narrower. From profile, the combination of this and a lower nosebridge make the eyes appear much more forward. Asian types also tend to have more body fat in the cheeks, so there is little chance of having a chiselled or angular face.

Classic Mongoloid The classic Asian; Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Siberia

1.61 Mongolia 1.73 S. Korea 1.57 women 1.65 N. Korea 1.61women In North China and Korea hair can be thick and wavy

Japanese
Alongside Mongoloid in Japan. For Okinawan see p96
Less hairy and more slender than Mongoloid 1.53-1.57 women

1.55-1.71

men

Traditional beauty standards for Korean women: round face like full moon (health), small smiling eyes, single-eyelids like the crescent moon (friendly impression), small red lips like ripe Relatively cherries (refinement), hairy bodchubby cheeks pink like ies and facial roses (wealth), modfeatures as est height (shorter than compared to man), black straight soft other Asian hair, narrow shoulders types (make men feel protective over them), thin waist but plump hips (childbearing), small delicate hands (skill) and feet. Today, pale skin and double eyelids are a sign of status.

During the Heian period: - Men sported a small pointed beard Traditionally the emat the tip of the phasis is on a womans chin. face, neck and hair - Men and women (the back of the neck powdered their is sexy). The figure faces white. is hidden as much as - Women shaved possible by the kitheir eyebrows to mono. The preference redraw finer ones is to having no body in the centre of the hair at all. forehead. Banana body - Women blackened shape very comtheir teeth, because mon in women. white blinds and uglifies (this up to the Meiji period). - A young woman was deemed particularly beautiful if her hair was longer than she was tall. Pointy profile, thrusting forward Surface between eyes and eyebrows is not flat but has depth, with protruding eyebrows and sunken eyes (eyes are actually placed deeper inside the skull) Wings can be large in relation to the nose Longer chin very narrow eyes even though epicanthic fold may be mild tall forehead face longer and thinner than other Asian types single-eyelid can be noteably puffy under the eye, especially when smiling

Brachycephal
Low nose root Long nose bridge Long face

Big eyes are considered more beautiful small eyes

sharp features about 70% have singleeyelids

prominent cheekbones small mouth Some Mongolians and Central Asians have grey or even blue eyes wide face tending to square on the bottom

high, thin, small nose, longer in men wide mouth but thin lips

Black

Black

Dark brown can occur

Black Black

overall lighter than other Asians

Pale ocher Light ocher

Light ocher

Medium ocher

74

North Chinese Northern and central China, Manchuria

1.75 men today 1.62 women Body and facial structures heavier than the typical European 1.68 historically Tiny feet were a standard of beauty required for all women who could afford reduced mobility. Noble women bound their feet from childhood to keep them small: the ideal size was 7 cm. Manchurian women however did not do this, being from a horse-riding culture.

South Chinese Central and Southern China

1.69
today

1.64

historically

Minimal facial hair

Brachycephal

Strongly receding forehead Weak browridges

Mesocephal to Dolichocephal

Steep, prominent forehead Almost flat facial structure around eyes and eyebrows The face appears flat because the nose doesnt protrude and the cheek bones are broad Sometimes prognathy About 70% have clear doubleeyelids

Strong jaw and chin Broad-long face

Weaker jaw and chin than North Chinese Round, flat, short face prominent cheekbones

Nose moderately broad Narrow, often rather high nose strong jaws Wide to very wide mouth Compressed jaw Thin lips, with the lower lip thicker

thin lips

In Chinas culture today there is real pressure to be taller, to the point that it is becoming increasingly common for women to stretch their legs through surgery (although many Chinese find this very disturbing).

The ideal Chinese woman has an egg-shaped face, willow-leaf eyebrows, almond-shaped eyes (Phoenix eyes) and cherry-blossom lips (think Disneys Mulan).

Black

Reddish gold

Gold

Light ocher

Black

75

Southeast Asian South and eastern coast of China, Thailand, Vit Nam, Myanmar (Burma), Indonesia, Okinawa
Thai 1.67 1.57 women

Indonesian Indonesia, Malaysia

1.67 Indonesian 1.50 women 1.70 Malaysian 1.60 women

1.63 Vit Nam

1.58 Malay

In Indonesia, the taller a person is the higher their status. Nowadays its at least as important to be tall as it is to have a light skin, especially for males.

Wavy hair

Less hairy and more slender than Mongoloid

Broad faces with receding foreheads and flat noses were sought after, and some peoples in Malaysia and Indonesia compressed their babies skulls to achieve this physique. The Minahasa of Celebes even restricted such binding to the nobility.

Mesocephal
The Cambodians are the most Indian-looking people in Southeast Asia while the Burmese are the most Mongoloid looking. Thai and Lao are intermediate. larger eyes than previous Asians

Mesocephal
lowerbridged nose than other Asians

short nose

Thai have a marked angle in the eyebrows

Less face fat, more likely for cheekbones to show even though they dont jut out small heartshaped face outer fold curls up noticeably for distinctive look

Southeast Asian characters present but faint.

well-defined eyebrows more prominent eyelids

Fuller lips

Lao eyebrows are broad but so sparse and faint theyre almost absent Today light skin is considered more beautiful, but in the past the darkest skin was the most esteemed.

flat nose gentle contours

small but full mouth, upper lip almost thicker than lower

Black

Black

Medium ocher Dark brown

Black

Dark ocher

Black

Blue-black

76

Tibetan Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan

1.68 Hair is somewhat wavy and can even be curly, but often braided finely. Traditionally women braid it in 108 braids. Men have full moustaches but sparse beards they pluck out.

Turkic Western China, Turkestan; Tatars, Uzbeks, Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, Kazakhs; can still be seen although nearly entirely diluted in todays Turks and Azeris.
1.65 Due to extreme admixture, manyTurkic people today look Mediterranean: refer to Mediterranean and Levantine for modern Turks. However, we know from depictions that the early Ottomans were clearly Mongoloid, so they belong in this section. Straight hair, scant or no beard Middle-sized, square-built, inclined to stoutness Very small hands and feet

Brachycephal
Features are chiseled, which doesnt usually occur in Asian faces high cheekbones high cheekbones nose has a broad convex bridge that is very noticeable sparse littledefined eyebrows Bushy eyebrows that tend to meet in the middle Frequently have light skin, hair and eyes with a Mongolian facial structure.

broad features single or double flat nose small mouth

clear doubleeyelids

cheekbones prominent

long face squaring at the bottom

very rounded face contour

Brown or black

Dark or lighter brown

Some have very light hazel or green eyes due to Mongol heritage

Blue or grey can also occur

Medium brown

Dark brown

Blue-black

Black

Dark brown

Light ocher

Brown ocher

77

Ainu Aboriginal population of Northern Japan

Pacific Amerind West Canadian coast, eastern Alaska (Tlinkit, Chinook), outskirts in northwestern U.S.A. and on the Rio Grande (Navajo, Apache)
1.67 Straight or slightly wavy hair

1.58 Stocky build. Overall they look distinctly nonAsian but rather like heavy-featured Caucasians. Thick wavy hair and the worlds biggest beards. The Ainus developed pilosity is what distinguishes them the most immediately from Japanese. Medium to tall, robust build

Little to no body hair

Body build rather massive

Mesocephal

Look like they have Asian eyes and nose on a Western face structure

much dimensionality here, deep-set eyes higher-bridge nose than Japanese Large ears full eyelids mens eyebrows quite bushy

Brachycephal

Receding forehead

Striking nose with straight or slightly convex bridge

full eyelids nose can be broad chiselled jaw

strong cheekbones full lips

medium broad nose marked folds broad rectangular face

cheekbones slightly emphasized

broad mouth with thin lips

Mens lower face is usually hidden behind a thick beard and mustache

Black

Black

Ash brown to black Medium brown

Blue-black Dark sienna

78

Silvid Amerind
Wood region from middle to eastern Canada, Appalaches (Mohicans, Delawares, Iroquois), prairie region of the Middle West (Sioux = Dakota) 1.68-1.75 Taller than Pacific, broad, robust build, mostly mesomorph but tend to obesity when exposed to a European diet. When excessive weight is gained, it is carried around the midsection, in the belly rather than in the legs or rear. Overpronation of the feet and knockknees are a common problem since the introduction of hard-soled shoes.

Margid Amerind California, Sonara, scattered remains in Mexico, the Rocky Mountains (Shoshone), Florida and the eastern coast area up to Newfoundland
? Much weaker facial hair growth Medium stature, robust bone structure

Women have wide hips, broad shoulders equal to hips, and commonly an hourglass figure.

Receding forehead

Mesocephal to dolichocephal

Mesocephal

Striking narrow to medium nose with convex or hooked bridge Strong chin Slightly receding chin

Slanting forehead with emphasis of the bulge above the eyes

Clearly retracted nose root and straight or concave bridge

Very high hairline Sparse faint eyebrows

epicanthal fold, more often in women and children

Broad face Small eyelid slit

Broad mouth

Rectangular face

Moderately full lips

Medium to broad nose

Black

Copper Blue-black

Black Very dark brown Blue-black

79

Central Amerind Southwestern U.S. (Hopi), eastern and southern Mexico (Maya, Azteks descendants), Central America, western Columbia
1.55
todays Maya

Amazonian Jungle of the Amazon basin (Yanomami) and adjacent highlands, coast areas of Brazil, Venezuela and Guayana, Caribbean
1.50 Straight or slightly wavy hair Small build, short stature No body or facial hair Little to no waist in either gender
men women

1.62

classic Maya

1.45 women No body hair

1.52

women

Medium or small build, stocky The Mayan ideal of beauty: high cheekbones, thin lips, and an aquiline nose. Cross-eyes were attractive. Newborns heads were bound between boards to achieve an angle of 180 or more between the nose and forehead (elongating the head to resemble an ear of corn).

Straight or slightly wavy hair

1.40 breast shape

Females are plump with a strongly curved lower back, but small bottoms

Very brachycephal

Steep, but narrow forehead Straight or slightly convex nose bridge

Mesocephal

Steep, broad forehead Projecting or concave nose with high root Face projects forward more strongly

Slightly receding chin Rectangular face

Chin tends to recede Oval face with soft features

Medium to broad nose Relatively delicate features Broad mouth line, moderately full lips

Lower face than most North Amerinds Medium to broad nose

Slightly emphasized cheekbones (quite salient in Maya)

Thicker lips

Black

Black

Dark sienna

Blue-black

Medium ocher

Blue-black

Brown-black

80

Andid Andes (Quechua or Inca, Araucanians), coast of Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile
1.55-1.60

Inuit Arctic circle

1.58-1.65 More body fat for protection against the cold Very small hands and feet

Peruvian tribes consider an hourglass figure looks ill and prefer an apple type figure on women, where the waist is not very pinched in.

Traditionally a very round face with narrow angled eyes is considered beautiful (it can be seen in traditional art), as well as a tall lean build for men.

Mesocephal to Brachycephal

Clearly sloped forehead Projecting nose with high root and straight or convex bridge

Dolichocephal or Mesocephal

Somewhat flat profile

Nose closer to mongoloid

Longish oval face, plump in women Clear emphasis of the cheekbones Moderately full lips

Strong Indian fold Medium broad Medium to broad mouth

Round cheeks reddened by cold Rounded face, can look chubby

Strong Indian fold Strong jaw Nose can be much broader

Black

Black

Olive sienna

Blue-black

Light sienna

Blue-black

81

II. GENERAL CAUCASIAN

Caucasian types are distributed from Western Europe and North Africa all the way to India. Needless to say they vary quite a bit in almost all aspects, but they do share some fundamental features that set them apart from other types.

Body type
Stature varies, but the artistic ideal of the body height = 7 to 8 heads was based on this type of body, hence these general proportions. This is the hairiest type for both beard and body hair. This type has the lightest skin tones, but also has dark ones. Note that women generally have lighter skin than men.

Nose
The nose is the most distinctive Caucasian feature as it projects well forward of the eyes. It has a high root and bridge with wings usually pressed-in. While Asian noses show the nostrils from the front, Caucasian noses more frequently show them from the sides if at all.

Shape of the face

Forearm and upper arm are equal

Lower leg and thigh are equal

Womens breasts and hips are fully developed

The cheekbones are compressed, creating a narrower face than Asian types where cheekbones project sideways. In Medieval Europe people went to great lengths to keep their skin pale as that implied a high status that spared them from working outdoors. A fatter physique signifying wealthy idleness was similarly preferred to the muscular figure of a field worker. Today, for the same socioeconomic reasons, people seek a tan, which implies travel (and wealth) and leisure time (do note that pinkish-white skins just dont tan, though). Toned bodies are favored as they imply someone takes care of their body and health and have the money and self-discipline to do so. Excessive muscles however are perceived as unattractive or aggressive.

Eyes
As far as the color of the European eye is concerned, keep this in mind: the continent is so mixed that you can find both light and dark eyes (and hair) in all populations. I adhere to conservative descriptions because we need to know how the peoples looked before getting so mixed, but dont feel too restricted by them if your representation is contemporary. The eye looks bigger than Asian eyes but thats simply due to the absence of the epicanthal fold. We can broadly say that the further North you go, the smaller the eyes are, while around the Mediterranean they are large enough to look feminine. In Western and Northern Europe there can be an external fold over the eyes that makes them look droopy. At the very least it shows up in old age. This coincides with severe wrinkling brought by age while other regions age more smoothly (unless theres heavy exposure to sun and wind). Corner always exposed 82

Hands
Hands are relatively short and stubby with nails that cover most of the end of their finger. Finger tips are thin (seen from the side, they taper as opposed to being padded)

External fold

Saami (Lapp) Arctic Scandinavia and Finland

Short stature 1.63 Narrow shoulders and hips Long arms Short legs, especially in the lower leg Legs often bowed
men

Nordic
Norway, Sweden, Iceland, North Germany, Netherlands, Belgium (and to a lesser degree all Northern Europe) 1.84 Netherlands Norway/Sweden Denmark 1.80 1.77 1.68 women 1.65 women 1.63 Belgium Moderate Hair: beard and A legend in the Edda low body hair describes the aristocratwave Long legs, short arms

Thick straight hair, beard merely a few hairs 1.51

women

No hair on chest or belly

Proportionately large head Long trunk Small delicate hands and feet Limb proportions, sparseness of body hair, small jaw and nose combine to give a child-like look.

In the 19th c. the Dutch were the shortest Europeans

ic class as being tall, lean men with blond hair and hard, cold, snakelike eyes while the intermediate class of smiths and craftsmen was red-haired Tall, can be and big-muscled, and heavily built the lower class was or slender. short and dark-haired Icelanders are (imported from central thicker-set. Europe).

Brachycephal
Nose straight or concave, low root Snubbed upturned tip Weak chin Narrow forehead: seen from above the head is a short egg shape Eyes widely separated

Mesocephal or dolichocephal
Back of the head is compact: upper neck shows above collar before this curve

Retreating forehead, parallel to nose Weakly developed browridges Transition from nose bone to cartilage is marked

Nostrils more visible from side Thin cheeks, Straight nose than front clear chin Long narrow face, looks bony and sharp Thin eyebrows Narrow forehead

Low childlike nose

Black, light blue

Grayish yellow to medium brown

Icelanders are on the darker end of this spectrum and also have some black and rufous hair due to Irish strain. Belgian and Norwegians Swedes more Dutch mostly more ash than golden than Ash blonde Dark brown Brown-black Pinkish white light brown golden ash

External fold can Very short Nose thin and appear with age face is a definsteep-sided ing character- Compressed at Eye slit horitemples istic, due to zontal but may reduced jaw droop outside Thin tip, compressed wings. A Skin is thin so the lot of Norwegians line between the naThe less mixed the person, the have a round ball sal bones can often darker the eyes and hair light at the nose tip be seen hues come from mixture with Small mouth Norwegians or Finns. Medium brown to ash blond

83

British Islanders
British Isles (English, Irish, Scottish, Welsh), North-West France, North-West Spain (Galicia). The Cornish are more Euro-Mediterranean. men Hair fine, mostly 1.75 straight, but Irish hair 1.61 women has a low wave Irish head is one of the The Irish are Modlargest in Europe broad-built and erate large boned, the Scots and Irish are beard rest lighter in tallest, then English, and stature then Welsh. body hair Short arms Trunk is half the total height The Celts had rufous hair but bleached it as blond Hips narrow relatively was the beauty ideal. to shoulders They had a long upper Irish characterized by face, a sloping forehead, upturned nose, convex and a prominent nose. upper lip, and prominent chin. In the 1500s, English women applied British have sulphur powder and unusually saffron to their hair Mesocephal long heads to create a fashionable red tint. In the Convex or 17th c. lead combs straight were used to turn wet hair black. In the Nose Renaissance, Europromipeans, especially the nent but English, blackened pinched their teeth to show Longish narIrish have characthey could afford row face teristically thick sugar, known to rot eyebrows the teeth. Broad forehead and jaw: the sides of the face parallel Medium wings Thin to medium lips
20-30% of darker eyes for all except the Irish, who have almost only blue or green eyes, no gray or dark.

Baltic
Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Germany, to some extent in Scandinavia 1.80 Germ., Fin. 1.69 women 1.76 Moderate mustache but faint beard Broad shoulders Straight hair but wavy beard Short and heavy legs, hands and feet

Stocky and broad, but the Letts are slenderer Short arms

Body hair is faint

Scanty arm and leg hair Some of the most famous cases of giantism came from Finland

Brachycephal

Forehead slopes only slightly or not at all High root

Short arms

Straight or slightly concave Lines of the chin nearly at right angle Eye slits horizontal but can rise at the outer corner, especially in women Frequent external fold Heavy jaw, wide chin

Face looks large Broad forehead Small widely spaced eyes Prominent cheekbones Nostrils visible from the front Medium to thin lips
Lithuanians: usually mixed blue-gray eyes

Eyebrows can be paler than (light) hair, so pale as to vanish External fold can appear with age Irish chin is square and often cleft

Blue, light-mixed, some green

Light eyes, with blue commoner than gray Finns: blue can be so pale theyre known as white-eyed Finns

Fair, tends to freckling and vascularity

Irish: pinkishwhite

The whole range of rufous hues English: the lightest-haired in this type, more light brown and golden blonds

Scots: dark to light brown. Irish: mostly red shades, especially (dark) browns; no ashen hues. Welsh: darker brown and black; have the most pure red.

Ivory but not necessarily vascular, can look greyish

Blue eyes usually go with brown hair, gray eyes with ash blond.
Medium brown Ash blonde

84

Slavic
Somewhat hybrid of Nordic and Baltic; Poland, Russia, Ukraine, East Germany, Czech, Slovakia, Serbia
1.78 Poland 1.76 Russia, Ukraine Straight to wavy hair Beard fairer than head hair Light beard and body hair Broad shoulders and hips Thick-set to medium built, corpulence common (especially in women)

Alpine
France, South Germany, Switzerland, Austria, North Italy, the Tyrol, Hungary, Slovenia, Poland; some in Czech and Slovakia, 1.78 Czech 1.75 France, Italy (men) 1.66 It. women 1.62 Fr. women

Short, stocky, square-built Scanty body hair

Short neck Hair stiff and thick, beard on the thin side Womans hips narrower than other Europeans Short broad hands and feet Nose often short with bulbous end

Long arms and trunk compared to legs Russian women dont like to have a thigh sweep or even calves: the leg is preferred as a continuous tapering cylinder.

Brachycephal
Short nose

Polish patriotic epics around the 16th c. describe the ideal Slavic beauty as slightly corpulent, broad-hipped (to give birth to 10 children), a long braid of thick hair the color of wheat (one heroine was said to be able to wrap herself and her husband 3 times with her long braid), and eyebrows so dark one would think she darkened them with khol.

Short squat legs, thick calves

Brachycephal, sometimes hyperbrachycephal

Only juts back a little Very little neck to be seen above collar Short head, broad face Eyes low and widely spaced giving childlike quality Mediumsized nose
France: from light in the NW to dark in the SE (strains other than Alpine) Germany: light or mixed eyes (strains other than Alpine) Hungarians are too mixed to really be classified but they have the highest proportion of green eyes in the world

Tip horizontal, slightly turned up, sometimes snubbed Round face and plump cheeks are typical, and characterise the women of this type.

Eyebrows and eyelashes are dark even if hair is light Mediumbroad root Often redcheeked due to vascularity

Germans have a characteristically large head

Seen from front, ears protrude more because theyre turned forward French: medium to dark brown hair, usually rufous. Czech: medium brown to lighter shades that are more golden than ashen. German: varies from golden blonds to rufous browns.

In 19th-century Germany, being overweight was attractive (showed wealth). Young men duelled to gain facial scars, which were a sign of masculinity.

Light-mixed, gray shades

Dark brown rare in Poland

White to light brown

Medium to dark brown, dark ash-blond All shades of brown Light brown Platinum blond happens

The whole range of rufous hues

85

Euro-Mediterranean
Mediterranean Europe: Italy, South France, Spain, Portugal, Bulgaria, the Balkans, Croatia, Montenegro; also Cornwall 1.80 Croatia Slender gracile stature, but can also be broad and rugged Long legs, short body Women have broad hips
Italian women used Belladonna, eyedrops to enlarge their pupils and look more beautiful. In 16th c. Venice they applied caustic soda to their hair and sat in the sun to turn it red-gold.

Greek Ancient and modern Greece, Anatolia

1.77 Greek 1.73
Turk

1.74 Spain, Portugal 1.62 women

1.71 Bulgaria 1.58 women

Hair straight or wavy, sometimes curly, medium to fine texture.

Hair often wavy, with heavy beard and body hair. Basques have narrow hips and broad shoulders so their thorax looks conical The early Romans were not very tall but often heavily built, with skulls flat on top and rounded on the sides. A meso- to brachycephalic head form was admired. Their hair was on the dark end of the ashen spectrum. The Roman nose is aquiline.

Thicker beard than the rest of Europe, abundant pilosity Greeks today show much physical continuity with those of Antiquity. We can guess the complexions of the Ancient Greeks from their familiarity with brown, gray, blue and olive leaf eyes; golden, rufous and black hair; rosy white, honey-colored and brownish skin. Women bleached their hair to attain a blond ideal. A pale complexion was admired as a sign of an enviable life of leisure and wealth women regularly used powdered white lead as make-up to look even paler. On the other hand, all the bad guys or grotesque characters in mythology are described as broadfaced, snub-nosed and heavily bearded.

Mesocephal

Bulgarians: dolichocephal Back of head projects

Varies, can be convex or concave, but always short. Bulgarians: mostly straight nose

Brachycephal
Except for the nose, modern Turks are very similar
In 17th-century Turkey the ideal woman was bold-faced, with precisely delineated features and a generously proportioned figure with curved hips. She would pluck her eyebrows into an elongated line and use kohl to join them in a continuous sweep over the bridge of the nose. The eyes would be outlined into a almond shape with extended lines at the outer corners, and the mouth rouged neatly.

Forehead slopes only barely Shallow here Straight Grecian nose almost parallel with the face, thick tip Forehead looks very wide Thick eyebrows, usually meet in the middle Medium to broad root Wings rather flaring
80% dark brown, some black or lighter brown

Rounded chin Basques: straight broad forehead, weak browridges, thin nose that can be aquiline, with thin tip, narrow mid-face, slender jaw, pointed chin. Italians: prominent Roman nose. Large eyes, can be almond-shaped and quite feminine compared to other Europeans Rounded forehead Thick dark eyebrows Face tends to be full rather than bony Slight blue tinge to the lips makes them more cherry-colored than red

Lips thicker than other Europeans Face and jaw narrower than Alpines
Spain: brown to black. Basques: medium, but also light or dark. Bulgaria: dark or mixed. Italy: dark-mixed (especially green-brown) or dark.

Turks have jaw wider than forehead

Light brown to olive

South Italy: mostly brown, some of it rufous, and black. Spain/Portugal: dark brown to black. Basque: 77% brown, otherwise light brown Spain: darkest skins are in to blond. the South (Moorish influ- Bulgaria: dark brown, ence). Andalusia: honey- either ashen or rufous, but 50% of beards disskinned (light brown). proportionately light Galicia: Light skin and eyes are common.

Pure dark

Ashen browns to black

Light brown Turks: also olive to dark brown

86

Armenian
Armenians in Armenia and the diaspora
1.76 Medium stature, varies from heavy to tall Hair: low wave Very heavy beard and body hair: hairiness is a distinguishing feature.

Levantine
Natives of Mount Lebanon (Druze, Maronites, Mutawali, Alaouites), to a lesser extent Palestine, Syria, Jordan
1.76 Hair wavy or curly (especially in Palestinians), heavy beard and body hair. Lebanese women are petite

Medium stature in-between Greek and Arab Incline to corpulence when occupation is sedentary

The Armenians say that when God gave the peoples of the world noses, they got the one at the bottom of the bag, that was the biggest and oddestlooking!

Phoenicians were dolicho- to mesocephal but otherwise share the convex nose and the average height that this group had until this century (1.60m).

Brachycephal

Root and bridge very high, can start from forehead Very long nose, characteristically convex

Brachycephal
Palestinians: back of the head is very flat, almost no curve. Forehead tends to be flat and sloping. Lebanese women have a reputation for beauty partially due to the extreme care they take of their appearance. They pluck their eyebrows into a thin high arch, shadow their eyes with a heavy dark outline stretched into an almond shape, and outline their lips with a hue darker than the lipstick used. In Over 80% pure Jordan and Lebanon brown eyes, many bleach their hair, and all body hair most of the rest green-brown is removed.
mixes, some pure blue Light to medium brown the whitest Middle Easterners

Moderate browridges High broad bridge, often convex

Heavy eyelids Large eyes Medium to flaring wings Prominent, cleft chin

Nose consistently broad from root to tip Thin lips

Medium to broad root Large eyes

Wings not compressed Medium lips

Dark, light and mixed-brown Dark brown, also black or medium

Light to medium brown

The Phoenicians skin color was comparable to a ripe date or a bay horse. 87

Lebanese: Dark brown and black in equal measure, but also lighter browns and dark blonds. Palestinian: 80% black.

Arab
A distinction must be made between the pure or historic type, that survives in Yemen, and todays typical Arab: the Gulf Arab, who shows a heavy admixture of African features. 1.74 Saudi 1.64 historically Hair wavy or curly Slight build, lean, with wide, open never broad ringlets, medium texture.

Mesopotamian
Iraq (direct lineage from ancient Mesopotamian and Sumerians)
1.68 historically 1.76 today Hair: low wave Taller, darkerskinned, longer-faced, straighterhaired than Arabs Thick head hair, strong beard hair, beard much heavier than Arabs.

Narrow shoulders

Body hair moderate, and often absent.

Beard often slight, doesnt cover the entire lower face; bare patches between end of mustache and chin beard.

Long legs, linear build

Heavy body hair, often excessive

Long legs Dolichocephal

High narrow root Convex or straight nose Outer corner can slope up Narrow oblique nostrils Narrow bridge and tip Compressed wings Lips slightly turned out: seam is visible

Dolichocephal

Nose longer and broader than Arab nose Straight nose, sometimes convex

Narrow face

Rectangular face

Upper face is high Big eyes

Thick tip Fuller lips

Todays Gulf Arab looks more like this:

Dark brown but 25% of light-mixed

Patch of hair under lip is very common

Bigger nose, nostrils can be visible

Medium brown

Dark browns and mixed (especially green-brown)

Light olive Today: olive but tanned to dark olive

Brown-black

Dark brown

Black

88

Egyptian
Ancient and modern Egypt (Ancient coexisted with Nilotid types, modern coexist with Arab types; Copts are the best representatives today of the Ancient type) 1.75 today 1.66 historically 1.57 women In Ancient Egypt both women and men took much care of their looks. Women wore lipstick and blush made from red ochre, green eye shadow from malachite, black eyeliner and mascara; they dyed their skin with henna. Women of high status wore red nail polish and coated their nipples with gold. Shiny Hair: Mostly black hair was the ideal, and a curly with formula of juniper berry juice spirals of kept it from turning gray. The small ringlets, hair must also be thick, so hair fine texture extensions and wigs were used. A muscular physique was considered the natural state of the male body and therefore attractive, but fat was even more attractive, as it meant one could afford to eat much and work little. For beauty standards today see Levantine.

Berber
North Africa from the Western Sahara to Lybia
1.72 Hair straight or wavy

Scanty beard and body hair.

In Mauritania, women should be as big and pale as possible. Until recently 12 and 13 year-old girls would be sent to wife-fattening farms.

Brachycephal

Browridges often prominent Straight to aquiline nose Pointed chin frequently receding

Dolichocephal

Sloping forehead Nose often aquiline, not high rooted Prominent chin Eyebrows typically medium in thickness and very extended laterally

Narrow face

Very long eye slits create characteristic shape Narrow nose

Slender jaw
Rufous hair sometimes occurred in ancient Egypt, and could be quite red, but it was regarded as a mark of the evil god Seth.

Dark to light brown

Dark brown

Dark to light brown, many mixed patterns

Light brown to dark brown as one goes South

Black or very dark brown, beard sometimes lighter

In Morocco half the Berbers have mixed (greenbrown, gray-brown, or blue-brown) or light eyes, and unmatched eyes are common.
Black

89

Tuareg
Specialised nomadic Berber group of North Africa
1.74 Hair straight, wavy or curly with ringlets Hands and feet long and very narrow, fingers long and thin, very fine wrists and ankles Mixed forms (lower classes) have a lower stature, broader shoulders, a broader face (like example below). Medium to tall

Irano-Afghan
Iran, Afghanistan, Punjab, Kurds
1.78 1.68-1.70
Kurds

Very tall and lean Narrow shoulders and hips Seen from the side the chest is narrow as well Long arms and legs

Long legs, short body

Hair straight or wavy Heavy beard and body hair

The Persian ideal of beauty for a woman: a broad moon faces, bold black arched eyebrows extended to go down either side of the nose, slanting eyes, a red mouth and long black hair

Dolichocephal Large head

Ideal to which many belong: diamond-shaped face, with narrow high forehead, no browridges, prominent mid-face, narrow jaw and pointed chin.

Nose convex or straight

Dolichocephal

Usually convex, salient nose

In reality Tuareg men are never seen unveiled.

Jaw frequently deeper and heavier than among Arabs Long face Large eyes Long narrow nose Strong bony relief
Dark brown

Receding chin Sharp features as opposed to Mesopotamians Characteristically long upper face

Small wings Thin to medium lips

Uniformly: pure dark brown

The Pashtun of Afghanistan have such a high proportion of green eyes they are often called Hare Ankheian Vaale: the green-eyed people.

Black

Medium to dark brown Natural color: medium brown (pure) to amrani (African admixture) Actual color: stained by the indigo of their clothes

Persistent minority of blondism

Dark brown

Black

90

Rom
Nomadic group spread all over the world (commonly known as Gypsies)
1.62 Short, get taller when mixed Straight hair, fine in texture (wavy only when mixed) Small stature

North Indian
Pakistan, northern India
1.69 Straight or wavy hair

Dolichocephal Straight or upturned nose Curved features

Straight nose

Elliptical face Large eyes Large eyes

Often marked cheekbones

Mediterranean facial features

Rounded tip

Medium to full lips

Dark brown to black for the majority

Black, but light eyes frequent enough to be a beauty ideal Black Reddish brown to very dark brown Black

Noticeably dark; yellowish brown to very dark brown

Brown-black

91

South Indian
Southern India, Sri Lanka, Tamil

Vedda
Aboriginal population of Sri Lanka (highland forests)

1.58 Small stature Marco Polo reported that the Dravidians of South India anointed newborns with sesame oil to turn their skin darker, as darker skin was held in much higher regard (as a matter of fact gods and heroes were depicted with black skin while demons had white skin). Nowadays the tendency has reversed and, throughout India, fair skin and light eyes are sought after.

1.48

women

1.55 Small stature Curly or wavy hair

Curly or wavy hair

Rounded forehead

Slight prognathism

Non-prominent chin Large eyes

Round face Large eyes deep-set and widely spaced Prominent cheekbones

Receding chin Face is large, making the head look small Nose somewhat flat but small Full lips

Eyebrows in rounded arch

Average nose

Oval face

Pointed chin

Very dark Dark olive brown

Grey olive

Black Black Black Brown-black

Very dark brown Black

92

III. GENERAL AFRICAN

Body type
This is the group where body types vary the most spectacularly, as it contains both the tallest and the shortest people on Earth. Except for those very short types, the stature is mostly tall.

Hands
The hands are long, with nails that cover most of the end of the finger. Seen from the side, the finger tips taper rather than being padded.

Forearm longer than upper arm

Beard and body hair are meager

Lower leg longer than thigh

Womens shoulders tend to be broader than their hips.

Hair
African hair is mostly frizzy. Left to its own devices it would grow out and up as below, but traditional African societies always shape, cut or shave it. When representing a native culture it is essential to look up its distinguishing hairdo(s).

Flat feet

Ears
Ears are characteristically small, with a soldered lobe and an excessive roll to the helix. They rarely slant, usually their axis is perfectly vertical.

Like very small curls

S-type

Caucasian Nose

African

The funnel nose is specific to African types, but not all of them have it. It is broad and flat with flaring wings that pass over to the nose. Bottom

Nose tip and nostrils form one piece 93

Not curling so much as zigzagging

Z-type

Sudanid
The extreme of African types, where all the characters are found in their purest form. From Senegal to Sudan; Mandingues, Hausa, Wolof, Bambara... 1.75 Broad shoulders No body hair
men

Central African
Central jungle region: Congo, Guinea...
Plump stocky build, tendency to amass fat, especially in women 1.63-1.66 Robust longer upper body Body hair and beard stronger than in other Africans Short arms and legs Frizzy hair Hanging breasts

1.65 women Breasts conical or hanging

Tall, strongly built Long legs

Women have a narrow pelvis

Dolichocephal Long narrow skull Back of head projects strongly Small gracile ear Slim strong neck Face big and quite long Low, broad, bulky nose bridge Nostrils broad and inflated, funnel nose
Scarification is a highly important beautification practice for men and women in many tribes. The patterns differ from culture to culture so research is needed.

Steep narrow forehead Root of nose is flat Rounded tip Clear prognathy Soft chin, sometimes receding Cheekbones can project to the sides, giving the face a diamond shape Very bulging lips, turned out, big mouth
Plump is beautiful in many tribes women are fattened with special food before marriage.

The Baule (Ivory Coast) notion of ideal beauty: an elaborate coiffure, well-defined facial features, a long neck with horizontal beauty lines, muscles Mesocephal for men, high breasts for women, muscular calves, and beauty scarification.

Strong arching of the lower back, vaulted stomach, plump bottom Steep narrow forehead Low straight bridge, blunt tip, upturned in women Clear prognathy

Short neck

Broad face squared in men, rounded in women Funnel nose but less broad than Sudanid Lips turned out and thick, but less than Sudanid, big mouth

Receding chin Low face Root of the nose very flat and broad Cheekbones project a bit; well-padded in women Blue-reddish lips

In Congo and among the Asante of Ghana the heads of newborns are massaged to create the beauty ideal of a large, flattened forehead and elongated head. Also desired are rings of fat around the neck (wealth, health and beauty) and a small mouth (quiet and calm).

Black

Very dark brown to brown-black

Brown-black

Very dark brown but can be lighter

Black

Brown-black

94

Nilotid
Northeast Africa in the Nile area; Dinka, Shillouk, Kalenjin, Luo, Maasai, Nuer, Turkana
1.80
but easily reach 2m

Small head relative to body Very long forearms

Weak beard No body hair

Mixed types defined less by what they have in common than by how they contrast with other Africans. South Africa: Mozambique, Angola, lower East Africa, Zulu in South Africa, Herero in Namibia
1.64-1.70

Bantu

1.62 Turkana

Half-ball breasts with very small nipples Slim straight profile

Body type similar to Sudanese but not as extreme Smaller height and shorter arms and legs than Nilotids, but not as plump and stocky as Central Africans

Men have broad shoulders and strong muscles

Beard can be quite strong but no body hair

Women can have long trunks Very arched lower back and vaulted hanging stomach in men and women Legs Thin often calfs short
A full figure in women is a symbol of prosperity and status.

Gaunt, very long legs Almost calf-less lower legs Narrow head that projects back Small ears

Browridges hardly marked Straight narrow nose Strong chin but no prognathy
The Maasai beauty ideal: cleanliness, care for ones appearance, beaded jewelry (seen as part of the body), white teeth, short hair, tall stature, elongated ear lobes.

Long high head Small short flat nose, rounded tip Chin weak, but recedes only in women Mens face tends to square, womens to round or chubby-oval, due to cheekbones that project sideways and front

The Wodaabe beauty ideal: lithe sinewy body, broad forehead, smooth complexion, oval face, straight nose, bright eyes, delicate lips, white teeth

Long face Men tend to have angular coarse facial bones while women have a soft full rounding of features Lips thick but in a toned-down way High narrow root Close-set eyes Narrow nose but flaring nostrils

Strongly inflated nostrils

Brown-black to blue-black, the darkest Africans of all

Black Black Brown-black to blue-black

Basically chocolate, but can vary greatly

Brown-black

Maasai can be chocolate

95

Ethiopid
Ancient mix of African and Arab. Ethiopia (Abyssinia, Somaliland, Eritrea); Amharas, Gallas, Sidamos, Somalis
1.74
Galla, Somali

Slim tall stature Long legs, short arms Slim hands, long fingers Thin arms and calves Scant body hair

Weak beard High, narrow angular shoulders Slim straight profile

Banana body shape very common in women.

1.67 Amhara

1.64 Sidamo

Curly to frizzy hair; Somalis tend to curly and some have straight hair

Hips narrower than shoulders Difference between male and female is slight
Small feet

Somali women have gracefully built bodies with small conical breasts; Amhara/ Galla breasts tend to hang.
Despite their slender figure, the Somalis value steatopygia, so a rich young man looking for a wife will have the girls stand in a line and choose the one who projects furthest behind.

Dolichocephal Ears slant characteristically Strong chin but no prognathy. Somali chin however is receding

Browridges slight or absent in Galla/ Sidamo, moderate in Amhara, heavy in Somali High root
Sidamo nose is more African

Narrow head, long face

Big eyes Galla and Sidamo can have inner fold like in Asian eyes and oblique eye slits

High forehead, wider than jaws Amhara and Somali have thicker, more concurrent eyebrows Narrow tip Thick lips

Straight nose, sometimes bent.

Somali can look beaky

Jaw narrowness reaches a world extreme in the Somalis

Amhara, Galla: dark and mixed brown

Sidamo, Somali: dark brown and black

Occasional greenbrown or greybrown mixture

Ethiopians divide themselves into 4 different skin colors: yellow, yellow-red, red and black

Amhara: dark to very dark brown Galla: chocolate to dark brown Somali: amrani, peculiar to them Sidamo: dark brown, brown-black
Brown-black

96

Khoisan
Aboriginal inhabitants of South Africa, today mostly in Namibia and Botswana; Khoi (aka Bushmen), San (aka Hottentots)
1.44-1.60 men 1.50 Skin very wrinkled
women

Pigmy
Rain forests of equatorial Africa; Mbuti in Zaire, Biaka in North Congo, Baka in Cameroon, Twa in Uganda, Rwanda, South Congo... Can be as short as 1.20m
1.53
men

1.55-1.60 Twa 1.44 women

Weak beard

No body hair

Muscular stature Long broad trunk on short legs

Steatopygia can reach spectacular proportions in women

Head looks big in relation to body Angular shoulders

Curly hair, strongish pilosity

Lower back strongly arched

Small skull

Mesocephal

Steep low forehead Round nose tip

Pointed chin Peppercorn hair

Short neck
Pygmies file their teeth to a point, something they find much more aesthetic.

Receding chin

Jutting cheekbones Relatively thin lips

Eye folds Broad nose

Cheekbones project a bit Proportionately, the biggest nose of humankind Broad lower jaw

Inflated nostrils Moderately thick lips

Black Black

Brown-black Khoi San Very dark brown Twa: brownblack

Brown-black

Twa: blueblack

97

IV. PACIFIC TYPES

Also known as Australoids, these are types that dont fit the other 3 but are not necessarily related to each other. What they have in common is a dark skin, dark hair, and moderate height.

Australian Aboriginal
Aboriginals of Northern and Central Australia; Southern Aboriginals are different in the ways listed below.
1.60

Melanesian
Papua, New Guinea, Fiji, islands northeast of Australia. Abundant wavy or curly hair Large head Moderate to strong beard Heavier than Micronesians or Polynesians Obesity is a sign of affluence and well-being Receding forehead Prominent brow arches Projecting straight nose, can be beakshaped

Robust stature

Broad shoulders

Abundant wavy or curly hair Moderate to strong beard Thickset and massive body with a tendency to corpulence

1.55

Southern: lighter hair and skin, finer features, are a little shorter and lankier. Very dolichocephal The hair of elderly Aboriginals often has dark grey roots while turning white as it grows out. Deep-set eyes, pretty much always in shadow Rough bony features

Prominent brow arches Root of the nose is not flat, unlike African noses

Very elongated cranium

Convex nose wide at the nostrils and narrow at the root Lips very full but not turned out

Large face

Wide lower jaw Thick lips

Nose very wide but not high

Black

Brown-black Southern: very dark brown or coffee Brown-black Blue-black Black Coffee Brown-black Blue-black

Ash blond dominates in parts of Centre and of the South. 98

Polynesian
Islands of the Central and eastern Pacific: Hawaii, New Zealand, Tahiti, Bali, Bora Bora, Samoa, Easter Island
1.72

Negrito
Philippines to New Guinea Asian pygmies
1.48 men

Wavy hair Head is particularly big in Maori

Weak pilosity

Stature tends to massive Range from relatively light skinned with almost caucasian features to darkerskinned and Asianlooking (Tahiti)

Well-proportioned despite their small size

1.37 women

No facial or body hair

Stout body, short legs

Maori men are known for the warrior tattoos on their face and body.

In Vanuatu babies heads are bound to produce an elongated shape of the head Long that makes a person legs look more intelligent, Feet higher in status and slightly closer to the world of spirits (not to mention inward more beautiful). Brachycephal high forehead Large straight nose

Steatopygia is common

Broad straight nose Prognathy Weak chin Peppercorn hair Broad face Large eyes Root broad and flat Epicanthic fold frequent Prominent cheek bones

Rounded jaw-line

Broad and heavy face, especially in Maori Occasional presence of epicanthic fold

Maori profile. Other Polynesians have more prognathy and a nose that projects less

full lips Maori have thinner lips Lips full but not turned out

The islands of Micronesia are home to a physically heterogeneous population that is smaller than the Polynesians, Dark brown with hair that varies from straight to spirally, skin from medium brown to chocolate, and the occasional presence of epicanthal fold. Micronesians consider large, full-bodied women more attractive than thin ones. Blue-black

Maori: medium brown Brown to dark brown

So dark it can take on bluish tinge

Black Coffee Brown-black Brown-black

99

V. NOTES ON MIXED TYPES

The following are notes about the mixed populations that are not treated as primary types. Note that I qualify the groups so they are not confused with a countrys general, contemporary demographics. For instance White Canadian (i.e. the white population of Canada that has been settled long enough to consider Canada as their country of origin) as opposed to Canadian (which would include other ethnic groups both old, such as the First Nations, and new, such as the Chinese, both of which are treated under their respective types.) with large populations of the above as well as communities of Levantine and Chinese origin. Brown or hazel eyes are the most common for people of Iberic, Indian, African origin. Average heights: Argentina: 1.74 for men, 1.61 for women Brazil: 1.69 for men, 1.58 for women Cuba: 174.0 cm Chile: 1.69 for men, 1.55 for women Colombia: 1.70 for men, 1.58 for women Jamaica: 1.72 for men, 1.61 for women Mexico: 1.67 for men, 1.55 for women Mexican-Americans: 1.70 for men, 1.58 for women Peru: 1.74 Paraguay: 1.73 Uruguay: 1.74 cm

Okinawan: Not a mixed type proper, Okinawans consider themselves closer to Southeast Asia and China in terms of racial and cultural heritage. Differences with mainland Japanese include: - Abundant body hair - Much shorter in size, although todays eating habits have boosted the average; - Larger and rounder eyes, occasionally with very long eyelashes; - Much darker skin to the point of it being a stereotype in japanese minds (even though the dark skin is more due to the climate than to a difference in pigmentation); - Pronounced cheekbones in other parts of the world Okinawans are frequently mistaken for Filipinos or Native Americans. Filipino: An important mixed type including Negrito, Malay (Southeast Asian), Indian, and Spanish among its components. One can only evoke broad characteristics: faces tend to be round and not squared (moon faces), skin is in the lighter range of this part of the world, eyes are large, nose rather flat, lips full. Average heights: 1.63 cm for men, 1.52 for women Latin American: These countries feature descendants
of all of the following ethnic groups: Euro-Mediterranean (mostly Spanish and Portuguese), Amerindian (respective to location), [West] African, Mestizo (mixed European and Amerindian: they have the basic structure of the former with the darker skin and broader facial features of the latter.). The proportions of these groups vary, however, giving each country a particular demographic feel: Euro-Mediterraneans are the majority in: Argentina, Uruguay and Chile Mestizos in: Mexico (followed by indigenous people), Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador Andids (Quechua, Aymara) in: Peru and Bolivia Indians in: form the largest ethnic groups in Guyana and Suriname. Africans are significantly presenty in: Guyana, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname and Ecuador. Brazil is the most diverse country in South America,

White American: They run the gamut of all the Old World types that have migrated to the US and theres no common feature to pin down. Note however that these types are rarely if ever found in their primary state, and that the watering down of features leads to them getting evened out in other words, Americans tend not to have extreme facial features. See history and demographics for details of how much of which ethnicities moved there and when. Excess weight is more common in the US than anywhere else in the world. Average heights: 1.79 for men, 1.65 for women
settlers who were mostly British, French, Scottish and Irish. See history and demographics of both countries for details of how much of which ethnicities moved there and when. Again, for details, see history. Average heights: 1.74 for men, 1.61 for women

White Canadian: They descend from early European

Black American: This group is overwhelmingly of

Western African descent (Sudanid type) and presents its characteristics in a watered down way. The dilution can be every pronounced, so that many African-Americans retain African features but have only light dark skin. Studies estimate the average African-American is 20% European or more. Average heights: 1.78 for men, 1.64 for women

mainly descended from Dutch and British settlers of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Average heights: 1.69 for men, 1.59 for women ish and Irish descent. Average heights: Australia: 1.75 for men, 1.61 for women New Zealand: 1.77 for men, 1.65 for women

Afrikaner: The European population in South Africa is

White Australian: That population is mainly of Brit-

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Bibliography
Most of the research presented in this book comes personal observation or from isolated facts pieced together from literally hundreds of sources both in print or online. I list here only those sources that offered a significant amount of material.

Publications:
Drawing the Head and Figure, Jack Hamm Le dessin anatomique facile, Burne Hogarth Bodytalk, Desmond Morris The Racial Elements of European History, Hans F. K. Gnther The Races of Europe, Carleton Stevens Coon [The last two sources, used for the Human Types chapter, are of questionable ideology or used to serve equally questionable agendas. I adhere to neither and did my best to cross-check the material with neutral sources.]

Online resources:

The following websites were still up as of December 09. Many that I sourced are unfortunately no longer online. Center for Nonverbal Studies, http://center-for-nonverbal-studies.org/ The Andamanese, http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/text-group-BodyChapters.htm University of California, Human Development 19: Life Cycles, Kinship and Growth in Human Populations, Lecture 6, http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/courses/hde19/lecture6.html Darken & Shape your Eyebrows, http://www.eyebrowz.com Pointe Shoe Quick Fit Chart, http://www15.plala.or.jp/miagolare/Eng_Fitting_Chart.html Finally, I gathered a lot of anthropological info through the now-defunct DODONA: Human Biodiversity Discussion Forum http://dodona.proboards.com/index.cgi

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