COIll&ND ADD GENE~RAL STAFF COLLEGE

FORT LEAVI

KORTIH,
1947

KAINSAS

6 JUNE
CGS;FT L AVINW9 T
t

DEC 10 1952
ACCESSION

NO____

F RLGSTR_________

wr'b
F

ANALYTICAL STUDY
ARCT IC TRANSPORT!' TION 9OPT. E a

Arctic transportation problems, by Lt Col K. B. Lemrmon, C0030. l9462 " 1965

Tis Document
IS A HOLDING OF THE

ARCHIVES SECTION
LIBRARY SERVICES
FORT LEAVENWORTH,

DOCUMENT NO. N442$. ^f

U nS orm 160 13 Mar 51

KANSAS COPY! NO. z4_

Mar 52-5M

Army-CGSC-P21798-7

Prepared by
Kf B., LE1MAION, JT

TT CO;LIP

CG AN~D

ANDflG
6

.TAl

STAFF

COLiI3E

DTI 19)47

ANAL~YTICAL STUDY
I.:',

AR~CTIC

RASPOTATION PROB

1S

ek pared
x

by

L] 4ON, JR. Inf olone1 ,

ANALYTICAL STUDY ARCTIC TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS I. PRCBIB4 To study Arctic and sub-Arctic transportation problems, maintenance methods, types of equipment and limitations thereof. II. 1. DISCUSSION

Arctic and sub-Arctic transportation problems are of a magni-

tude far beyond the comprehension of the temperate zone minded layman. In order to understand the difficulties inherent to the operation of transportation equipment in these areas, it is necessary first to famil-

iarize oneself with the peculiarities of their physical geography, climate and weather, and secondly to possess an awareness of the motives behind current national economic, military and political interests in the development of this heretofore mysterious portion of the Northern Hemisphere. 2. (Tabs "A" & "B")

Any future large-scale military operations in the Arctic aid

sub-Arctic must necessarily utilize the combined forces of air, water and overland transportation facilities. Many of the current difficult-

ies incident to operation are common to all three modes of transportation and technical advances in one field may find profitable application in one or both of the others. For discussion of air, water and overland

transportation problems, maintenance methods, types of equipment and limitations thereof see Tab "E". III. It 1. is concluded that: The Arctic and sub-Arctic areas over which the United States CONCLUSIONS

exercises jurisdiction are limited and unsuitable for extensive experimentation with, and field testing of, Arctic transportation. Suitable areas for large scale Arctic field maneuvers and amphibious operations do not exist within the United States sphere of jurisdiction.

2.

A northern sea route similar to the Soviet North Sea Route

should be developed connecting the Bering Strait with Baffin or Hudson Bay.

3.

Construction techniques to counter the effects of permafrost

must be developed in the near future to permit the construction of adequate military railroads, highways, airfields and maintenance installations in the sub-Artic. 4. Self-contained, tracked cargo and personnel vehicles are the

best suited to overland and over-ice Artic transportation.

5.

A military counterpart of the civilian tractor train is a

possible solution to the problem of line of communications over-ice supply.

6.

Air supply of overland and over-ice tracked transportation

is necessary. 7. Maintenance and lubrication problems are far from a satis-

factory solution. 8. Present cargo vessels are unsuitable for Polar Sea operation

in view of their inability to withstand excessive ice pressures, 9. Present landing craft and small coastal vessels are unsuit-

able and dangerous for any large scale Artic amphibious operations. 10. An extensive net of ice location stations, weather stations

and position-finding stations are required in connection with the development of Artic Seaways, 11. There is a need for close coordination and marshalling of

Artic research and development agencies in order to avoid dissipation of effort and to ensure complete circulation of techniques and information. 12. Central field testing facilities should be provided for all

government research and development agencies, so they may concentrate full time on their technical work without having the responsibility of administrative and housekeeping duties.

IV. RECOM~mIONS It 1. is recommended that: Rights be obtained from the Canadian Government to adequate experimentation

areas for the purpose of training, field maneuvers, and field testing. 2.

A joint U.S. and Canadian Commission be set up with a view to

developing North American Arctic and sub-Arctic land, air and sea transportation.

3 . US. Arctic research and development be coordinated under a

single agency. 4. The U. S. Army establish and operate an Arctic research,

development and field testing center in Alaska and Canada for the purpose of providing facilities for any and all government agencies to conduct necessary research and tests.

5.

The Army continue experimentation with track-laying vehicles

with a view to developing and organizing Tractor Train companies to transport cargo and personnel overland and over-ice. 6. A highly skilled and qualified committee be organized and

furnished with necessary funds, equipment and personnel for the purpose of conducting permafrost research for the government as a whole, 7. Portable maintenance installations capable of being trans-

ported by glider and tractor train be developed. 8. Selected officers from all arms and services be given practical

experience in Arctic and sub-Arctic transportation operations each year.

K. B. LMON, JR. Inclosures: Lt Colonel, Inf Tab A - General Discussion Tab B - Geography Tab C - Permafrost Tab D - North American Transportation Facilities Tab E - Transportation Problems Tab F - Pipe Lines Tab G - Polar Projection of Arctic and sub-Arctic Regions Tab H - Bibliography Exhibits 1 thru 1 inclusive.

Fix

TAB A

C: ; L DISCUSSION Geographical Delimitation National Iongitud.inal Jurisdiction

- hibit 1 - Arctic Air Routes

flxbaibit 2 - Delimitation of Arctic and sub-Arctic

GTE AL DISCUSSION The tremendous advances made during the last world war in air power, guided missiles and atomic warfare have focused the attention of strategic planners throughout the world on that heretofore little Area, the Arctic. With its unlimited potential capacity thought of for air-

craft and guided missile bases, and its short, direct air routes between most of the world's great capitols and industrial centers (see exhibit 1), the Arctic is of vital importance, particularly from the standpoint of transportation. 1, Geographical Delimitation a. There are several theories current for determining the One concept is that the

southern limits of the Arctic (see exhibit 2),

Arctic Circle forms the boundary and sets off the Arctic as one of the five great divisions of the earths surface as to latitude and temperature. This division is unsatisfactory when we consider that it in-

cludes regions which, according to their flora and fauna, should be classified as temperate, while on the other hand it which on the basis of temperature, should be included in the Arctic. b. A second theory is to delimit the Arctic by the tree line, excludes regions

climate and other considerations

on the assumption that the Arctic is characterized by complete treelessness or the absence of close tree growth, and that no other single element expresses so well the change from temperate to polar conditions. c. A third theory is based upon the relationship between climate

and vegetation, and would determine the southern boundary from the location of places having a mean temperature of 9 degrees centigrade in the warmest month of the year. d. None of these definitions are particularly applicable to

the presentation of military operation of transportation in the Arctic. For purposes of this study, no definite southern geographical boundary for the Arctic or sub-Arctic will be considered. Any geographical area

A-l

will be considered as Artic or sub-Artic if the local conditions are such as to present unusual problems incident to the extreme cold weather operation and maintenance of transportation. 2. National Longitudinal Jurisdiction a. Another consideration of Artic limits which is of par-

ticular strategic importance from a standpoint of transportation is that of national longitudinal jurisdiction. Since there has been no

firm international agreement or understanding regarding international jurisdiction in the Artic area, other than international law governing discovery and international waters, this study will assume the USSR concept ana give it selected because it international application. This concept is

includes almost 50

of the entire Artic area under

USSR jurisdiction, and it is not reasonable to believe that there will ane ever be any aecrease in the size of area by international agreement,

The basis for this concept is a USSR decree issued in 1926 by the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee. The decree claims USSR juris-

diction over the entire Artic area between the Artic coast of the USSR and the North Pole in the sector between the meridians of 168-49'-30" W. and 32-4'-35" E., with the exception of lands and islands already recognized by the USSR as being territory of any foreign state. b. Application of this concept to the entire coastal circum-

ference of the Artic area results in sectors of national jurisdiction as follows: (see exhibit 2)

S NATION
East

NGITOUE M WEST

OF EiTIU

AE

USSR
U.S.

32
-

169 41 - 169

4.0
7.8

Canada
Denmark Norway

31 - 96.

6D - 141
10 - 60

25,5
13.9

A-2

TABSB GEOGRAP~HY

E
j f. -.

AB _ .
_ . _.____-

SECTION I

ARCTIC OCFA

1.
2.

General Description
Polar Pack

Pack Ice

Landfast
5o
Sea

Ice

Currents

SECTION
1,

II -AND AREAS

2.

General
Greenland.

5.

6.

Iceland, Spitzbergen USSR

7.

Alaska
Canada

Exhibit 3-

Arctic Coastal Plain

-

Exhibit 4

Arctic Plateaui

GEOGRAPHY In order to present Arctic transportation in all of its ramifications it is necessary first to outline the general overall geographical picture of this relatively unknown area, This will serve

as background for an understanding of the application of local conditions to specific transportation problems. to map of tne Arctic region, Tab G) SBCTION I - ARCTIC OCEAN 1. General Description - The Arctic Ocean as it is commonly re(Attention is directed

ferred to is no more than a gulf of the Atlantic Ocean of some 5,000,000 square miles in area, and separating North America from Eurasia. we compare it in magnitude with the great oceans of the world, it When is

apparent that the name ocean is not warranted.

Polar Sea, Artic Sea It will henceforth

or Polar Mediterranean would be more appropriate. be referred to as the Polar Sea, 2. pack,

Polar Pack - The polar Sea is approximately 70 fpermanent ice This pack known as the Polar Pack is elliptical in shape and

covers an area of about 1,800,000 square miles and is located with its longer axis along the line Spitzbergen - Point Barrow, Alaska,
The approximate center of the pack, known as the "ice pole" or the "pole of inaccessabillty" is offset fran the geographic North Pole about 00 miles in the direction of Alaska. It is sufficient for

our purposes to assume that the size of the polar pack remains relatively constant over a long period of years, because its periphery is constantly being fed by pack ice reinforced by accretional freez-

ing and snowfall in sufficient quantities to equalize losses by melting, crushing and discharge through the various exits. 3. Pack IceSurrounding the polar pack is the area of pack ice,

which due to the action of wind and sea currents is in almost constant motion. The motion is generally from east to west around the polar

pack in a clock-wise direction toward the Greenland Sea outlet between

B-1

Spitzbergen and Greenland,

The southern extent of pack ice is variable.

During winter months it reaches across the "open sea" or "shore lead" areas to meet the land fast ice and thereby close the shipping lanes. 4.

Iandfast Ice - Pack ice lying along a shore line with its

landward edge firmly fastened to the beach is called landfast or shore ice. Between the landfast ice and the floating pack ice is found a

stretch of open water referred to as open sea when summer conditions prevail, and as shore lead under other conditions regardless of the extent of the open water. against the landfast ice it shore ice into high ridges. When the pack ice closes in and grinds exerts terrific pressure and piles the The Weight of the ridges causes the ice on the bottom, and thereby

to sink lower in the water, often resting it firmly anchoring the pack, 5. Sea Currents - a.

Sea currents are very important factors in is the sea currents com-

any study of Artic transportation, because it

bined with the winds and temperatures that are responsible for the opening and closing of polar shipping lanes, and for the condition of pack surfaces. The latter is of particular importance to over-ice surface The main current or surface water-movement in the

transportation.

Polar Sea is from the vicinity of the Bering Strait across toward Spitzbergen and Greenland, Part of the water and the ice it carries

continues south along the east coast of Greenland to Cape Farewell, At this point it swings north to Davis Strait and Baffin Bay where

it again turns to the south and joins the Labrador Current in its journey past Newfoundland. b. The balance of the trans-polar current that does not flow on

down past Greenland branches off in two directions from an area to the northeast of Greenland. The east Spitzbergen current carries part of Another branch moves

this water and ice southward into the Barents Sea.

to the eastward, part of which passes through Smith Sound and Baffin Bay to join the Labrador Current, while the rest skirts the north Canadian

Islands to the Beaufort Sea and along the coast of Alaska to rejoin the great transpolar drift in the vicinity of the Bering Strait. very small portion of this current flows south through the Bering Straits along the USSR side. c. Although the prevailing current off the northern coast A

of Alaska is westerly there is believed to be a large eddy moving in a clockwise direction from a point about 200 miles north of Alaska. Ice in this eddy would move northeast toward Borden Island where it would join the main current swinging down through the Beaufort Sea and westwardly along the Alaska coast, d. The direction of currents in McClure Strait, Melville

Sound and Lancaster Sound is easterly toward the Atlantic Ocean, e, currents, All of the currents referred to above are cold water There are two warm water currents, one of which, the Japan It flows northward past

Current, will receive only passing mention.

the Japanese archipeligo and is blocked off fram entering the Polar Sea by the Aleutian Chain and the Bering Strait, The other warm This current The waters

water current is the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic Ocean.

is of vital importance in a study of Arctic transportation.

warmed by the Fulf Stream spread northward between Greenland and Norway. The westerly portion makes contact with southern Iceland, and The eastern portion

with the East Greenland and Labrador Currents.

of tne current skirts the coast of Norway and pours into the Barents Sea between Spitzbergen and northern Norway where it pushes back the pack ice to uncover the famous year around USSR seaport of Murmansk. SEIION II - LAND AFAS 1. General - Arctic and sub-Arctic land areas are characterized

by severe weather conditions, rugged mountains, coastal prairies, glaciers, shallow lakes and a peculiar soil condition called permafrost. 2. (Tab C) Greenland, a. Of all the lands surrounding the Polar Sea

The Danish sector is

the only one that satisfies the layman's concept Greenland is a turtle-

of what all Artic lands are believed to be.

backed island averaging some 600-800 miles in width, and more than 1600 miles in length. Mountain ranges extend along each coast. The

central lowland between is completely filled with ice to an elevation of some 10,000 feet above sea level. Echo soundings have indicated

this ice cap to be in excess of 8500 feet in thickness at some points. Although a heavy wheeled plane landing and take off has been successfully accomplished, the surface of the ice cap is far from satisfactory from a transportation viewpoint. This is primarily due to the inter-

lacing of crevasses, and the inaccessability of the top to modes of transportation other than air, b. The coasts of Greenland are the most rugged in the entire The many fiords offer safe harbor for shipping,

Northern Hemisphere.

and were in several instances in the last war the locations of air fields. The east coast is subjected to great quantities of pack ice Ice free land along

deposited there by the east Greenland Current,

the coasts varies from zero to 100 miles in width, c. There is comparatively little snowfree land in southern

Greenland, probably because of the high mountains and heavy precipitation. During the summer the largest snowfree areas are to be found on

the east coast near Disko Island between Latitudes 63 and. 68 degrees north, and on the west coast in the vicinity of Scoresby Sound between Latitudes 70 and 74 degrees north, extreme northern tip of the island. Of importance is Peary Land at the Although it is the most northerly

land in the Artic, Peary Land is largely snow free.

3.

Iceland,

a.

About 200 miles across the Denmark Strait from Unlike its

Greenland is the strategically important island of Iceland. name implies it is

temperate in climate although sub-Artic in latitude.

It is of volcanic origin, extremely rugged and the coastline has many deep fiords that offer unlimited deep water anchorages. During the

B-4

past war, one of these anchorages served as a naval anchorage and way station for Murmansk convoys. b. Land transportation facilities on the Island are poor.

There are no railways, and such roads as there are become practically impassible in winter. Reliance is placed on small intra-island coaster Reykjavik has a moderately sized

type vessels for passenger and cargo. harbor, and safe anchorages.

Minimum dock and unloading facilities are

found on the east and north coasts, c. There are several airfields on the island, one of which

is suitable for heavy planes.

4.

Spitzbergen.

a.

Between the Barents Sea and Greenland lies

the Norwegian Svalbard Archipelago, of which Spitzbergen is the chief island. The location of these islands adjacent to the permanent polar too far north to be

ice pack and within the limits of the pack ice is included in sea shipping lanes. b.

The terrain is characterized by deep fiords, sharp

mountain peaks and many glaciers that do not give rise to large icebergs. 5. There are no overland transportation facilities on the islands. USSR, a. The geography of the USSR Arctic is very important Not only is this area by far

from the standpoint of transportation.

the largest land mass in the Arctic, but it presents the most diversified transportation requirements and problems. Because this rich area is of

such vital importance to the economy of the country, the Russians have made great advances in overcoming the problems of Arctic transportation. Through necessity they have knitted together a vast network of sea, river, land and air transportation to make possible the development of the natural resources of their Arctic and sub-Arctic area. It is inter-

esting to note that development of the Arctic began back in the time of the Czar and has continued with increasing emphasis ever since. In

1932 the Central Administration of the North Sea Route was organized to complete development of the Northeast Passage, and in 1933 it assumed

B-5

the duties of the then liquidated Komseveroput b. By 1936 this Central Administration had assumed an un-

precedented number of tasks which are mentioned here to emphasize the magnitude of the USSR Artic development program. The Administration

was responsible for the promotion of culture on the islands north of the European mainland of the Soviet Artic sector, and on the mainland as well as the islands north of latitude 62 degrees N,, in the Asiatic

sector of the Soviet Artic; for the exploitation of natural resources and the economic development of the Soviet Artic; and for complete mastery of the Artic Sea Route from the Barents Sea to Bering Strait. The latter included administration of seagoing and river craft, the building of ports, the organization of water transport and navigation, shipbuilding and repair, the establishment of airlines and airports, the organization of an air service, etc. c. As has been pointed out, the USSR Artic land border ex-

tending from Murmansk to the Bering Strait comprises 44% of the entire Artic land border. Artic Canada. The land is very similar to that of Alaska and

The area between the Bering Strait and the Lena River

is mountainous, while to the westward the coastal plains broaden out. Drainage is to the north and many of the rivers are navigable, such as the GB, Yenisei and Lena, River traffic has been developed to connect

the interior with the North Sea shipping route through the facilities of harbors established on these main rivers and at other critical points, d. In the interior,overland transportation is rapidly develop-

ing to connect up hitherto isolated areas with the navigable rivers, e. The North Sea Route from Murmansk to Vladivostock via the

Bering Strait is open to regularly scheduled shipping during the month of August. f, No glaciers are found on the USSR Artic mainland, and some The absence of iceberg-

large areas are free of persistent snowbanks.

producing glaciers and the favorable position with regard to iceberg-

laden sea currents passing near Greenland makes the North Sea shipping lanes practically free of icebergs. The glaciated islands of Noyaya-

Zemlya and Franz Josefland do not contribute icebergs. 6. Alaska. a. In Alaska, only approximately one-third of the The bulk of the land

land area lies to the north of the Artic Circle. is very rugged and mountainous, transportation is difficult.

and except for river traffic, overland

Access to the Polar Sea in Alaska is By sea, the only

difficult and almost impossible by overland means.

entrance within our national jurisdiction is through the Bering Strait, which as has been pointed out before, we share with the Soviets. b. The Artic Coastal Plain in Northwest Alaska (see exhibit 3)

is a uniform and monotonous arrangement of old elongated depressions, ponds, lakes, deep sloughs and swamps. These are relatively shallow The banks of these Travel is restrict-

with depths varying from one to twenty feet.

features vary from a few inches to 50 or 60 feet.

ed in this area because the amount of water exceeds the land area. The shore line is characterized by low cliffs, continuous sand reefs, long shallow lagoons and small elongated islands, c. The Artic plateaus lying between the Brooks range and

the Coastal Plain appear as a succession of gentle rolling mosscovered hills. These uplands slope down a distance of 10 to 70 miles

from an elevation of 3000 - 3500 feet at the bottom of the Brooks Range to an elevation of 400 - 600 feet. They are characterized by covered discontinuous rock outcroppings and are cut by gravel/streams and rich valleys. 7. (see exhibit 4) a. There are no mountains in continental Artic

Canada.

Canada except in the extreme northwest in the Yukon Territory, and therefore are few or no persistent snowbanks or glaciers. The islands

to the north of the continent are more rugged and inclined to permanent ice and snow. In particular is Ellesmere Island lying to the north

and west of the Canadian area, contains a very heavy concentration of

B-7

glaciers.

As we move to the south, the glaciers decrease rapidly.

Other islands containing glaciers are Baffin, Devon, Prince Patrick and Melville. b. Overland travel in Canada, as in Alaska and Siberia, is

hampered by Permafrost (see Tab C) and the attendant excessive amounts of surface water,

B-S

TI.-TA~BC - P1 AMkROT

Bxibit 5 Exhibit 6

Typical Cross Section Srface Erruxpt ion

PERMAOST 1, One of the greatest factors to be considered in the develop-

ment of transportation facilities in Arctic and sub-Arctic areas is Permafrost, Mastery over this weird phenomenon is a prerequisite to Russia has been keenly is only since

successful military or commercial operations,

aware of the problem for the past twenty years, but it

the beginning of the recent World War that the United States has begun to search extensively for a countermeasure. At the present time, the

Geological Survey of the Department of Interior, as well as the Navy Department, have instituted specialized, permafrost research programs which are coordinated with that of the Army. 2. Permafrost (see exhibit 5) is a permanently frozen layer of

sub-soil underlying approximately one-fifth of the earth's surface. It varies in thickness from a few inches at the northern borders of

the United States to known depths of from 200 to 900 feet in Alaska and northern Canada. "permafrost table". The upper surface of permafrost is called the The depth of this table below the surface of the

earth is variable depending on the latitude and on the insulating qualities of the layer of soil resting on the table. At the southern

margin of the North American permafrost zone, the permafrost table will probably average 7 to 11 feet below the surface, whereas in the more northern areas, the depth will decrease gradually until it coincides with the surface of the earth. 3. The layer of earth covering the permafrost is called the freezes in

"active layer", or region of seasonal thaw, because it winter and thaws in summer. If

This layer also varies in thickness.

the insulating qualities are good and/or the summer temperatures

are not too extreme the permafrost table will naturally dip upwards nearer the surface than it will in areas where the active layer does in which case it will drop down away from

not insulate the permafrost, the surface,

C-1

4,

Moss, tundra and vegetation provide excellent insulation, rivers and even lakes will remove permafrost from The latter fact tends to ex-

whereas the ocean,

the ground for considerable distances.

plain the so-called islands of permafrost that are completely surrounded by thawed ground.

5.

It is beyond the scope of this study to discuss all of the In general however

phenomena encountered as the result of permafrost.

it may be said that the majority of the surface soil conditions that adversely affect overland transportation and construction can be directly attributed to water and to ground stresses, and strains set up by alternate thawing and freezing. 6. D)ring the seasonal thaw the drainage is naturally restricted

by the permafrost table to an area very near the surface of the earth. Particularly in regions where the active layer is composed mostly of moss or tundra, the water seeks its own level on the surface of the permafrost table. Hydrostatic pressures are often built up and where-

ver the active layer is weak or thin (see exhibit 6) we encounter swelling or eruptions. In the latter case, the water overflows onto

the surrounding area forming lakes or freezing into "ice lenses" depending on the temperature. Surface drainage is particularly des-

tructive in that the ensuing uneven melting of ground ice erodes the ground into gulleys, ravines, sink holes, sag basins, funnels and caverns. 7. Alternate thawing and freezing sets up terrific stresses and

strains in the ground that are believed to be as great as 28,000 pounds per square inch in some places. Record has it that even a falling tree

or the footsteps of men or cattle have been known to unbalance these pressures resulting in a heaving or sagging of the earth, 8. The effect of these phenomena on construction and transportation It remains to refer to them in more detail in Tab E in

are manifest,

connection with specific problems encountered in the operation of the

0-2

various means of overland. Arctic transportation,

c-3

TAB3D
TE PORAIOC

FACILITIES

NORT~H

AM

IOA

0T44

1~p1

Transportation Facilities in Aaska Transportation Facilities in Northwestern Canada

Map

Anchorage.
H~~

jccke

Skgw

,So

Whitehorse

d..

Prince Rupert LEGEND BARGE OR RIVER BOATS E rcl - - CANOL PROJECT HIGHWAYS (ALL WEATHER - HIGHWAYS (EXCEPT DURING THAWS)

j__

sc+

RAIL

(1

SURVEYS AND ENGNEIGBAC

HYDROGRAPHICANMPSEVC

14614.4

142-'

140"

138'

136"

134'

132'

130'

128"
C.

126"
_1

124'1212

1
tJ Pic

U6*

H4

112'

11O'

108'

1(E3" N

104*

10

c )c)

~~4i~~crtc
71)F
7CIE

IAN(
4

bert

arm

__ _ __

00

ES

RVE

13

70*

Q,,

l('
e

"

I.

li

44
CBay~
eiolc

tIrld

c'an.
~
CWo~so

Jbirt rv
R

Of
ti,
der \r:iir''n . i'"! .r

__

gv1 peI1 " U.

IC

pA
1 lam' t .

"

gay . .4
; itC

'

ol,

ill

old

/41

a~ii

Is

BtjgrltHO
opt. ,j j3.

to
bO

c 1.

II
Cl L.

'Ate
41 0

,c.Beac7c; '

to,,y

Lori,

"

ker

cti
tlstilt

Vi C.Fsllirdt. T rt
ot ly

ae

.=

1
4

p o

Npc

B
[ iT

Cez

eT'TuCV"

+,

t.

liY

'

.n"

:'

Sf

b4

cb

.ti

lot C]
'C ,,. d Clvl

cj
Q

K:5?ek

let

{.

S8,t
COPPE M

7WOA

vB

.t

"4

....
Hood 0 R. S+ ,

tx

66Pe

'

__ -

pvgrFu+

G-

Be

c-h

PART RADtU

.
6

IM

HP

CAMERON RA
fin. j uras"
''

"

R ak

All

SEA

tAO

eele
p oa6 c j. Wens cht t s I c

41
arts-e

I p
:dih o "

. . ..

Cass

Le 11 R

62*
R

R RAE +\

MqKS

N CROSSIN
v LLpWK
. \ M

Q , A SNI f
\\

nec}

caL"

z.

AE

LO
PpER

BER

.,

F
wumApC rte

or S,11 A
pc

GR.E

sz

fsr

ors

art.
M

SL
F

I"

.i

"

KE
\ Pine

d war

,
y

ell,

xakisaL
Ie wise Lo

1VER
'Y' j' 'v ' galt" "C ' 1S I~t arin

sty
+

lo,

P.

?&16

I
108

, -:

PINE
Q 1 n ti tl rc

!AA

WA
JO .. v. rhH

CAMERt

ff i::::.

Z U

GOLD

:;d;

phik

Of
pJG (

SMITH
r

VER

J,

i,:

t ch

'

/J

8r v S
"ica ,
p' 0 e

,1.
! 4

I
HI

-.
S
i, 7

1t, I ?

CD

'

I'e

CDA

LIA D
a

IVE
a

,d

Gate
Sped

&

Kool
PER NAY
JIitly

,Ge

L.

AN rmss str
++ .,, 1 -mot
za

58*

'
[

'

58'

WATT N1

260 t+

R"

WIPP
c}li',h .4
"F

1f

K
C

s
z

(f }

IV
IR

RG H

zip!

"

Or

roux

rz

f,
r

1.

OR
'AregRiver
N l IL R

1H

-141tt5
' _r r/ '

jc

ti

j I.R.

t' i

+t s .L.

; 4 r O

G Q xss a '"+s ,.
I

z. .

I-

'

a
"1 ttlC4t

SIKANI CHI
tindar
, r "sf ?71u

S 216
tc

00195
60
' ic.

^y
Wire

r
_. .

a a 5tr C r

S-3

S
,a

("

.
QU{

F
117v

Lrik

.7 /
i

56

4 0 re tt L bison LaonL

esa

etntio

e1

'

t1'

it
, L
t

I.R.

t!'"

313

'

v,
7Y orsx

Lc

Ros

:$"

car,
ll + cion 1. irlC,,, 1f o p ._ '

Ii
I" d U Y. t""Y ti

sr.:
TrN

RIVER
"

J
d

03 u.ce

,r

IR

i.R.

,!

.cit

mR

rt,/,,rr

209.x.

.+[/i'""_

\."

Be

a:;p.

Stets,

L.

r
r+.,

'"'
Ger> ianbre

iee

pS

Ike

p1Kx

'

Lessee

J''"'L

my a'

Ql

'f

1*03

i v

TAB E

T A.SPORTATIcN PP BI, MS

SECTION
1,

I -

WATbR

TB

TSPOTAT ION PBBL

IS

Maritime Shipping

2.

Coastal Shipping

3,

Barging Operations

SECTION II - OVhLA1UND TRANSPORTATION

1. General

2.

Problems
a, General la, Permafrost

. Effect of extreme Cold on Materials

T.

Preheating Engines
Personnel Comfort General

e,

.% . -- __

3.

Commnercial Tractor Trains

a,

b,
c, e
g.

Alaskan Trains
Tractors

~.Trailers
Wanigans Supply

Y, Train Crews E. Route Selection 4f.

Militaryy Overanow Vehicles as Experimentation b, General Description

. Military Requirements
d Q Navigational Problems SECTION III
-

AIR TARRN OATION

Operational Flying

Landing Fields
Maintenance

Exhibit 7

Navy Supply Ship in Ice Pack

Lack

Exhibit F

Damaged by Barge Barge

ExhibitStranded 9 -

Exhibit 10. P Ralf-track Bogged in

Tundra

Exhibit 11 - Route of Muskox Operation Exhibit 12 - Military Overenow Vehicle

TRANSPORTATION PROBLEMS SECTION I - WATER TRANSPORTATION PBOB 1MS 1. Maritime Shipping, a. This mode of transportation is not only

the most important means of Arctic transport, but also the very backbone of any economic development in the north. Regular shipping lanes extend

westward from the east coast of the United States three-quarters of the way around the world to the Bering Strait. The Soviet North Sea Route

from Murmansk to the Bering Strait is of particular significance when considering the problems of Polar shipping. The Soviets have encount-

ered many of the same difficulties to be found in connection with the North American Northwest Passage, which to date is undeveloped. b, Icebergs create a definite hazard to maritime shipping.

Since practically all Polar bergs originate on the coasts of Greenland, it is obvious from an analysis of the sea currents that only the shipthrough the Denmark Strait

ping passing off the coast of Newfoundland,

between Iceland and Greenland and following the Labrador Current north toward Baffin Bay will be materially affected. The Soviet waters are Constant

for all intents and purposes free from large icebergs,

vigilance and accurate and timely reporting by Coast Guard Ice Patrols, aircraft and shipping is of great value in warning vessels of the presence and location of icebergs in regular shipping lanes. Radar equip-

ment may be utilized by commercial shipping to give warnings. c. Icebreakers have proved valuable in keeping lanes open

through .pack ice, as is evidenced by the successful establishment of the Soviet North Sea Route during the summer months. be of two types: Icebreakers may

the ice-cutting type is limited to operations in

areas where the ice is not very thick, or where there is leeway for the ice to be pushed to the sides;: the ice-crushing type breaks the

ice by its own weight and for this reason can be operated in solid ice fields. Ice forcing ships are designed to withstand damage from heavy

ice conditions, however they are of no value in ice breaking.

In recent operations in support of the development of Naval Petroleum Reserve No, 4, a Navy Department observer concluded that the AKA vessels presently used in transporting materials to the Arctic (see exhibit 7) are unsuited for this work, because they are not constructed to withstand the ice pressures. Of many details of ship design peculiar the location of the screws.

to successful operation in the Polar Sea is

Conventional twin-screw vessels are very vulnerable to damage by ice flowing back along the hull. Single-screw or twin-screressels with

some sort of protecting device are desireable for navigation in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters. 2. Coastal Shipping, a. Coastal shipping operations are complicat-

ed by adverse weater, sea and ice conditions, and the absence of adequate navigational aids. It is obvious that this mode of transportation must

be utilized to the maximum in any future large-scale Arctic operations. b. A Navy observer from the Arctic concludes that the small

boats presently available for coastal service and ship to shore operations, including landing craft and pontoon equipment, must be redesigned for Arctic operations in flow ice. Experience has proven present craft to Large-scale

be unsatisfactory due to absence of iron barking on hulls.

operations could not be carried on with any degree of safety with this equipment,

3,

Barging Operations,

a.

Great dependence is placed on barging

operations on sub-Arctic rivers due to the impracticability of overland. transport. The season is relatively short in most areas, and particularly

on shallow rivers where the draft of the barges is necessarily reduced; the tonnage that can be hauled in any one year is relatively small, b. Narrow swift rivers add to navigational difficulties and

require the barges to be of short design in order to permit passage of the many turns and twists. Another difficulty experienced is the

absence of adequate materials handling equipment for loading and unloading.

E-2

c.

Ocean and coastwise operations are hampered by all of the

problems experienced by ordinary shipping, and in addition are severely handicapped when it comes to unloading. (see exhibits 8 and 9) Not

only does rough water make unloading operations extremely difficult but they are at the same time dangerous. dangerous in heavy seas. SECTICM II - OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION 1. General. a. In view of the fact that Arctic and sub-Arctic Towing too is difficult and

transportation of the future will be required to operate not only over land and snow, but over ice as well, This study will consider all sur-

face transportation other than water under the general heading of land transportation. b. A discussion of snowshoes, skis, sleds, dogs, reindeer

and other of the more common modes of Arctic transportation means are considered to be beyond the scope of this study and therefore will be eliminated. In passing it is well to mention that although these

methods are quite ancient they are by no means unimportant to military operations, 2. and must in the future be utilized and developed. a. General - In general, it may be said that when

Problems,

the weather is favorable for mechanical operation of machinery, navigation and personnel, the condition of the ground is unfavorable for overland movement, On the other hand, when the condition of the sur-

face is favorablefor the movement of wheeled and tracked vehicles, then the weather is usually so severe that the functioning of machinery aad personnel is very inefficient, b. Permafrost - Roads, railroads and cross-country tracks and

most types of construction are all adversely affected by permafrost. During periods of seasonal thaw, it is not uncommon for roads or rail Cross-country movement

beds to heave, buckle or even erupt in spots,

by wheeled and most tracked vehicles is very nearly impossible in

Eb-3

permafrost areas where the region of seasonal thaw is composed of moss or tundra, (see exhibit 10)

thick and/or

The result of such

movement being that the vehicles bog down to the extent that further movement is impossible and even recovery is a major problem. ations in permafrost areas are subject to buckling, Install-

sagging, shearing

and evencomplete destruction as a result of the phenomenal action of permafrost. Unless special insulating precautions are taken against

excessive melting of the permafrost table during the period of seasonal thaw, construction performed on top of the region of seasonal thaw can be expected to be damaged. For example, a building constructed

on frozen ground without proper provisions for insulating the beat from the structure from penetrating into the earth during the seasonal thaw will certainly be damaged when the supporting earth readjusts itself to the receding permafrost table, Road and railroad beds must be in-

sulated in some way to prevent excessive melting of the permafrost table. One way to do this is to excavate down to the table and fill A less certain method is to lay an

in with some insulating material.

insulating layer on the surface of the ground without disturbing the region of seasonal thaw. At the best, any of the methods now in use

are uncertain and unsatisfactory for general use in large-scale construction operations in the sub-Arctic permafrost areas. c. Effect of Extreme Cold on Materials - The effect of

extreme cold on materials is a subject that is being given much attention today. and it Laboratory tests and field tests are widespread,

is expected that more and more emphasis will be placed on Some of the problems encount-

this important subject in the future,

ered in the design and operation of transportation equipment for Artic and sub-Arctic use under conditions of extreme cold arise from the following materiel deficiencies: (1) Steel - steel shrinks and becomes more brittle when

subjected to extreme cold, and must therefore be handled very carefully.

E-r4

(2)

Copper wiring is also brittle when cold and must be

handled accordingly. (3) Glass is very susceptible to sudden temperature changes to shatter,

and the warmth of a mabs skin may cause it (4)

Rubber becomes hard and brittle at low temperatures.

Natural rubber is generally better than the wartime synthetic product for use in extreme col, however, there is a synthetic in the develop-

ment stage in the Signal Corps laboratory that may prove to be satisfactory for limited uses at temperatures as low as 67 degrees F. (5) weather. (6) Lubricants freeze at low temperatures and require exThere is much controversy Canvas will freeze and lose its pliability in cold

tensive preheating before they can be used. regarding lubricants and it

is impossible at this point to say more and that some have

than that numerous agencies are experimenting,

developed oils with satisfactory pour points although the corrosive effect is exceedingly high. d. Preheating bngines - A major problem inherent to all engines

is that of the necessity for preheating prior to operation in sub-zero temperatures. Not only does this consume time and manpower, but it At the present,

requires additional installations and equipment. external means are used for preheating. It

is believed that in the

future, internal means should be incorporated in all engines designed for operation in extreme cold. To illustrate the seriousness of this

problem, it might be well to mention that vehicles preheated indoors to operating temperatures have been known to freeze up and stop after only a few hundred yards of travel in extreme cold. Airplanes have

crashed on take-off because their engines have frozen up in spite of most careful preheating procedures. e. Personnel Comfort - Another problem of Arctic and sub-Arctic

transportation is that of adequate provisions for the comfort and

safety of operating personnel.

Every piece of transportation must

be designed in such a way as to make possible its operation under the most adverse conditions of temperature and weather. It is prefer-

able of courseto provide enclosed heated space for vehicle crews so they may operate under the most confortable and healthful conditions. If this is not possible, it must be kept in mind that a man bundled up in heavy Arctic clothing cannot operate and maintain machinery in the same manner as can a man working at moderate temperatures.

3.

Commercial Tractor Trains,

a.

General - Civilian enterprises

in Canada and Alaska, and the Government in Soviet Russia have for some time been operating tractor trains. These trains have proven very

satisfactory for overland hauling in the Arctic and sub-Arctic; their recent military counterpart, the military oversnow vehicles, will be

discussed later, b. Alaskan Trains - As developed in Alaska, the train consists

of a large crawler type tractor which tows one or more trailers or wamigans fitted with skids or runners. In the more elaborate trains

are included,in addition to the cargo carriers, a bunk house, cookhouse and shop and maintenance carrier. In mining and lumbering

operations, these trains have been used for distances up to 700 miles. Compared to water transportation, they are exceedingly expensive, c. Tractors - Probably the most widely-used tractor is the It

D-S manufactured by the Caterpillar Tractor Company of America, is big, heavy, powerfuland durable.

Other models by this company have In restricted operations,

been found too light for extended operations.

the International TD-18, TD-14 and TD-9, and the Allis-Chalmers HD-10 and HD-7 are also used. All tractors must be fully winterized. Bull-

dozer blades are necessary for breaking trail, protecting the engine and radiator when travelling through timber, and for providing necessary weight to the front end of the tractor to overcome sudden rises of pitches. A hydraulically operated blade provides more precision in

work, however it

requires too much maintenance and for this reason, the For continuous operation, one D-8

cable-operated blade is preferred.

tractor is required for every three trailer units or approximately 50

tons of load.
d. Trailers. (1) The trailer units may be either mounted on

runners or skids.

If the latter, they are called "go devils", which Their

are simple of design and can be constructed in the field.

capacity is limited and their serviceable life is relatively short compared to the runner type. rather poor. (2) The runner type trailers are more durable and maneuverWhen In addition, the maneuverability is

able, and their size is somewhat dependent on trail conditions.

wider than 10 feet or longer than 30 feet, they are hard to handle and are readily damaged. The runners are of the bob-sled type with crossThe width of the

connecting chains to give front and rear steering.

runners must not exceed the width of the tractor track, however, it must not be so narrow as to cause tipping. acceptable for most trail conditions. sleds are desireable, e. Wanigans - Wanigans are small buildings that can be A width of 5 feet is

For long trips, 20 to

40

ton

mounted on "go devils" or sleds to provide housing, mess and shop facilities in the field. A minimum 7' They must be heavily braced and insulated. An 8'x36 ' cock

ceiling and 8' overall width are normal.

house will provide cooking and mess hall facilities for about 40 men, and an 8's26' bunk house will sleep from 10 to 15 men. A utility

wanigan is a combination cook and bunk house for the trail-breaking party, which usually consists of from 4 to 6 men. f. Train Crews - Personnel comprising the crews must be A typical crew would include tractor operators,

rough and rugged.

swampers or handy men, mechanics, welders, blacksmiths, cooks, cookshelpers, and supervisors.

g.

pp l

- Supply is aproblem when it

is considered that a

D-8 train will on long hauls consume a 53 gal. drum of fuel oil every 14 to 16 hours, while averaging 10 miles every 24 hours. h. Route Selection - In selecting routes, the reconnaissance

party should avoid lakes, streams, hills, mountains, heavily wooded areas, and hot spring areas, to assist in route selection. Small observation planes are often used

4.

Military Oversnow Vehicles,

a.

xperimentation - Considerable

experimentation has been performed on oversnow vehicles for military use. Probably the most widely-known experiment is the Canadian operation Muskox, recently completed. (See exhibit 11 for route) These tests

proved that powered tracked vehicles could operate for sustained periods under the most severe Artic conditions. (see exhibit 12) Some of the

conclusions regarding military oversnow vehicles are not only interesting, but they indicate a trend that we may well follow in future developments of our Artic vehicles. b. General Description - A Canadian report indicated that

these vehicles should be self-contained motor-driven and full-tracked with sufficient cargo capacity so towing of trailers will be necessary only in emergencies. The compartment should be well-insulated so that

no restricting clothing has to be worn by the crew, and so arranged that cooking, sleeping, etc. are provided for. Since it is expected that

operations will be performed under the most severe weather conditions, it will be mandatory to so design the vehicle that most of the ordinary field maintenance can be performed from within the heated interior. Communications equipment should include 2-way radios for contact with the bases, and for homing beacons for aircraft, as well as directionfinding loops for navigation. Maintenance points should be located at

air bases at 530 mile intervals, while intermediate supply caches and maintenance shelters are required for each 100 mile interval, These

vehicles should be capable of unassisted operation between caches, with air support required only in emergencies.

c.

Military Requirements - Recommended military requirements

are the following three basic halls, each capable of carrying superstructures designed to meet special requirements: (a) A light, fast, 1-ton vehicle, suitable for carrying personnel and light infantry weapons. mechanic and a driver-radio operator. The crew to consist of a driverIt should be capable of 24 hours

sustained operation in the near vicinity of a mother vehicle. (b) A 4-ton pay load line of communications cargo or mother vehicle, (c) A slow heavy cargo vehicle of 10 or more tons pay load, designed to tow a large powered trailer. d. Navigational Problems - Sane of the ground navigation problems

encountered on the Muskox expedition are: (1) Absence of contoured maps and a shortage of accurate maps. (2) Terrain features that would assist in navigation such as lakes and rivers are obscured by uniform snow cover. (3) Straight courses over long distances are impossible, because of the necessity to avoid obstacles. (4) Adverse weather conditions often obscure the sun and stars for long periods of time. SECTION III - AIR TRANSPORTATION a. Operational Flying - The problems of operational flying in the

Arctic are so numerous that a complete discussion thereof are beyond the scope of this study. (1) A few of the more important follow:

Forced landings in the Arctic and the ensuing rescue

operations present a multitude of problems that are being worked out very satisfactorily by our Air Forces, Wheeled planes have landed

successfully on snow and ice, as was demonstrated recently by the C-54 landing on the northern Greenland ice cap by USAF pilot Cavenar. Ski landings were attempted by Sir Hubert Wilkins in 1927, His third,

a forced landing, was made successfully in a blinding storm at night.

Pontoons have also been used for successful landings on snow,

Lt.

Pritchard, USCG, rescued an Army Fortress crew from the Greenland ice
cap by landing his Grumman Amphibian with the wheels up on a long down slope using the pontoons as skis, Pontoon landings on sub-Arctic lakes

are dangerous because of the shallow depth of most of the lakes, (2) Since there are practically no shadows in the vast

expanse of Arctic, white pilots lose depth perception and the danger of misjudging distances is always present. It is entirely possible

for a pilot to touch an outcropping of ice with his wings without having seen the danger, b. Landing Fields. (1) Landing strips are easily constructed Fields

of solid flat sea and river ice by scraping and/or packing.

constructed on permafrost present altbgether another problem, and one that has not yet been solved satisfactorily. In addition to the

action of permafrost damaging the fields, the element of danger to the planes is always present. Sudden buckling, erruptions, flooding, etc.

all contribute to making operations from these fields hazardous. (2) Experiments are now being conducted with various types

of insulating materials to prevent excessive melting of the permafrost table under the landing strips. c. Maintenance - The maintenance problems of gasoline-powered Providing adequate heated

vehicles are also inherent to airplanes.

space for equipment, materials and personnel during maintenance operations in the Arctic is a major problem. The problems of adequate

lubricants and materials for use at sub-zero temperatures is one that has yet to be solved before we can say that the airplane is suitable

for sustained Arctic use in support of large-scale military operations.

.ElO

To Singapo

Tokyov

The direct airline routes between New York City and the great capital cities of the Northern Hemisphere pass through the Arctic and sub-Arctic. Most of these also oass over Russian territory.

EXHIBIT 1

Petropavsm..

/ / c/uidjc,

EXHIBIT 2

r; e v

ostal

JPlainrw ith

umerou3

Lakes. a~d

Meandiering

Ri've

~XKI3iT 3

,-

HIDIT

Water from intermediate area and surrounding hills moves through moss on this contact

.44

4'

Moss

Sand, gravel y2 and some clay

1/2'

PERMAFROST 120'

Water from distant areas is slowly moving thru joints in bedrock under a hydraulic head greater than 130
I

~-

-^

Sand, gravel and some clay -Jointed bedrock

---

Heavy moss, good cover, um moss, medium cover, good insulation um insulation

Water flowing from "A" toward "C" is restricted by narrow channel at "C B The resulting hydraulic head at "B" will become sufficient to break through the weak active layer at PB and cause an erruption.

PERMAFRO

"

Mr-

ti*'

d4

U' ar

wo

7 w. .

'

w J

Ai.msk

IP .;r

La

Gei by

Barge

.?ur n g 1.

i.~h Ssas

EXHIBIT 8

16

_
. _, " _

!
..

.',4y r",
w ; "dr" n".

'

'
+Awi.

LK alt .-. wA ,,:..: ._., ... ,... ,7' , .. , "",i/ " . "" --. _ ~ Ih !' .. . y' ". ++w. "
. . s'

. .r.V

'

'r-:

;_-

r,--

"".e1 .--

: ."' "....w, ,,,,.,

.. '''w.,+e.:.:.

.,.,.,r~

, -

,,

";;._,._+R

!S' .. ,,,,.. -v y w, . , .w.

" q~

me~ -

'dMiw"a"'"' +

4i.

r~"' , . , .. . ... ,, , .!ns31.r-" ' .... dp-

_ .r .; ,, " x: .+ . . .,r.... __ . . .... ..

w"

_,..;----

fi

"'"n' ....

-,,. '",. ~>,

.. "w w, .. _.

win,.

" ; ate

_ ate..--. "" _ ,+rs ... "-,.an*.. , .... yam

'

M..

.. _

.. f
mrw A
-. ^" "y r_ -tea" " v "'*

mi.

A-As

BrewchB

oke

Tsorwi me

*nd

.rirted
Stub-az Ac

Ltsflord

Dring

StrminAlaskan

EXHITBIT 9

1'
A
-e

L
~{e1
AL

AZ

-~

;;;

.,,

OIL' Vt

t4 . 77

-to

i. t-..-C.
-. ,,,, Ls +..

e . .: "
"" 't'" i"'."Gt.. ,t'

S
.~r"+' iw.,- art

w
i" ~

,R T
.,: ,.

a'
-"

-y

;x-

0.
-~~~

77,V;~"

I.

-a b

tnm

HaEi2-Trck

cogged Down. in Tuodra

EXHIBIT 10

Hudson Bay

Quebec

United States

-== c- MUSKOX

Ocean

Ir

1.Inc

AM~U

8 '4..

0 _I~s

TAB F - PIPE LINES

rAB

PIPE LINES 1. Except under extremely cold weather conditions, pipe lines One of the major diffic-

have proven satisfactory in the sub-Arctic.

ulties of cold weather operation is the failure of heavy oils to flow or be pumped through the lines. At the Canol Project in Northern

Canada, this problem has been solved by cutting the viscosity with gasoline. 2. The Canol Project (see Tab G) was constructed during the

war to supply POL to certain operations in the Alaska and northwest Canadian Areas, and to provide for strategic contingencies, Crude

oil from the Norman Wells fields was pumped to Whitehorse in the Yukon Territory, where it was refined and sent on by pipeline to Fairbanks, Alaska, 500 miles north and to Watson Lake to the south, In addition it was pumped to several ground and air installations. Another line ran down to the port of kagway for discharge into

tankers, or to receive tanker cargoes for distribution up and down the Alaska Highway, 3. The practicability of Arctic pipeline operation is question-

able when consideration is given to the problem of supplying gasoline for reducing crude oil viscosity, during periods of extremely low temperatures. In the case of the Canol Project, it was found necessary

to pump gasoline from the refinery at Whitehorse back to Norman Wells for this purpose.

TAB G

POLAR PRJCTION OF ARCTIC AID

SUIB-ARCTIC RLIONS

'

TAB G

Polar Projection of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Regions

In

n*

at

EXPLANATION
Anles of Variation of the Magnetic Compass from the True North shown by Red Arrows The approximate elevation of the land is indicated by color, viz: SOver 6000 feet
S3000 to 600nnn fet

. Routesof Explorers
Wnrm Ocean Currents ib Cold Ocean Currents Glaciersand Ice Caps
L-

S RC

Course of I cebers Railways Hudson BayCaStations

600 to 2000 feet Sea level to 600 feet

55

30

s.

t^

r>

AND

0.S'kii ". ";

b.

.,

FP "
I, b

LAN

q
-kJ

4-

100

90'

THE ARCTIC REGIONS

PREPARED IN THE MAP DEPARTMENT OF THE

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY FOR THE

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR Scale :14,673,400 or 231.6 miles to I inch
0 0 oo100 00 300 400 --- ~ 300 400 soo
STATUTE MILES

e00

700
800 900

00

s00

1000

100

Zoo

500

700

1000

KILOMETERS

I
-Im-

90

8
___mm___m

8"S
--

70

Azimuthal Equdistant Projection - Pole of Projection at North Pole

COPYRionHT 925.BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPFHiC SOCIETY, WASHINOTON,
_ II

~-----

.C
ImIu

fiC

9
1 1 --

11
I I

_._

----

BIBLI

G RAP HY

1. 2.

"Report on An Outline of Problems Involved in Operations in the Arctic", Bureau of Yards and Docks, Navy Department. "Soviets in the Arctic", T. A, Taracouzio.

3.
4. 5.

"Arctic Rescue", prepared by Lt. J. W. Morean, USO., "Interim Reports Exercise Musk-OX'", (Canadian Report).

"Arctic Manual", by Vilhjalmur Steansson, Prepared under direction of the Chief of the Air Corps, United States Army. "Permafrost Puts the Chill on Progress", Transportation Journal, December 19)46. "The Polar World", by Dr. G. Hartwig, "Three Years of Arctic Service", by Adolphus W. Greely, Lieutenant, U, S. Army, Commanding "Lady Franklin Bay Expedition" of 1881-84. "Musk Ox - 1946: Part I", by Willian P. House, The Quartermaster Review, July-August 1946. by Bill Peake, Army

6.
7. 8.

9.

Re;

10. "Musk Ox - 1946: Part II", by William P. House, The Quartermaster Review, September-October 1946. 11. War Department Technical Manual, "Arctic Manual", 12. "Within the Arctic Circle", by Evelyn Stefansson. 13. "Ice and Sea in the Arctic", by H. W, Son Ahlmann (Lecture at the annual meeting of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, 17 January 1944.

31 March 1943.
14. "Tractor Operations in Arctic and sub-Arctic Regions", prepared under direction of Col. Leon B. DeLong, CE, Egr. Construction Division, Alaskan Department, by Anthony L. Pronsas, 1st Lt, CE, 1 April 1944. 15. "Permafrost", by Col. G. W. Rothjene, CE and Lt. Col. N. W, Rice, AC.