PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.1 Understanding Physics

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The word physics comes from the Latin word, physikos meaning the science of natural things. Physics is the branch of science concerned with the study of __________________and properties of matter and energy. The study was divided into separated fields; heat, the properties of matter, light, sound, wave, electricity, magnetism, mechanics, nuclear physics etc. In physics, there is the need to make careful observations, precise and accurate measurements. Understanding natural phenomena and observing everyday objects such as a table, a mirror etc and discuss how they are related to physics concepts has always been a central aim of physics. The roots of all science are firmly based in experiment. Of course, mastering scientific skills applying scientific knowledge must be the important thing to learn physics.

Importance of physics 1. 2. 3. 4. There is a close relationship between the study of physics and other sciences, including astronomy, biology, chemistry and geology. There is a close connection between physics and the practical developments in engineering, medicine and technology. The application of fundamental laws and theories has enabled engineers and scientists to put satellites into orbit, receive information from space probes, and improve telecommunications. Physics improves the quality of life, i.e. many home appliances function through the operation of principles of physics.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.2 Physical Quantities

1.2.1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Base Quantities

Measurement is the process of ________________________ of quantity using a __________________ with a standard scale. A physical quantities is a quantity that can be measured.be measured. Quantities that cannot be measured are non-physical quantities. Physical quantities are categorized into ________________band _________________ Base quantities is ______________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ Every physical quantity is expressed as a numerical value in a particular unit of measurement. Example: Length of meter rule = Physical quantity 100 Numerical value cm Unit of measurement

7. 8.

In 1960, an international conference in Paris had agreed to fix an international system of base units for base quantities throughout the world. It is called the SI unit (Le Systeme International dUnites). Table below shows five base units and their corresponding physical quantities. Base quantities Name Length Mass Time Electric current Temperature Symbol l m t I T Name meter kilogram second ampere kelvin SI base units Symbol m kg s A K

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.2.2
1. 2.

Derived quantities
Derived quantities are physical quantities __________________________ by multiplication or division or both. The unit for a derived quantity is known as a derived unit. Table below lists some common derived quantities and their units. Derived quantities Name Symbol A V v a F p W P Length x breadth Length x breadth x height
displacement time taken change in velocity time taken

Formula

Derived units Units m x m = m2 m x m x m = m3

m = m s-1 s
ms s
1

Special name Newton Watt, W

Area Volume Velocity Acceleration Density Force momentum Work Power

= m s-2

mass volume

kg = kgm-3 m3

Mass x acceleration Mass x velocity Force x displacement

work time taken

kg x m s-2 = kg m s2

kg x m s-1 = kg m s1

kg m s-2 x m = kg m2 s-2
J = J s-1 s

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.2.3

Prefixes

1. A prefix is a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. The SI allows other units to be created from standard or base units by using prefixes, which act as multipliers. 2. We use prefixes _________________ the expression of ____________________l numerical values of physical quantities. Prefixes are usually used to express some physical quantities that are either very big or very small. Prefix Tera Giga Mega Kilo Deci centi Milli micro nano Pico Note Symbol T G M k d c m n p Power/factor 1012 109 106 103 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12

A prefix is written in front of the symbol for the unit without a space. For example, kilowatt is written kW. A space is used between symbols in derived units. For example, Newton meter is written N m.

12.4

Scientific Notation/ Standard Form

1. Scientific notation/standard form is a method of expressing very large or very small numbers. 2. Standard form is written in the form of A x 10n where 1 A < 10 and n is an integer. 3. Example 1: Value Value in standard form 234 000 000 500 0.000 000 03478 2.34 x 108 5 x 102 3.478 x 10-8

4. Example 2: A yellow light of wavelength 0.000 000 58 m travels at a speed of 300 000 000 m s-1. Express the value in scientific notation. 0.000 000 58 m = 5.8 x 10-7 300 000 000 m s-1 = 3.0 x 108 m s-1 5. Work example text book page 7

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.2.6

Expressing Derived Quantities and Their Units in Terms of Base Quantities and Base Units.

1. Derived quantities and their units can be separated into their respective base quantities and base units. Sometimes, the derived unit shows the relationship between the derived quantity and the base quantity. For example; (a) the unit of speed is meter per second or m s-1, which is in terms of the base units meter and second. (b) the unit of area is square meter or m2, which is a multiple of the base unit meter. Example Derive the units for the following physical quantities. (a) Velocity (b) Acceleration (c) Density Solution (a) Unit [Velocity] = =
Unit [Displacement] Unit [Time] m s

= m s-1 (derived unit of velocity) (b) Unit [Acceleration] = =

Unit [Change in velocity] Unit [Time] ms s
1

= m s-2 (derived unit of acceleration) (c) Unit [Density] = =

kg m3

= kg m-3 (derived unit of density)

Solving Problems Involving Conversion of Units

1. Convert the unit of area in m2 to cm2 1m = 100 cm 2 1m = (100 cm)2 = 10 000 cm2 = 1 x 104 cm2 2. Convert the unit of volume in mm3 to m3 1 mm = 0.001 = 1 x 10-3 m 1 mm3 = (1 x 10-3 m )3 = 1 x 10-9 m3
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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] 3. Express the unit of density 1.05 g cm-3 in the unit kg m-3. 1g = 0.001 kg or 1.0 x 10-3 kg 1 cm = 0.01 m or 1.0 x 10-2 m 1.05 g cm-3 = 1.05 x (1 x 10-3 kg) x (1 x 10-2 m)-3 = 1.05 x 103 kg m-3 4. 72 km h-1 = =
72km 1h 72x10 3 m 1x60x60s

= 20 ms-1 5. Complete the table below with standard form and convert the unit Standard form Quantity Scientific notation

Convert to unit

1) 0.000 000 18 Ts (s)

2) 0.2341 mg (Mg)

3) 3 854 000 Gm

(km)

4) 7 530 nA

(mA)

5) 5 K

(pK)

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.3

Scalar and Vector Quantities

1. A scalar quantity is a quantity which has only __________________ 2. A vector quantity has both _______________ and ________________ 3. Table below shows examples of scalar quantities and vector quantities.

Scalar Quantity Distance Speed Mass Energy

Vector Quantity Displacement Velocity Weight Momentum

Scalar Quantity Temperature Time Electric current Power

Vector Quantity Pressure Impulse Acceleration Deceleration

1.4

Understanding Measurement

Using Appropriate Instrument to Measure 1. We frequently need to make measurements for physical quantities by using standard measuring instruments. 2. Choosing an appropriate instrument to measure a physical quantity is important to ensure that the measurements are accurate. Measurement of length Metre rule 1. To measure length from a few cm up to 1 m. 2. Precautions to be taken when using a ruler: (a) ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler to avoid inaccurate readings. (b) avoid parallax errors (c) avoid zero error and end error. 3. For example: A ruler is to determine the diameter of the wire. Solution

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Vernier Calipers
1. 2. 3. A vernier caliper is used to measure an object with dimensions up to 120 mm/12 cm. Vernier calipers can be used to measure thickness, diameter of a wire and depth of a liquid. o Figure 1.1 shows the vernier calipers

Figure 1.1 (a) Vernier calipers have two scale; main scale vernier scale The inside jaws are used to measure internal diameters. The outside jaws are used to measure external diameters and thickness. The tail is used to measure depths. he The screw clamp may be used to ensure that the vernier scale does not move while you take the reading.

(b) (c) (d) (e) 4. 5. 6. 7.

The main scale is marked in divisions of 1 mm. The vernier scale is marked in divisions of 0.1 mm. The vernier caliper has an accuracy of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm. Principle of vernier calipers. (a) The vernier scale is divided into ten equal division. (b) The length of this 10 divisions are equal to 0.9 cm. (c) Hence 1 mark on the vernier scale is equal to 0.09 cm. (d) Figure 1.1 shows, the difference between the sizes of one division on the main scale and one ifference division on the vernier scale is; 0.1 0.09 = 0.01 cm

PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

Figure 1.1 8. How to read the vernier calipers. (a) to measure with a vernier caliper, slide the vernier scale along the main scale until the object is held firmly between the jaws of the caliper.

Figure 1.2 (b) read the main scale before 0 mark on the vernier scale. (c) take the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading. (d) figure 1.2 shows, The main scale reading The vernier scale reading Therefore the reading is = 34.0 mm = 0.6 mm = 34.0 mm + 0.6 mm = 34.6 mm.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] 9. What is the reading of the vernier calipers below. (a)

30.0 + 0.1 = 30.1 mm/3.01 cm (b)

8.0mm + 0.1mm = 8.1 mm/0.81 cm

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] (c)

12.1 mm + 0.7 mm = 12.8 mm 10. Before we used the vernier calipers, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain accurate readings. 11. When the jaws are closed and the 0 mark on the main scale is exactly in line with the 0 mark on the vernier scale there is no zero error as shown in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 12. Positive zero error occurs if the 0 mark on the vernier scale is to the right of the 0 mark on the main scale as shown in figure 1.4.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

Figure 1.4 The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.4 is +0.4 mm/ To eliminate the zero error; Correct reading = (Caliper reading) (+zero error) The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting Correct reading = 34.6 mm (+0.4 mm) = 34.2 mm +0.04 cm to the reading. +0.04 cm.

13. Negative zero error occurs if the 0 mark on the vernier scale is to the left of the 0 mark on the main scale as shown in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.5 is 0.2 mm/ To eliminate the negative zero error;
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- 0.02 cm.

INTRODUCTION PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYS Correct reading = Caliper reading zero error The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting Correct reading = 34.6 mm (- 0.2 mm) = 34.8 mm - 0.2 cm to the reading.

Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. 2. 3. A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small thickness and diameters ranging between 0.10 mm up to 25.00 mm. The micrometer screw gauge can be used to measure diameter of wires and thicknesses sheet of paper to an accuracy of 0.01 mm mm. Figure 1.1 shows the micrometer screw gauge.

Figure 1.1 (a) The micrometer scale comprises; main scale marked on the sleeve thimble scale/vernier scale marked on the thimble. (b) The object that is to be measured is placed between the jaws. he (c) The thimble is turned until its jaw touches the object. (d) The ratchet knob ________________________________ by making a click sound when the micrometer is ready to be read.

PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] 4. Principle of the micrometer screw gauge.

(a) (b)

The main scale is marked in divisions of 0.5 mm. One division on the thimble scale is equal to 0.01 mm.

5. How to read the micrometer screw gauge. (a) In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the thimble is rotated using the ratchet until the object is secured until 3 clicks sound is heard.

Figure 1.2 (b) (c) (d) Read the main scale marking just before the thimble. Find the vernier scale marking where the horizontal reference line of the main scale is in line with the graduation mark on the thimble scale. Figure 1.2 shows, The main scale reading The vernier scale reading Therefore the reading is = 7.5 mm = 0.38 mm = 7.5 mm + 0.38 mm = 7.88 mm
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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] 6. What is the reading of the micrometer screw gauge below; (a)

Figure 1.3 7.5 mm + 0.22 = 7.72 mm (b)

Figure 1.4 3.5 mm + 0.46 mm = 3.96 mm/0.396 cm

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] (c)

Figure 1.5 5.5 mm + 0.30 mm = 5.80 mm 7. Before we used the micrometer screw gauge, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain accurate readings.

8.

When the jaws are fully closed and the 0 mark on the thimble scale is exactly in line with the horizontal reference line there is no zero error.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

Figure 1.6 9. Positif zero error occurs (figure 1.6), when the horizontal reference line is in the positive side of the 0 mark on the thimble scale. The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.6 is + 0.04 mm. To eliminate the positive zero error; Correct reading = (Micrometer reading) (+zero error) The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting Correct reading = 7.88 mm (+0.04 mm) = 7.84 mm +0.04 cm to the reading.

Figure 1.7 10. Negative zero error occurs if the horizontal reference line on the main scale is below the 0 mark of the thimble scale.

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INTRODUCTION PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYS

Figure 1.7 The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.7 is - 0.03 mm To eliminate the negative zero error; Correct reading = (Micrometer reading) (- zero error) The reading in figure 1.2 above must be cor corrected by subtracting - 0.03 cm to the reading, reading Correct reading = 7.88 mm (- 0.03 mm) = 7.91 mm

11. Some others measuring instruments:

Analogue Stopwatch

Digital Stopwatch

Thermometer

Miliammeter

Measuring Tape

Measuring Cylinder

Beaker

INTRODUCTION PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYS

Consistency and Accuracy

1. Physical quantities involve measurements. No measurement is exact. Every measurement is an estimation of the actual value. 2. When we measure a physical quantity, we need to consider its magnitude and then choose a suitable instrument and also measurement should be done with considering consistency, accuracy and sensitivity. 3. To see the distinction between consistency and accuracy, we can consider of gunshots fired at a target board.

(a) Figure 1.11

(b)

4. The drawings in figure 1.11, which show the distribution of gunshots fired at a target board. 5. The shots in figure 1.11 (a) are clustered together and hence the distribution of the shots is 1 consistent. 6. The consistency of a measuring instrument is its __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 7. The shot in figure 1.11 (b) is the most accurate shot. The bulls eye in the centre of the target accurate represent the actual value. 8. Accuracy of a measurement is ___________________________________________________________________________ _____________________ ____________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________ _________________ 9. An accurate instrument is able to give readings ______ t _____________ to or ______________ to the actual ___ value of a quantity.

PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

Sensitivity
1. Sensitivity of an instrument is its __________________________________ in the quantity to be measured. The smaller the change which can be measured by the instrument, the more sensitive the instrument. 2. A ruler can measure reading accurate to 0.1 cm. A pair of vernier calipers is more sensitive because it can measure reading accurate to 0.01 cm. However, a micrometer screw gauge is the most sensitive of the three instruments because it can measure readings accurate to 0.001 cm. 3. Table 1.3 shows the accuracy and sensitivity of each measuring instrument. Measuring instrument Ruler Vernier caliper Micrometer screw gauge Accuracy Sensitivity Low Moderate High

1 mm/0.1 cm 0.1 mm/0.01 cm 0.01 mm/0.001 cm Table 1.3 4. Figure 1.12 shows the sensitivity of different types of ammeter.

Figure 1.12 5. Figure 1.13, shows the sensitivity of different types of stopwatch.

Figure 1.13

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] Errors in Measurements 1. An error is a __________________ between the __________________ of a quantity and the __________________ in measurement. 2. In scientific research, a measurement which is 100% accurate is impossible. All measurements are value of approximation only. In other words, it is a matter of how close the measurement is to actual value. This is because errors exist in all measurements. 3. There are two main type of error in measurements; (i) ___________________ (ii) ___________________ 4. Systematic errors may be due to; (a) _____________________ of instrument which makes the instrument defective. (b) _________________ of the instrument, which means the pointer of the instrument does not return to zero when not in use. (c) A problem which persists throughout the experiment such as repeated error in reaction time and wrong assumption. (d) Systematic errors will lead to decrease in accuracy 5. Random errors occur due to; (a) _______________________ of the observer when making a measurement (b) _______________________ when reading a scale (c) _______________________ such as the temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, refraction, magnetic field or gravity. (d) __________________ ( instrument does not respond / indicate insignificant or small change ) (e) __________________ ( applying excessive pressure when turning a micrometer screw gauge ) 6. Figure 1.14 shows the observers eye at three different positions. Parallax errors will be giving inaccurate readings.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

Figure 1.14

Techniques to Reduce Errors in Measurements

1. 2. 3. 4. Errors in measurements must be reduced as much as possible to increase the accuracy. Choosing an appropriate measuring instrument can reduce errors. Repeat the measurements a number of times and find the average. Before using an instrument, check whether there is any zero error or not. If zero error is present, adjust the pointer to zero before taking any measurements.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

1.5 Analysing scientific investigations

1. The following processes are involved in scientific investigations. (a) A scientific investigation begins with _____________. When observing we come out some questions. (i.e : hearing, smelling, touching, tasting, seeing) (b) Making _____________ is a early assessment or explanation that is carried out to answer the question raised. Inference is an early conclusion to what we observed. (c) Form a ______________ which is the statement of relationship between the manipulated variable and the responding variable we would expect. (d) _______ has to be stated so that all the investigating effort is centered on the main subject. (e) Identify all the ______________ ; (i) _____________ variable is a quantity we manipulate / variable which causes other secondary variables to _______________ _______________ variable is the _____________ which is _________ (ii) ___________________ variable and is measured experimentally. (iii) ________ variable is the quantity that ________________ throughout the experiment. (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

(k)

Apparatus / Materials needed to be listed according its specification example measuring instrument to ensure the success the experiment. Procedure is the sequence of action or operation in order to carry out the experiment according to the instructions given. Observation is the listing and tabulation of all data obtained in the experiment. Analysing of data can be carried out by plotting the graph, followed by the interpretation of graph or calculation to obtain the required value. Discussion needs to be stated to find out whether the result obtained support the stated hypothesis. Precautions of the experiment can be suggested to overcome the weakness, to reduce the experimental error or to improve the result of the experiment. A conclusion is stated concerning the result of the experiment (is written in accordance with the aim of the experiment and based on graph). By comparing with the aim stated, this will determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] 2. Example : A simple pendulum (a) Inference : When the length of a simple pendulum increases, the period of oscillation also increases. // The period of pendulum is affected by the length of the thread. (b) Hypothesis : The longer the length of a simple pendulum, the longer will be the period of oscillation// (c) Aim : To find the relationship between the length of a simple pendulum and the period of oscillation. (d) Variable : (i) Manipulated variable : Length, l (ii) Responding variable : Period, T. (iii) Fixed variable : Mass of pendulum bob. m (e) Materials : Retort stand, pendulum bob, thread, metre rule, stop watch. (f) Figure

thread Retort stand

bob

(g)

Procedure : (i) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure above.// A small brass or bob was attached to the thread. The thread was held by a clamp of a the retort stand. (ii) The length of the thread , l was measured by a metre rule, starting with 90.0 cm. The bob of the pendulum was displaced and released. (iii) The time for 20 complete oscillations, t was taken using the stop watch. Calculate the period of oscillation by using, T =
t . 20

(iv) The experiment was repeated using different lengths such as 80.0 cm, 70.0 cm, 60.0 cm, 50.0 cm and 40.0 cm.

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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1] (h) Observation / Tabulate data Length of Time taken for 10 string, l / cm oscillation, t (s) t1 t2 Average, t
40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 25.2 28.1 31.0 33.5 35.7 38.2 25.1 28.2 31.0 33.6 35.9 37.9 25.2 28.2 31.0 33.6 35.8 38.1

Period of oscillation t T = (s) 20 1.26 1.41 1.55 1.68 1.79 1.91

T2 (s2 )

1.59 1.99 2.40 2.82 3.20 3.65

Notes : - Symbols and their respective units should be written in the table - A readings of length of string should be written in one decimal place. This is because the metre rule used to measure the length of string can measure accuracy to 0.1 cm - All sets of readings recorded must be consistent. For example, all reading time taken, t are recorded in one decimal place. Average values for t are taken to minimize errors If the time taken for 20 oscillations is 38.1 s,

Then the period of oscillation, T = T2 = (1.91)2 = 3.65 s2

t 38.1 = = 1.91 s 20 20

(i)

Analysing : Plotting the graph T2 (s2 ) T2 (s2) against l (cm) x x x x x

l (cm)

Notes : (i) Plotting the graph - The graph should be labeled by a heading. (ii) All axes should be labeled with quantities and their respective units.
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PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]

(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (j) The manipulated variable (l) should be plotted on the x-axis while the responding variable (T2 ) should be plotted on the y-axis Odd scales such as 1:3, 1:7 , 1:9 0r 1 :11should avoided in plotting graph. Make sure that the transference of data from the table to the graph is accurate. Draw the best straight line - the line that passes through most of the points plotted such that is balanced by the number of points above and below the straight line. make sure that the size of the graph is large enough, which is, not less than half the size of the graph paper or (> 8 cm x 10 cm). The triangle drawn to calculate the gradient of the graph should not be less than half size of the graph drawn or ( .> 6 cm x 8 cm ) Calculate the gradient using the formula Put the unit

Discussion / Precaution of the experiment / to improve the accuracy. (i) The bob of the pendulum was displaced with a small angle (ii) The amplitude of the oscillation of a simple pendulum is small. (iii) The simple pendulum oscillate in a vertical plane only. (iv) Switch off the fan to reduce the air resistance Conclusion The length of simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square of the period of oscillation // T2 is directly proportional to l (the straight line graph passing through the origin)

(k)

Prepared by: En Adnan Shamsudin Dip Sc (UiTM), BSc (UTM), Dip Edu (UTM)

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